ZETA, short for Zero Energy Thermonuclear Assembly, was a major experiment in the early history of fusion power research. Based on the pinch plasma confinement technique, and built at the Atomic Energy Research Establishment in the United Kingdom, ZETA was larger and more powerful than any fusion machine in the world at that time. Its goal was to produce large numbers of fusion reactions, although it was not large enough to produce net energy.

ZETA went into operation in August 1957 and by the end of the month it was giving off bursts of about a million neutrons per pulse. Measurements suggested the fuel was reaching between 1 and 5 million kelvins, a temperature that would produce nuclear fusion reactions, explaining the quantities of neutrons being seen. Early results were leaked to the press in September 1957, and the following January an extensive review was released. Front-page articles in newspapers around the world announced it as a breakthrough towards unlimited energy, a scientific advance for Britain greater than the recently launched Sputnik had been for the Soviet Union.

US and Soviet experiments had also given off similar neutron bursts at temperatures that were not high enough for fusion. This led Lyman Spitzer to express his scepticism of the results, but his comments were dismissed by UK observers as jingoism. Further experiments on ZETA showed that the original temperature measurements were misleading; the bulk temperature was too low for fusion reactions to create the number of neutrons being seen. The claim that ZETA had produced fusion had to be publicly withdrawn, an embarrassing event that cast a chill over the entire fusion establishment. The neutrons were later explained as being the product of instabilities in the fuel. These instabilities appeared inherent to any similar design, and work on the basic pinch concept as a road to fusion power ended by 1961.

In spite of ZETA's failure to achieve fusion, the device went on to have a long experimental lifetime and produced numerous important advances in the field. In one line of development, the use of lasers to more accurately measure the temperature was tested on ZETA, and was later used to confirm the results of the Soviet tokamak approach. In another, while examining ZETA test runs it was noticed that the plasma self-stabilised after the power was turned off. This has led to the modern reversed field pinch concept. More generally, studies of the instabilities in ZETA have led to several important theoretical advances that form the basis of modern plasma theory.

Conceptual development
The basic understanding of nuclear fusion was developed during the 1920s as physicists explored the new science of quantum mechanics. George Gamow's 1928 exploration of quantum tunnelling demonstrated that nuclear reactions could take place at lower energies than classical theory predicted. Using this theory, in 1929 Fritz Houtermans and Robert Atkinson demonstrated that expected reaction rates in the core of the Sun supported Arthur Eddington's 1920 suggestion that the Sun is powered by fusion.

In 1934, Mark Oliphant, Paul Harteck and Ernest Rutherford were the first to achieve fusion on Earth, using a particle accelerator to shoot deuterium nuclei into a metal foil containing deuterium, lithium or other elements. This allowed them to measure the nuclear cross section of various fusion reactions, and determined that the deuterium-deuterium reaction occurred at a lower energy than other reactions, peaking at about 100,000 electronvolts (100 keV).

This energy corresponds to the average energy of particles in a gas heated to thousands of millions of kelvins. Materials heated beyond a few tens of thousands of kelvins dissociate into their electrons and nuclei, producing a gas-like state of matter known as plasma. In any gas the particles have a wide range of energies, normally following the Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics. In such a mixture, a small number of particles will have much higher energy than the bulk.

This leads to an interesting possibility; even at temperatures well below 100,000 eV, some particles will randomly have enough energy to undergo fusion. Those reactions release huge amounts of energy. If that energy can be captured back into the plasma, it can heat other particles to that energy as well, making the reaction self-sustaining. In 1944, Enrico Fermi calculated this would occur at about 50,000,000 K.

Confinement

Taking advantage of this possibility requires the fuel plasma to be held together long enough that these random reactions have time to occur. Like any hot gas, the plasma has an internal pressure and thus tends to expand according to the ideal gas law. For a fusion reactor, the problem is keeping the plasma contained against this pressure; any known physical container would melt at these temperatures.

A plasma is electrically conductive, and is subject to electric and magnetic fields. In a magnetic field, the electrons and nuclei orbit the magnetic field lines. A simple confinement system is a plasma-filled tube placed inside the open core of a solenoid. The plasma naturally wants to expand outwards to the walls of the tube, as well as move along it, towards the ends. The solenoid creates a magnetic field running down the centre of the tube, which the particles will orbit, preventing their motion towards the sides. Unfortunately, this arrangement does not confine the plasma along the length of the tube, and the plasma is free to flow out the ends.

The obvious solution to this problem is to bend the tube around into a torus (a ring or doughnut shape). Motion towards the sides remains constrained as before, and while the particles remain free to move along the lines, in this case, they will simply circulate around the long axis of the tube. But, as Fermi pointed out, when the solenoid is bent into a ring, the electrical windings would be closer together on the inside than the outside. This would lead to an uneven field across the tube, and the fuel will slowly drift out of the centre. Some additional force needs to counteract this drift, providing long-term confinement.

Pinch concept

A potential solution to the confinement problem had been detailed in 1934 by Willard Harrison Bennett. Any electrical current creates a magnetic field, and due to the Lorentz force, this causes an inward directed force. This was first noticed in lightning rods. Bennett showed that the same effect would cause a current to "self-focus" a plasma into a thin column. A second paper by Lewi Tonks in 1937 considered the issue again, introducing the name "pinch effect". It was followed by a paper by Tonks and William Allis.

Applying a pinch current in a plasma can be used to counteract expansion and confine the plasma. A simple way to do this is to put the plasma in a linear tube and pass a current through it using electrodes at either end, like a fluorescent lamp. This arrangement still produces no confinement along the length of the tube, so the plasma flows onto the electrodes, rapidly eroding them. This is not a problem for a purely experimental machine, and there are ways to reduce the rate. Another solution is to place a magnet next to the tube; when the magnetic field changes, the fluctuations cause an electric current to be induced in the plasma. The major advantage of this arrangement is that there are no physical objects within the tube, so it can be formed into a torus and allow the plasma to circulate freely.

The toroidal pinch concept as a route to fusion was explored in the UK during the mid-1940s, especially by George Paget Thomson of Imperial College London. With the formation of the Atomic Energy Research Establishment (AERE) at Harwell, Oxfordshire, in 1945, Thomson repeatedly petitioned the director, John Cockcroft, for funds to develop an experimental machine. These requests were turned down. At the time there was no obvious military use, so the concept was left unclassified. This allowed Thomson and Moses Blackman to file a patent on the idea in 1946, describing a device using just enough pinch current to ionise and briefly confine the plasma while being heated by a microwave source that would also continually drive the current.

As a practical device there is an additional requirement, that the reaction conditions last long enough to burn a reasonable amount of the fuel. In the original Thomson and Blackman design, it was the job of the microwave injection to drive the electrons to maintain the current and produce pinches that lasted on the order of one minute, allowing the plasma to reach 500 million K. The current in the plasma also heated it; if the current was also used as the heat source, the only limit to the heating was the power of the pulse. This led to a new reactor design where the system operated in brief but very powerful pulses. Such a machine would demand a very large power supply.

First machines
In 1947, Cockcroft arranged a meeting of several Harwell physicists to study Thomson's latest concepts, including Harwell's director of theoretical physics, Klaus Fuchs. Thomson's concepts were poorly received, especially by Fuchs. When this presentation also failed to gain funding, Thomson passed along his concepts to two graduate students at Imperial, Stanley (Stan) W. Cousins and Alan Alfred Ware (1924-2010). He added a report on a type of toroidal particle accelerator known as the "Wirbelrohr" ("whirl tube"), designed in Germany by Max Steenbeck. The Wirbelrohr consisted of a transformer with a torus-shaped vacuum tube as its secondary coil, similar in concept to the toroidal pinch devices.

Later that year, Ware built a small machine out of old radar equipment and was able to induce powerful currents. When they did, the plasma gave off flashes of light, but he could not devise a way to measure the temperature of the plasma. Thomson continued to pressure the government to allow him to build a full-scale device, using his considerable political currency to argue for the creation of a dedicated experimental station at the Associated Electrical Industries (AEI) lab that had recently been constructed at Aldermaston.

Ware discussed the experiments with anyone who was interested, including Jim Tuck of Clarendon Laboratory at Oxford University. While working at Los Alamos during the war, Tuck and Stanislaw Ulam had built an unsuccessful fusion system using shaped charge explosives, but it did not work. Tuck was joined by Australian Peter Thonemann, who had worked on fusion theory, and the two arranged funding through Clarendon to build a small device like the one at Imperial. But before this work started, Tuck was offered a job in the US, eventually returning to Los Alamos.

Thonemann continued working on the idea and began a rigorous programme to explore the basic physics of plasmas in a magnetic field. Starting with linear tubes and mercury gas, he found that the current tended to expand outward through the plasma until it touched the walls of the container (see skin effect). He countered this with the addition of small electromagnets outside the tube, which pushed back against the current and kept it centred. By 1949, he had moved on from the glass tubes to a larger copper torus, in which he was able to demonstrate a stable pinched plasma. Frederick Lindemann and Cockcroft visited and were duly impressed.

Cockcroft asked Herbert Skinner to review the concepts, which he did in April 1948. He was sceptical of Thomson's ideas for creating a current in the plasma and thought Thonemann's ideas seemed more likely to work. He also pointed out that the behaviour of plasmas in a magnetic field was not well understood, and that "it is useless to do much further planning before this doubt is resolved."

Meanwhile, at Los Alamos, Tuck acquainted the US researchers with the British efforts. In early 1951, Lyman Spitzer introduced his stellarator concept and was shopping the idea around the nuclear establishment looking for funding. Tuck was sceptical of Spitzer's enthusiasm and felt his development programme was "incredibly ambitious". He proposed a much less aggressive programme based on pinch. Both men presented their ideas in Washington in May 1951, which resulted in the Atomic Energy Commission giving Spitzer US$50,000. Tuck convinced Norris Bradbury, the director of Los Alamos, to give him US$50,000 from the discretionary budget, using it to build the Perhapsatron.

Early results

In 1950 Fuchs admitted to passing UK and US atomic secrets to the USSR. As fusion devices generated high energy neutrons, which could be used to enrich nuclear fuel for bombs, the UK immediately classified all their fusion research. This meant the teams could no longer work in the open environment of the universities. The Imperial team under Ware moved to the AEI labs at Aldermaston and the Oxford team under Thonemann moved to Harwell.

By early 1952 there were numerous pinch devices in operation; Cousins and Ware had built several follow-on machines under the name Sceptre, and the Harwell team had built a series of ever-larger machines known as Mark I through Mark IV. In the US, Tuck built his Perhapsatron in January 1952. It was later learned that Fuchs had passed the UK work to the Soviets, and that they had started a fusion programme as well.

It was clear to all of these groups that something was seriously wrong in the pinch machines. As the current was applied, the plasma column inside the vacuum tube would become unstable and break up, ruining the compression. Further work identified two types of instabilities, nicknamed "kink" and "sausage". In the kink, the normally toroidal plasma would bend to the sides, eventually touching the edges of the vessel. In the sausage, the plasma would neck down at locations along the plasma column to form a pattern similar to a link of sausages.

Investigations demonstrated both were caused by the same underlying mechanism. When the pinch current was applied, any area of the gas that had a slightly higher density would create a slightly stronger magnetic field and collapse faster than the surrounding gas. This caused the localised area to have higher density, which created an even stronger pinch, and a runaway reaction would follow. The quick collapse in a single area would cause the whole column to break up.

Stabilised pinch

Early studies of the phenomenon suggested one solution to the problem was to increase the compression rate. In this approach, the compression would be started and stopped so rapidly that the bulk of the plasma would not have time to move; instead, a shock wave created by this rapid compression would be responsible for compressing the majority of the plasma. This approach became known as fast pinch. The Los Alamos team working on the Columbus linear machine designed an updated version to test this theory.

Others started looking for ways to stabilise the plasma during compression, and by 1953 two concepts had come to the fore. One solution was to wrap the vacuum tube in a sheet of thin but highly conductive metal. If the plasma column began to move, the current in the plasma would induce a magnetic field in the sheet, one that, due to Lenz's law, would push back against the plasma. This was most effective against large, slow movements, like the entire plasma torus drifting within the chamber.

The second solution used additional electromagnets wrapped around the vacuum tube. The magnetic fields from these magnets mixed with the pinch field created by the current in the plasma. The result was that the paths of the particles within the plasma tube were no longer purely circular around the torus, but twisted like the stripes on a barber's pole. In the US, this concept was known as giving the plasma a "backbone", suppressing small-scale, localised instabilities. Calculations showed that this stabilised pinch would dramatically improve confinement times, and the older concepts "suddenly seemed obsolete".

Marshall Rosenbluth, recently arrived at Los Alamos, began a detailed theoretical study of the pinch concept. With his wife Arianna W. Rosenbluth and Richard Garwin, he developed "motor theory", or "M-theory", published in 1954. The theory predicted that the heating effect of the electric current was greatly increased with the power of the electric field. This suggested that the fast pinch concept would be more likely to succeed, as it was easier to produce larger currents in these devices. When he incorporated the idea of stabilising magnets into the theory a second phenomenon appeared; for a particular, and narrow, set of conditions based on the physical size of the reactor, the power of the stabilising magnets and the amount of pinch, toroidal machines appeared to be naturally stable.

ZETA begins construction

US researchers planned to test both fast pinch and stabilised pinch by modifying their existing small-scale machines. In the UK, Thomson once again pressed for funding for a larger machine. This time he was much more warmly received, and initial funding of £200,000 was provided in late 1954. Design work continued during 1955, and in July the project was named ZETA. The term "zero energy" was a phrase used in the nuclear industry to refer to small research reactors, like ZEEP, which had a role similar to ZETA's goal of producing reactions while releasing no net energy.

The ZETA design was finalised in early 1956. Metropolitan-Vickers was hired to build the machine, which included a 150 tonne pulse transformer, the largest built in Britain to that point. A serious issue arose when the required high-strength steels needed for the electrical components were in short supply, but a strike in the US electrical industry caused a sudden glut of material, resolving the problem.

ZETA was the largest and most powerful fusion device in the world at the time of its construction. Its aluminium torus had an internal bore of  and a major radius of , over three times the size of any machine built to date. It was also the most powerful design, incorporating an induction magnet that was designed to induce currents up to 100,000 amperes (amps) into the plasma. Later amendments to the design increased this to 200,000 amps. It included both types of stabilisation; its aluminium walls acted as the metal shield, and a series of secondary magnets ringed the torus. Windows placed in the gaps between the toroidal magnets allowed direct inspection of the plasma.

In July 1954, the AERE was reorganised into the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA). Modifications to Harwell's Hangar 7 in order to house the machine began that year. Despite its advanced design, the price tag was modest: about US$1 million. By late 1956 it was clear that ZETA was going to come online in mid-1957, beating the Model C stellarator and the newest versions of the Perhapsatron and Columbus. Because these projects were secret, based on the little information available the press concluded they were versions of the same conceptual device, and that the British were far ahead in the race to produce a working machine.

Soviet visit and the push to declassify

From 1953 the US had increasingly concentrated on the fast pinch concept. Some of these machines had produced neutrons, and these were initially associated with fusion. There was so much excitement that several other researchers quickly entered the field as well. Among these was Stirling Colgate, but his experiments quickly led him to conclude that fusion was not taking place. According to Spitzer resistivity, the temperature of the plasma could be determined from the current flowing through it. When Colgate performed the calculation, the temperatures in the plasma were far below the requirements for fusion.

This being the case, some other effect had to be creating the neutrons. Further work demonstrated that these were the result of instabilities in the fuel. The localised areas of high magnetic field acted as tiny particle accelerators, causing reactions that ejected neutrons. Modifications attempting to reduce these instabilities failed to improve the situation and by 1956 the fast pinch concept had largely been abandoned. The US labs began turning their attention to the stabilised pinch concept, but by this time ZETA was almost complete and the US was well behind.

In 1956, while planning a well publicised state visit by Nikita Khrushchev and Nikolai Bulganin to the UK, the Harwell researchers received an offer from Soviet scientist Igor Kurchatov to give a talk. They were surprised when he began his talk on "the possibility of producing thermonuclear reactions in a gaseous discharge". Kurchatov's speech revealed the Soviet efforts to produce fast pinch devices similar to the American designs, and their problems with instabilities in the plasmas. Kurchatov noted that they had also seen neutrons being released, and had initially believed them to be from fusion. But as they examined the numbers, it became clear the plasma was not hot enough and they concluded the neutrons were from other interactions.

Kurchatov's speech made it apparent that the three countries were all working on the same basic concepts and had all encountered the same sorts of problems. Cockcroft missed Kurchatov's visit because he had left for the US to press for declassification of the fusion work to avoid this duplication of effort. There was a widespread belief on both sides of the Atlantic that sharing their findings would greatly improve progress. Now that it was known the Soviets were at the same basic development level, and that they were interested in talking about it publicly, the US and UK began considering releasing much of their information as well. This developed into a wider effort to release all fusion research at the second Atoms for Peace conference in Geneva in September 1958.

In June 1957 the UK and US finalised their agreement to release data to each other sometime prior to the conference, which both the UK and the US planned on attending "in force". The final terms were reached on 27 November 1957, opening the projects to mutual inspection, and calling for a wide public release of all the data in January 1958.

Promising results

ZETA started operation in mid-August 1957, initially with hydrogen. These runs demonstrated that ZETA was not suffering from the same stability problems that earlier pinch machines had seen and their plasmas were lasting for milliseconds, up from microseconds, a full three orders of magnitude improvement. The length of the pulses allowed the plasma temperature to be measured using spectrographic means; although the light emitted was broadband, the Doppler shifting of the spectral lines of slight impurities in the gas (oxygen in particular) led to calculable temperatures.

Even in early experimental runs, the team started introducing deuterium gas into the mix and began increasing the current to 200,000 amps. On the evening of 30 August the machine produced huge numbers of neutrons, on the order of one million per experimental pulse, or "shot". An effort to duplicate the results and eliminate possible measurement failure followed.

Much depended on the temperature of the plasma; if the temperature was low, the neutrons would not be fusion related. Spectrographic measurements suggested plasma temperatures between 1 and 5 million K; at those temperatures the predicted rate of fusion was within a factor of two of the number of neutrons being seen. It appeared that ZETA had reached the long-sought goal of producing small numbers of fusion reactions, as it was designed to do.

US efforts had suffered a string of minor technical setbacks that delayed their experiments by about a year; both the new Perhapsatron S-3 and Columbus II did not start operating until around the same time as ZETA in spite of being much smaller experiments. Nevertheless, as these experiments came online in mid-1957, they too began generating neutrons. By September, both these machines and a new design, DCX at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, appeared so promising that Edward Gardner reported that:

Prestige politics

The news was too good to keep bottled up. Tantalising leaks started appearing in September. In October, Thonemann, Cockcroft and William P. Thompson hinted that interesting results would be following. In November a UKAEA spokesman noted "The indications are that fusion has been achieved". Based on these hints, the Financial Times dedicated an entire two-column article to the issue. Between then and early 1958, the British press published an average of two articles a week on ZETA. Even the US papers picked up the story; on 17 November The New York Times reported on the hints of success.

Although the British and US had agreed to release their data in full, at this point the overall director of the US program, Lewis Strauss, decided to hold back the release. Tuck argued that the field looked so promising that it would be premature to release any data before the researchers knew that fusion was definitely taking place. Strauss agreed, and announced that they would withhold their data for a period to check their results.

As the matter became better known in the press, on 26 November the publication issue was raised in House of Commons. Responding to a question by the opposition, the leader of the house announced the results publicly while explaining the delay in publication due to the UK–US agreement. The UK press interpreted this differently, claiming that the US was dragging its feet because it was unable to replicate the British results.

Things came to a head on 12 December when a former member of parliament, Anthony Nutting, wrote a New York Herald Tribune article claiming:

The article resulted in a flurry of activity in the Macmillan administration. Having originally planned to release their results at a scheduled meeting of the Royal Society, there was great concern over whether to invite the Americans and Soviets, especially as they believed the Americans would be greatly upset if the Soviets arrived, but just as upset if they were not invited and the event was all-British. The affair eventually led to the UKAEA making a public announcement that the US was not holding back the ZETA results, but this infuriated the local press, which continued to claim the US was delaying to allow them to catch up.

Early concerns

When the information-sharing agreement was signed in November a further benefit was realised: teams from the various labs were allowed to visit each other. The US team, including Stirling Colgate, Lyman Spitzer, Jim Tuck and Arthur Edward Ruark, all visited ZETA and concluded there was a "major probability" the neutrons were from fusion.

On his return to the US, Spitzer calculated that something was wrong with the ZETA results. He noticed that the apparent temperature, 5 million K, would not have time to develop during the short firing times. ZETA did not discharge enough energy into the plasma to heat it to those temperatures so quickly. If the temperature was increasing at the relatively slow rate his calculations suggested, fusion would not be taking place early in the reaction, and could not be adding energy that might make up the difference. Spitzer suspected the temperature reading was not accurate. Since it was the temperature reading that suggested the neutrons were from fusion, if the temperature was lower, it implied the neutrons were non-fusion in origin.

Colgate had reached similar conclusions. In early 1958, he, Harold Furth and John Ferguson started an extensive study of the results from all known pinch machines. Instead of inferring temperature from neutron energy, they used the conductivity of the plasma itself, based on the well-understood relationships between temperature and conductivity. They concluded that the machines were producing temperatures perhaps  what the neutrons were suggesting, nowhere near hot enough to explain the number of neutrons being produced, regardless of their energy.

By this time the latest versions of the US pinch devices, Perhapsatron S-3 and Columbus S-4, were producing neutrons of their own. The fusion research world reached a high point. In January, results from pinch experiments in the US and UK both announced that neutrons were being released, and that fusion had apparently been achieved. The misgivings of Spitzer and Colgate were ignored.

Public release, worldwide interest

The long-planned release of fusion data was announced to the public in mid-January. Considerable material from the UK's ZETA and Sceptre devices was released in depth in the 25 January 1958 edition of Nature, which also included results from Los Alamos' Perhapsatron S-3, Columbus II and Columbus S-2. The UK press was livid. The Observer wrote that "Admiral Strauss' tactics have soured what should be an exciting announcement of scientific progress so that it has become a sordid episode of prestige politics."

The results were typical of the normally sober scientific language, and although the neutrons were noted, there were no strong claims as to their source. The day before the release, Cockcroft, the overall director at Harwell, called a press conference to introduce the British press to the results. Some indication of the importance of the event can be seen in the presence of a BBC television field crew, a rare occurrence at that time. He began by introducing the fusion programme and the ZETA machine, and then noted:

The reporters at the meeting were not satisfied with this assessment and continued to press Cockcroft on the neutron issue. After being asked several times, he eventually stated that in his opinion, he was "90 percent certain" they were from fusion. This was unwise; a statement of opinion from a Nobel prize winner was taken as a statement of fact. The next day, the Sunday newspapers were covered with the news that fusion had been achieved in ZETA, often with claims about how the UK was now far in the lead in fusion research. Cockcroft further hyped the results on television following the release, stating: "To Britain this discovery is greater than the Russian Sputnik."

As planned, the US also released a large batch of results from their smaller pinch machines. Many of them were also giving off neutrons, although ZETA was stabilised for much longer periods and generating more neutrons, by a factor of about 1000. When questioned about the success in the UK, Strauss denied that the US was behind in the fusion race. When reporting on the topic, The New York Times chose to focus on Los Alamos' Columbus II, only mentioning ZETA later in the article, and then concluded the two countries were "neck and neck." Other reports from the US generally gave equal support to both programmes. Newspapers from the rest of the world were more favourable to the UK; Radio Moscow went so far to publicly congratulate the UK while failing to mention the US results at all.

As ZETA continued to generate positive results, plans were made to build a follow-on machine. The new design was announced in May; ZETA II would be a significantly larger US$14 million machine whose explicit goal would be to reach 100 million K, and generate net power. This announcement gathered praise even in the US; The New York Times ran a story about the new version. Machines similar to ZETA were being announced around the world; Osaka University announced their pinch machine was even more successful than ZETA, the Aldermaston team announced positive results from their Sceptre machine costing only US$28,000, and a new reactor was built in Uppsala University that was presented publicly later that year. The Efremov Institute in Leningrad began construction of a smaller version of ZETA, although still larger than most, known as Alpha.

Further scepticism, retraction of claims

Spitzer had already concluded that known theory suggested that the ZETA was nowhere near the temperatures the team was claiming, and during the publicity surrounding the release of the work, he suggested that "Some unknown mechanism would appear to be involved". Other researchers in the US, notably Furth and Colgate, were far more critical, telling anyone who would listen that the results were bunk. In the Soviet Union, Lev Artsimovich rushed to have the Nature article translated, and after reading it, declared "Chush sobachi!" (bullshit).

Cockcroft had stated that they were receiving too few neutrons from the device to measure their spectrum or their direction. Failing to do so meant they could not eliminate the possibility that the neutrons were being released due to electrical effects in the plasma, the sorts of reactions that Kurchatov had pointed out earlier. Such measurements would have been easy to make.

In the same converted hangar that housed ZETA was the Harwell Synchrocyclotron effort run by Basil Rose. This project had built a sensitive high-pressure diffusion cloud chamber as the cyclotron's main detector. Rose was convinced it would be able to directly measure the neutron energies and trajectories. In a series of experiments, he showed that the neutrons had a high directionality, at odds with a fusion origin which would be expected to be randomly directed. To further demonstrate this he had the machine run "backwards", with the electric current running in the opposite direction. This demonstrated a clear difference in the number of neutrons and their energy, which suggested they were a result of the electrical current itself, not fusion reactions inside the plasma.

This was followed by similar experiments on Perhapsatron and Columbus, demonstrating the same problems. The issue was a new form of instability, the "microinstabilities" or MHD instabilities, that were caused by wave-like signals in the plasma. These had been predicted, but whereas the kink was on the scale of the entire plasma and could be easily seen in photographs, these microinstabilities were too small and rapidly moving to easily detect, and had simply not been noticed before. But like the kink, when these instabilities developed, areas of enormous electrical potential developed, rapidly accelerating protons in the area. These sometimes collided with neutrons in the plasma or the container walls, ejecting them through neutron spallation. This is the same physical process that had been creating neutrons in earlier designs, the problem Cockcroft had mentioned during the press releases, but their underlying cause was more difficult to see and in ZETA they were much more powerful. The promise of stabilised pinch disappeared.

Cockcroft was forced to publish a humiliating retraction on 16 May 1958, claiming "It is doing exactly the job we expected it would do and is functioning exactly the way we hoped it would." Le Monde raised the issue to a front-page headline in June, noting "Contrary to what was announced six months ago at Harwell – British experts confirm that thermonuclear energy has not been 'domesticated. The event cast a chill over the entire field; it was not only the British who looked foolish, every other country involved in fusion research had been quick to jump on the bandwagon.

Harwell in turmoil, ZETA soldiers on
Beginning in 1955, Cockcroft had pressed for the establishment of a new site for the construction of multiple prototype power-producing fission reactors. This was strongly opposed by Christopher Hinton, and a furious debate broke out within the UKAEA over the issue. Cockcroft eventually won the debate, and in late 1958 the UKAEA formed AEE Winfrith in Dorset, where they eventually built several experimental reactor designs.

Cockcroft had also pressed for the ZETA II reactor to be housed at the new site. He argued that Winfrith would be better suited to build the large reactor, and the unclassified site would better suit the now-unclassified research. This led to what has been described as "as close to a rebellion that the individualistic scientists at Harwell could possibly mount". Thonemann made it clear he was not interested in moving to Dorset and suggested that several other high-ranking members would also quit rather than move. He then went on sabbatical to Princeton University for a year. The entire affair was a major strain on Basil Schonland, who took over the Research division when Cockcroft left in October 1959 to become the Master of the newly formed Churchill College, Cambridge.

While this was taking place, the original ZETA II proposal had been growing ever-larger, eventually specifying currents as powerful as the Joint European Torus that was built years later. As it seemed this was beyond the state-of-the-art, the project was eventually cancelled in February 1959. A new proposal soon took its place, the Intermediate-Current Stability Experiment (ICSE). ICSE was designed to take advantage of further stabilising effects noticed in M-theory, which suggested that very fast pinches would cause the current to flow only in the outer layer of the plasma, which should be much more stable. Over time, this machine grew to be about the same size as ZETA; ICSE had a 6 m major diameter and 1 m minor diameter, powered by a bank of capacitors storing 10 MJ at 100 kV.

Harwell was as unsuited to ICSE as it was for ZETA II, so Schonland approached the government with the idea of a new site for fusion research located close to Harwell. He was surprised to find they were happy with the idea, as this would limit employment at Harwell, whose payroll roster was becoming too complex to manage. Further study demonstrated that the cost of building a new site would be offset by the savings in keeping the site near Harwell; if ICSE was built at Winfrith, the travel costs between the sites would be considerable. In May 1959, the UKAEA purchased RNAS Culham, about  from Harwell. ICSE construction began later that year, starting with a one-acre building to house it, known as "D-1".

Meanwhile, work continued on ZETA to better understand what was causing the new forms of instabilities. New diagnostic techniques demonstrated that the electron energies were very low, on the order of 10 eV (approximately 100,000 K) while ion temperatures were somewhat higher at 100 eV. Both of these pointed to a rapid loss of energy in the plasma, which in turn suggested the fuel was turbulent and escaping confinement to hit the walls of the chamber where it rapidly cooled. A full presentation of the results was made at the Salzburg Conference in 1961, where the Soviet delegation presented very similar results on their ZETA-clone, Alpha.

The source of this turbulence was not clearly identified at that time, but the team suggested it was due to current-driven resistive modes; if one did not use the simplifying assumption that the plasma had no macroscopic resistance, new instabilities would naturally appear. When the new head of the UKAEA, William Penney, heard that the ICSE design was also based on the resistance-free assumption, he cancelled the project in August 1960. Parts for the partially-assembled reactor were scavenged by other teams.

Thonemann had returned by this point and found much to disagree with on ICSE. He demanded to be allowed to set up a new fusion group to remain at Harwell on ZETA. ZETA remained the largest toroidal machine in the world for some time, and went on to have a productive career for just over a decade, but in spite of its later successes ZETA was always known as an example of British folly.

Thomson scattering and tokamaks

ZETA's failure was due to limited information; using the best available measurements, ZETA was returning several signals that suggested the neutrons were due to fusion. The original temperature measures were made by examining the Doppler shifting of the spectral lines of the atoms in the plasma. The inaccuracy of the measurement and spurious results caused by electron impacts with the container led to misleading measurements based on the impurities, not the plasma itself. Over the next decade, ZETA was used continuously in an effort to develop better diagnostic tools to resolve these problems.

This work eventually developed a method that is used to this day. The introduction of lasers provided a new solution through a British discovery known as Thomson scattering. Lasers have extremely accurate and stable frequency control, and the light they emit interacts strongly with free electrons. A laser shone into the plasma will be reflected off the electrons, and during this process will be Doppler shifted by the electrons' movement. The speed of the electrons is a function of their temperature, so by comparing the frequency before and after collisions, the temperature of the electrons could be measured with an extremely high degree of accuracy. By "reversing" the system, the temperature of the ions could also be directly measured.

Through the 1960s ZETA was not the only experiment to suffer from unexpected performance problems. Problems with plasma diffusion across the magnetic fields plagued both the magnetic mirror and stellarator programs, at rates that classical theory could not explain. Adding more fields did not appear to correct the problems in any of the existing designs. Work slowed dramatically as teams around the world tried to better understand the physics of the plasmas in their devices. Pfirsch and Schluter were the first to make a significant advance, suggesting that much larger and more powerful machines would be needed to correct these problems. An attitude of pessimism took root across the entire field.

In 1968 a meeting of fusion researchers took place in Novosibirsk, where, to everyone's astonishment, the Soviet hosts introduced their work on their tokamak designs which had performance numbers that no other experiment was even close to matching. The latest of their designs, the T-3, was producing electron energies of 1000 eV, compared to about 10 eV in ZETA. This corresponded to a plasma temperature of about 10 million K. Although the Soviet team was highly respected, the results were so good that there was serious concern their indirect temperature measurements might be unreliable and they had fallen prey to a measurement problem like the one that had occurred with ZETA. Spitzer, once again, expressed his scepticism rather strongly, sparking off an acrimonious debate with Artsimovich.

The Soviets were equally concerned about this, and even though it was the height of the Cold War, Artsimovich invited UKAEA to bring their laser system to the Kurchatov Institute and independently measure the performance. Artsimovich had previously called their system "brilliant." The team became known as "the Culham five", performing a series of measurements in late 1968 and early 1969. The resulting paper was published in November 1969 and convinced the fusion research field that the tokamak was indeed reaching the levels of performance the Soviets claimed. The result was a "veritable stampede" of tokamak construction around the world, and it remains the most studied device in the fusion field.

Tokamaks are toroidal pinch machines. The key difference is the relative strengths of the fields. In the stabilised pinch machines, most of the magnetic field in the plasma was generated by the current induced in it. The strength of the external stabilisation fields was much lower and only penetrated into the outer layers of the plasma mass. The tokamak reversed this; the external magnets were much more powerful and the plasma current greatly reduced in comparison. Artsimovich put it this way:

This difference is today part of a general concept known as the safety factor, denoted q. It has to be greater than one to maintain stability during a discharge; in ZETA it was about . A ZETA-type machine could reach this q, but would require enormously powerful external magnets to match the equally large fields being generated by the current. The tokamak approach resolved this by using less pinch current; this made the system stable but meant the current could no longer be used to heat the plasma. Tokamak designs require some form of external heating.

Reversed field pinch

In 1965, the newly opened Culham laboratory hosted what had become a periodic meeting of international fusion researchers. Of all the work presented, only two papers on stabilised pinch were present, both on ZETA. Spitzer did not mention them during the opening comments.

Normally, the pulse of electricity sent into ZETA formed a current pulse with a shape similar to a Poisson distribution, ramping up quickly then trailing off. One of the papers noted that the plasma stability reached a maximum just after the current began to taper off, and then lasted longer than the current pulse itself. This phenomenon was dubbed "quiescence".

Three years later, at the same meeting where Soviet results with the T-3 tokamak were first released, a paper by Robinson and King examined the quiescence period. They determined it was due to the original toroidal magnetic field reversing itself, creating a more stable configuration. At the time, the enormity of the T-3 results overshadowed this result.

John Bryan Taylor took up the issue and began a detailed theoretical study of the concept, publishing a groundbreaking 1974 article on the topic. He demonstrated that as the magnetic field that generated the pinch was relaxing, it interacted with the pre-existing stabilising fields, creating a self-stable magnetic field. The phenomenon was driven by the system's desire to preserve magnetic helicity, which suggested a number of ways to improve the confinement time.

Although the stabilising force was lower than the force available in the pinch, it lasted considerably longer. It appeared that a reactor could be built that would approach the Lawson criterion from a different direction, using extended confinement times rather than increased density. This was similar to the stellarator approach in concept, and although it would have lower field strength than those machines, the energy needed to maintain the confinement was much lower. Today this approach is known as the reversed field pinch (RFP) and has been a field of continued study.

Taylor's study of the relaxation into the reversed state led to his development of a broader theoretical understanding of the role of magnetic helicity and minimum energy states, greatly advancing the understanding of plasma dynamics. The minimum-energy state, known as the "Taylor state", is particularly important in the understanding of new fusion approaches in the compact toroid class. Taylor went on to study the ballooning transformation, a problem that was occurring in the latest high-performance toroidal machines as large-scale waveforms formed in the plasma. His work in fusion research won him the 1999 James Clerk Maxwell Prize for Plasma Physics.

Demolition
Culham officially opened in 1965, and various teams began leaving the former sites through this period. A team kept ZETA operational until September 1968. Hangar 7, which housed ZETA and other machines, was demolished during financial year 2005/2006.

Notes

References

Citations

Bibliography

External links
 Britain's Sputnik – BBC Radio 4 programme on ZETA first broadcast on 16 January 2008
 ZETA – Peace Atoms, contemporary newsreel story on the reactor.

Magnetic confinement fusion devices
Nuclear power in the United Kingdom
Nuclear research institutes in the United Kingdom
Nuclear research reactors
Nuclear technology in the United Kingdom
Research institutes in Oxfordshire
Vale of White Horse

ZETA (fusion reactor)


Dps is a Japanese rock band under the Giza Studio label.

History
In May 2016, Naoki participated in Zard's live tour session "25th Anniversary Live" as a guitarist. DVD footage was released on December. On the same month, Atsushi, Naoki and Tsuyoshi had participated as an arranger for Giza studio cover project D-project where he re-arranged Zard's single Ai ga Mienai and Ame ni Yurete.

In October 2016, the vocalist Ryosuke has won the main grandprix in Sugoiyo! Campastar Vocal Contest.

Three months later in 2017, the band formation has begun by adding more members as Naoki Morioka, Atsushi Yamaguchi (former known as Atsushi Kawamura from Naifu and Loe) and Tsuyoshi Asai (previously as guitarist in band Loe).

On April 28, 2017, they've held first live performance in Hill PansKoujou.

In September 2017, an official website for Dps has been launched.

In November 2017, they've released first mini album Begins with Em under indies label Tent House. The album was successful with reaching into Tower Records Kansai rankings as No.1

In March 2018 they made their first radio guest appearance on the MBS radio program Kanemura Yoshiaki no Eekagen ni see!

In June 2018 Dps appeared on free live Kansai Neo Rock along with bands as Qyoto, Cross Lord and Satou Cocoa to Hinawa Juu, who all of the artists belong to Being Inc's indies label.

On 8 September 2018 was announced their major debut under major label Giza Studio.

In October 2018 Naoki participated in music production recording as a guitarist on special project KYOTO RIMPA ROCKERS. The main producer of this project is the owner of Being Inc., Daiko Nagato.

On 7 November 2018 they've released debut release single Timeline. The single is used as an opening theme for Anime television series Detective Conan.

On 5 December 2018 Naoki will participate in music production recording as a guitarist in Daigo cover album Deing.

In March 2019, Dps appeared on live celebration of live house Pan Koujou Hills 16th anniversary.

During free live event "Onto Vol.4" were announced first digital single Ano Koro wa Nani mo Wakaranakatta with Marty Friedman which will release on 24 April 2019. This will lead as a promotional single to the upcoming fourth mini album Kamikaze which plans release on 19 June 2019 with total 4 tracks recorded.

Members
  - vocals, lyricist
  - guitar, composer, arranger, backing vocals
  - bass guitar, lyricist, backing vocals
  - drums, composer

Discography
So far they've released 4 mini albums, one digital single and one singles.

Singles

Digital Singles

Mini albums

In-media usage
Ippatsu Gyakuten is used as an opening theme for MBS Radio Kanemura Yoshiaki no Eekagen ni see!
Zettai Zetsumei no Hero is used as an ending theme for MBS Radio Kanemura Yoshiaki no Eekagen ni see!
Timeline will be used as an opening theme for Anime television series Detective Conan

References

External links
Dps official Web site
Dps Official YouTube channel

Being Inc. artists
Living people
Japanese rock music groups
Anime musicians
Musical groups established in 2017
2017 establishments in Japan
Year of birth missing (living people)

Dps (band)


Випо-путешественник, или Випо: Приключения летающего пса — мультипликационный сериал о летающем щенке по имени Випо. Сериал был дублирован на множество языков и теперь транслируется в различных странах мира, в том числе в Германии, Франции, Израиле, Италии, Чехии, Словакии, Испании, Финляндии, Польше, Хорватии, Венгрии, России, Украине, Турции и др.

Випо — собака, умеющая летать. Он и его друзья — аист Генри и игрушечная кошка Бетти — отправляются в кругосветное путешествие. Они побывают в разных странах и узнают много нового о других нациях и культурах.

Список серий
 Зальцбург
 Вена
 Венеция
 Рим
 Мадрид
 Париж
 Мюнхен
 Гамбург
 Амстердам
 Лондон
 Швейцария
 Шотландия
 Россия
 Афины
 Севилья
 Египет
 Конго
 Индия
 Австралия
 Бразилия
 Мексика
 Нью-Йорк
 Япония
 Китай
 Домой!

Персонажи

 Випо - летающая собака.
 Бетти - плюшевая игрушечная кошка.
 Генри - аист.
 Билли - бык.
 Доктор Тимли - подопытный кролик.
 Игорь - амурский тигр.
 Несси - Лох-несское чудовище.
 Винсент Ван Фокс - лисица-художник.
 Яо - китайская обезьяна.
 Йоши - мышь.
 Конго - горилла, любящая покомандовать.
 Рамзес - скарабей из Египта. Он считает Бетти богиней, потому что она кошка.
 Дон Леоне - самовлюбленный голубь.

Ссылки
 VipoClub — Официальный веб-сайт
 Vipo Land Inc. — главный дистрибьютор
 Snowball vfx — Израильская анимационная компания

Мультсериалы 2007 года
Мультсериалы Израиля

Випо: Приключения летающего пса


Sitalcina peacheyi is a species of armoured harvestman in the family Phalangodidae. It is found in North America.

References

Further reading

Harvestmen
Articles created by Qbugbot
Animals described in 2008

Sitalcina peacheyi


Angulus texanus is een tweekleppigensoort uit de familie van de Tellinidae. De wetenschappelijke naam van de soort is voor het eerst geldig gepubliceerd in 1900 door Dall.

Tellinidae

Angulus texanus


Świniokierz Włościański – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie łódzkim, w powiecie tomaszowskim, w gminie Żelechlinek.

W latach 1975–1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa piotrkowskiego.

Zobacz też
 Świniokierz Dworski

Przypisy

Żelechlinek (gmina)

Świniokierz Włościański


Джейсон Скотт Лі (;  19 листопада 1966, Лос-Анджелес, Каліфорнія) — американський актор китайсько-гавайського походження. Відомий за фільмом «Дракон: Історія життя Брюса Лі», де зіграв Брюса Лі.

Біографія
Джейсон Скотт Лі народився 19 листопада 1966 року в місті Лос-Анджелесі, в сім'ї Сільвії і Роберта Лі. Крім Джейсона, в сім'ї також було троє братів і одна сестра. У віці двох років Джейсон з батьками переїхав на Гаваї на острів Оаху, де його батько отримав роботу моряка. У 19 років Лі повернувся в Лос-Анджелес і незабаром записався на акторські курси.

В середині 1990-х, Лі мав кілька ролей у художніх фільмах. У той час, він не мав ще статусу зірки, але все одно продовжував отримувати значні ролі. Найголовніша його роль у фільмі «Дракон: Історія життя Брюса Лі», йому належало зіграти самого Брюса Лі. Для цієї ролі він вивчав бойове мистецтво Джит Кун-До, створене самим Брюсом, навчав Скотта колишній студент Брюса Лі, Джеррі Потіт.

У 2010 році знявся в серіалі «Гаваї 5.0» в ролі детектива Кале.

Фільмографія

Примітки

Американські кіноактори
Уродженці Лос-Анджелеса

Джейсон Скотт Лі


Bruchflächen sind die neuen Oberflächen, die an den Bruchstücken eines zuvor Ganzen offenliegen.

Oft kann anhand der Beschaffenheit der Bruchflächen der Grund eines – insbesondere ungewollten – Bruches festgestellt werden. Aus der Oberflächenstruktur einer Bruchfläche lässt sich auf den Bruch- und Schadensmechanismus schließen. Die Färbung der Bruchflächen kann auf Vorschädigungen hinweisen, z. B. Oxidation von Metallflächen als Zeichen für einen bereits früher entstandenen, aber unerkannten Anbruch oder eine anderweitige Materialermüdung.

Literatur
 Johann Andreas Wagner: Handbuch der Naturgeschichte. Band 3, Druck und Verlag Tobias Dannheimer, Kempten 1842.
 Ulrich Zorll: Untersuchung der Oberflächen- und Innen-Struktur von Lackschichten mit dem Elektronenmikroskop. Westdeutscher Verlag, Opladen 1972, S. 15–18.
 Otto Wawrziniok: Handbuch des Materialprüfungswesens für Maschinen- und Bauingenieure. Zweite Auflage, Springer Verlag, Berlin / Heidelberg 1923.
 Karlheinz G. Schmitt-Thomas: Integrierte Schadenanalyse. Technikgestaltung und das System des Versagens, Springer Verlag, Berlin / Heidelberg 1999, ISBN 978-3-662-07948-5.

Siehe auch
 Bruchstein
 Roheisen
 Sprödbruch
 Spaltbarkeit

Weblinks
  Stähle und ihre Eigenschaften (abgerufen am 20. September 2018)
 Werkstoff- und Schadensuntersuchungen (abgerufen am 20. September 2018)
 Protokoll Kerbschlagbiegeversuch (abgerufen am 20. September 2018)
 Bruchflächenanalyse (abgerufen am 20. September 2018)

Bruchmechanik

Bruchfläche


Grandicrepidula grandis is een slakkensoort uit de familie van de Calyptraeidae. De wetenschappelijke naam van de soort is voor het eerst geldig gepubliceerd in 1849 door Middendorff.

Calyptraeidae

Grandicrepidula grandis


Onchopristis is an extinct genus of sclerorhynchoid from the Cretaceous of North Africa, Europe, and North America. Its name is derived from the Ancient Greek ónkos (ὄγκος, 'barb') and prístis (πρίστις, 'saw' or 'sawfish'). It contains two valid species, O. numida and O. dunklei. Onchopristis first appeared in the Barremian and its latest occurrence dates to the Campanian, making it one of the oldest and longest-lived sclerorhynchoid genera.

Description
Specimens of O. numida, IPUW 353500 and IGR 2818, suggest a length estimate of  and , respectively; such individuals would have weighed . Like other sclerorhynchoids, it had a long rostrum with large denticles similar to sawfishes and sawsharks. This feature was convergently evolved and its closest living relatives are actually skates. Isolated rostral denticles are the most common fossils of Onchopristis, but rostra, chondrocrania, jaws, oral teeth, vertebrae, and dermal denticles have also been found.

Taxonomy

Gigantichthys numidus was named by Émile Haug in 1905 for fragmentary rostral denticles from the Continental intercalaire of Algeria. Haug also named Platyspondylus foureaui for vertebrae from the same formation. Articulated specimens have confirmed that the rostral denticles and vertebrae belong to the same species. In 1917, Ernst Stromer named the new genus Onchopristis with "G". numidus as the type species. Although the spelling "Onchopristis numidus" is commonly used, it is grammatically incorrect and has been emended to O. numida.

Oral teeth from the Bahariya Formation of Egypt were named Squatina aegyptiaca by Stromer in 1927, and were later renamed as the separate genus Sechmetia by Christa Werner in 1989. Again, articulated specimens confirmed that these teeth belong to O. numida. In 1935, Wilhelm Weiler named Peyeria libyca for what he thought were sawfish rostral denticles from the Bahariya Formation. An associated specimen of Ischyrhiza mira, a close relative of Onchopristis, indicates that "Peyeria" are actually dermal denticles from O. numida.

A second valid species from the Woodbine Formation of Texas, Onchopristis dunklei, was named by Charles McNulty, Jr. and Bob Slaughter in 1962. In 1971, John Thurmond named the subspecies O. dunklei praecursor, but it is probably not distinct from O. dunklei. Rostral denticles from New Zealand formerly referred to "O. d. praecursor" have been reassigned to their own genus and species, Australopristis wiffeni.

References

Prehistoric cartilaginous fish genera
Cretaceous cartilaginous fish
Prehistoric fish of Africa
Sclerorhynchoidei

Onchopristis


Mosanje (ou Mosanja) est un village du Cameroun situé dans le département de la Meme et la Région du Sud-Ouest. Il fait partie de la commune de Konye.

Population
En 1968 la localité comptait 270 habitants, principalement des Bakundu du groupe Oroko.

Lors du recensement de 2005, la localité comptait .

Notes et références

Annexes

Bibliographie
 Dictionnaire des villages de la Meme, ORSTOM, Yaoundé, ,
  Dan T. Friesen, Oroko orthography development: Linguistic and sociolinguistic factors, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, 2002, 154 p. (MA thesis),

Liens externes
  Konye, sur le site Communes et villes unies du Cameroun (CVUC)
  Communal Development Plan of Konye Council PNDP, 2010-2012, 120 p.

Village dans la région du Sud-Ouest (Cameroun)

Mosanje


Gervais de Bazoches, prince de Galilée et de Tibérias, exécuté en 1108 à Damas.

Avant la première croisade, il était avoué de l'église de Mont-Notre-Dame et frère d'Hugues, seigneur de Bazoches.

En Terre sainte, c'est l'un des officiers du roi Baudouin  de Jérusalem qui lui confia la principauté de Galilée à la mort d'Hugues de Fauquembergues en 1106. Au mois de mai 1108, sa troupe de 80 chevaliers et 200 soldats fut défaite par Tughtekin, atabeg de Damas, et Gervais fut fait prisonnier avec quelques chevaliers. Tughtekin demanda les villes d’Acre, d'Haïfa et de Tibériade pour sa libération, le roi Baudouin 1er refusa tout en proposant une rançon d'argent. Gervais fut alors exécuté. Guibert de Nogent rapporte dans son Histoire des Croisades que son crâne fut transformé en coupe à boire par les Turcs.

Source

Notes et références

Noblesse du Moyen-Âge en Champagne
Croisé du XIIe siècle
Personnalité de la première croisade
Noble latin d'Orient
Prince de Galilée
Décès en 1108
Gervais

Gervais de Bazoches


The German Social Union (, DSU) is a small conservative political party mainly active in the new states of Germany. It was founded in 1990 as a right-wing opposition group during the Wende transition to democracy in East Germany, when it was part of the Alliance for Germany electoral coalition. After 1990, it fell into insignificance, only holding a few seats on the local level.

Ideology
According to its 2006 basic programme, the DSU refers to itself as a conservative, democratic and social party. Ideologically, the party's goals are to preserve and uphold Western-Christian civilization, and to dismantle the welfare state..

The party can thus be seen as right-wing (anti-socialistic) national-conservative. It strongly differentiates itself from the National Democratic Party (NPD) and German People's Union (DVU), who tend more towards national socialism. Its closest ideological ally among the right-wing parties is The Republicans. Historically, and as its name implies, it is modelled after the CSU in Bavaria, the more rightist of the two Union "sister parties". However it was not possible for the DSU to join the CSU, as the CDU and CSU do not compete in the same states.

History

Establishment

In the chaotic world of 1989–1990 East German politics, several long-suppressed cultural and political movements (re)emerged, and numerous small parties sprang up. The German Social Union was one of these, then several comprising conservative, Christian-democratic and liberal opposition groups.

The party was founded in Leipzig on 20 January 1990 by the St. Thomas Church pastor Hans-Wilhelm Ebeling, modeled loosely on the Christian Social Union of Bavaria (Christlich-Soziale Union, CSU). Initially, the Bavarian CSU supported the DSU to the tune of millions, wishing to make it its East German branch, and thus revisiting Franz Josef Strauß' mid-1970s plan to make the CSU a nationwide "fourth party".

Reunification period

On 5 February 1990, DSU joined the Alliance for Germany together with the centre-right Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and the now-defunct Democratic Awakening (DA) to form the Alliance for Germany, a centre-right coalition which ran in the first (and only) free East German general election of 18 March 1990. The DSU polled 6.3% of the votes cast and 25 seats in the People's Chamber parliament. It achieved its strongest results in the southern districts of Karl-Marx-Stadt, Dresden and Leipzig (that later formed the state of Saxony), where the DSU polled two-digit percentages.

Its most prominent politician was the lawyer Peter-Michael Diestel, who joined the last East German cabinet (Council of Ministers) under Lothar de Maizière as minister of the interior and deputy prime minister. The DSU also held the ministry of economic cooperation, led by Hans-Wilhelm Ebeling. However, both Diestel and Ebeling left the party in June and July 1990, respectively, Diestel joined the CDU a month later. Of all parties in the People's Chamber, the DSU was the keenest on a swift reunification of East and West Germany. Its delegates repeatedly proposed a motion for East Germany's "immediate accession" to the Federal Republic of Germany.

Hansjoachim Walther, a mathematics professor, was elected chairman of the DSU on the first regular party congress in May 1990. Under his leadership, the party took a turn to the right, hosting national-conservative and in some cases even far-right voices. Unlike the other parliamentary parties and a vast majority of the population, numerous DSU members did not accept the Oder–Neisse line as Germany's eastern border (which was finally laid down in the reunification treaty and the Two Plus Four Agreement).

After German reunification was accomplished on 3 October 1990, eight DSU People's Chamber deputies entered into the Bundestag (federal parliament), where they joined the CDU/CSU parliamentary group. The Alliance for Germany coalition dissolved after that. In Chancellor Helmut Kohl's third cabinet, the DSU was represented by Hansjoachim Walther as federal minister without portfolio from October 1990 to January 1991. In the October 1990 legislative elections in the new German states, the DSU did not pass the five-percent threshold, winning 3.6% in its former stronghold of Saxony and even less in the other states, and thus failed to enter into any Landtag (state legislature).

Ahead of the first post-reunification German federal election on 2 December 1990, the Bavarian CSU aimed for a deal with the CDU to save its East German offshoot from irrelevance: If the CDU had abstained from competing in a few constituencies in Saxony and Thuringia, thus winning the DSU at least three "direct mandates", the small party could have been spared from the five-percent threshold and might have survived as a regional party. However, the CDU under Helmut Kohl insisted on the unwritten CDU/CSU agreement that the CSU may only run in Bavaria, while all other states are CDU's territory. Many DSU members realised that the party had no future and switched to the CDU. Eventually, DSU achieved 0.2% of nationwide votes, 1.0% in the new states. After this disappointment, the Bavarian CSU reduced its benefits to the DSU, but continued to transfer six-figure sums annually until 1993.

After 1990
The DSU drifted further towards a nationalistic course, aiming for a position inbetween the centre-right CDU and the far-right Republicans. During the early-1990s, the party received support by the (West German) Neue Rechte ("New Right") movement, in particular by the Criticón magazine of Caspar von Schrenck-Notzing, who also attended DSU meetings. The DSU's image was then characterised by financial misconduct, internal squabbles, resignations, and contacts with far-right groups. The cooperation of DSU and CSU was definitely ended after the Spring 1993 party conference, when Roberto Rink was elected chairman of the DSU.

In subsequent elections its share of the vote has remained under 1% of the vote in all Landtag elections held in the new states. Electoral coalitions with right-wing parties like the German Party, the Party for a Rule of Law Offensive or the Statt Party led to no avail. Nevertheless, the DSU has a loyal following of voters on the local level, especially in some districts of Saxony. In the western states, the party is virtually nonexistent.

The DSU had one member in the Landtag of Saxony from 2006 to 2009, after the NPD parliamentarian Klaus Baier had defected from his party after a series of disputes and joined the DSU.

See also

References

External links

The DSU from Chronik der Wende

1990 establishments in East Germany
Conservative parties in Germany
National conservative parties
Political parties established in 1990
Political parties in East Germany
Right-wing populism in Germany

German Social Union (East Germany)


Ezen az oldalon a 2001-ben fennálló államok vezetőinek névsora olvasható földrészek, majd országok szerinti bontásban.

Európa

Afrika

Dél-Amerika

Észak- és Közép-Amerika

Ázsia

Óceánia

Kapcsolódó szócikkek
Kortárs uralkodók listája

Források
 Uralkodók
 Híradó honlapja folyamatosan
 BBC honlapja

2001
2001

Államok vezetőinek listája 2001-ben


Taron (slak), een geslacht van weekdieren uit de klasse van de Gastropoda (slakken)
 Taron (achtbaan), een stalen lanceerachtbaan in het Duitse Phantasialand, Brühl, Reinland
 Taron (Armenië)
 Taron Egerton

Taron


Meave G. Leakey (born Meave Epps; 28 July 1942) is a British palaeoanthropologist. She works at Stony Brook University and is co-ordinator of Plio-Pleistocene research at the Turkana Basin Institute. She studies early hominid evolution and has done extensive field research in the Turkana Basin. She has Doctor of Philosophy and Doctor of Science degrees.

Flat-faced man of Kenya
Leakey's research team at Lake Turkana, Kenya made a discovery in 1999. They found a 3.5-million-year-old skull and partial jaw thought to belong to a new branch of the early human family. She named the find Kenyanthropus platyops ("flat-faced man of Kenya").

Personal life
Leakey was married to Richard Leakey, a palaeontologist. They have two children, Louise (born 1972) and Samira (born 1974). Louise Leakey continues family traditions by conducting palaeontological research.

Leakey initially studied zoology and marine zoology at the University of North Wales. Her first contact with the Leakey family was working for the Tigoni Primate Research Centre while taking her PhD at this time, the centre was being administered by Louis Leakey.

She received her PhD in zoology in 1968. In 2004, she was awarded an honorary D.Sc. from University College, London, for palaeontology. That same year, she received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. Leakey is currently a Research Professor for the Turkana Basin Institute (affiliated with Stony Brook University). On 30 April 2013, Leakey was elected as a Foreign Associate of the US National Academy of Sciences, with specialities of geology and anthropology. This made Leakey the first Kenyan citizen and also the first woman citizen of an African country to be elected as a member of the National Academy of Sciences. She was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2017.

Position in the Leakey family

Selected publications

Lothagam: The Dawn of Humanity in Eastern Africa by John Harris and Meave Leakey, Eds. (December 2001).

Stratigraphy and Paleontology of Pliocene and Pleistocene Localities West of Lake Turkana, Kenya by John Harris, Meave Leakey, Eds. et al. (October 1988).

See also
 Meave (Irish name)
 List of fossil sites (with link directory)
 List of hominina (hominid) fossils (with images)

References

External links
Leakey Foundation
Koobi Fora Research Project
Dr. Meave Leakey Discusses Kenyanthropus platyops
Turkana Basin Institute

1942 births
Living people
20th-century anthropologists
20th-century archaeologists
21st-century anthropologists
21st-century archaeologists
Archaeologists from London
British expatriates in Kenya
British women anthropologists
British women archaeologists
English anthropologists
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Meave
Members of the American Philosophical Society
Paleoanthropologists
Women paleontologists
Fellows of the African Academy of Sciences

Meave Leakey


Le terme d'enveloppe sonore a été proposé par Didier Anzieu et repris par Edith Lecourt. Cette enveloppe sonore est composée de deux faces : une face verbale, tournée vers l'extérieur et une face musicale tournée vers l'intérieur. Les deux faces sont indissociables et complémentaires. La notion a été abordée par Didier Anzieu en particulier dans son ouvrage Le moi-peau.

Ouvrages psychanalytiques
 Le moi-peau, Paris, Ed.: Dunod, 1995,
 Collectif, Les Enveloppes psychiques, Ed. Dunod, 2003,
 Le penser. Du Moi-peau au Moi pensant, Paris, Dunod 1994,
 Psychanalyse et limites, Dunod, 2007,

Notes et références

Concept de psychanalyse

Enveloppe sonore (psychanalyse)


August Schaffer (Viena, 3 de julho de 1905 — data de morte desconhecida) foi um ciclista austríaco de ciclismo de pista. Competiu na prova tandem nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 1928 em Amsterdã, terminando na quinta posição.

Ciclistas olímpicos da Áustria
Ciclistas nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 1928
Ciclistas de pista
Naturais de Viena

August Schaffer


Rhypodes argenteus är en insektsart som beskrevs av Alan C. Eyles 1990. Rhypodes argenteus ingår i släktet Rhypodes och familjen fröskinnbaggar. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.

Källor

Fröskinnbaggar
argenteus

Rhypodes argenteus


Cyrtandra maesifolia är en tvåhjärtbladig växtart som beskrevs av Adolph Daniel Edward Elmer. Cyrtandra maesifolia ingår i släktet Cyrtandra och familjen Gesneriaceae. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.

Källor

Plisterordningen
maesifolia

Cyrtandra maesifolia


The 19th Indian Infantry Division was an infantry division of the Indian Army during World War II, and played a prominent part in the final part of the Burma Campaign.

History

The 19th Indian Infantry Division was raised in Secunderabad, India in October 1941 during the Second World War and became part of Southern Army, which was mainly concerned with defence against a possible seaborne invasion by the Japanese. The division originally consisted of the 47th, 48th and 49th Indian Infantry Brigades. The divisions' first General Officer Commanding (GOC) was Major General Sir Jackie Smyth VC, who left in December to take command of the 17th Indian Infantry Division, then fighting in Burma. Between January and April 1942 all three brigades were reassigned and replaced by the 62nd, 64th and 98th Indian Infantry Brigades.

After short periods under the command of Major General Geoffry Scoones and Douglas Stuart the division in October 1942 came under the command Major General Thomas Wynford Rees, who was to become GOC until December 1945. The division spent an extended period on internal security duties and in training before being committed to the Fourteenth Army, commanded by Lieutenant General Sir William J. "Bill" Slim, on the Burma front in July 1944. From October the division concentrated on the Imphal plain under IV Corps and from November its brigades were involved in operations on the Chindwin River advancing to establish contact with the British 36th Infantry Division advancing from the north on their left. Concentrating once more at Sinlamaung the division came under Indian XXXIII Corps, and played the major role in the capture of Mandalay which was completed on 20 March. Transferred to IV Corps, it guarded the Fourteenth Army's lines of communication and mounted an offensive towards Mawchi, in the Kayah State.

The division's successes were due to its fitness and high morale. It had a high proportion of pre-war regular soldiers among its officers and senior Non-Commissioned Officers. The 19th Indian Division was occasionally referred to as the "Dagger Division", from its divisional sign, which was a hand thrusting a dagger overhand, in yellow on a red background.

During the Second World War, a large number of brigades were assigned or attached to the division. The included at various points the 9th, 47th, 48th, 49th, 62nd, 64th, 98th and 99th Indian Infantry Brigades as well as the 22nd (East Africa) Infantry Brigade.

Order of Battle 1 March 1945
General Officer Commanding: Major General Thomas Wynford Rees
Commander, Royal Artillery: Brigadier John Alexander MacDonald
Chief of Staff (GSO1): Lieutenant Colonel John Masters

62nd Indian Infantry Brigade (Brigadier James Ronald Morris)
 2nd Battalion, Welch Regiment
 3rd Battalion, 6th Rajputana Rifles
 4th Battalion, 6th Gurkha Rifles
64th Indian Infantry Brigade (Brigadier John Godfrey Flewett)
 2nd Battalion, Worcestershire Regiment
 5th Battalion, 10th Baluch Regiment
 1st Battalion, 6th Gurkha Rifles
98th Indian Infantry Brigade (Brigadier Charles Ian Jerrard)
 2nd Battalion, Royal Berkshire Regiment
 8th Battalion, 12th Frontier Force Regiment
 4th Battalion, 4th Gurkha Rifles
Divisional Troops
 7th Light Cavalry (attached) Stuart Tanks
 1st Battalion, Assam Regiment (attached)
 1st Battalion, 15th Punjab Regiment (Divisional reconnaissance regiment)
 MG Battalion, 11th Sikh Regiment (Divisional Machine Gun Battalion)
 134th Medium Regiment, Royal Artillery
 4th Field Regiment, Royal Indian Artillery
 5th Field Regiment, Indian Artillery
 115th (North Midland) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery
 20th Mountain Regiment, Indian Artillery
 33rd Anti-tank Regiment, Royal Artillery (mixed anti-tank and light anti-aircraft batteries)
 Queen Victoria's Own Madras Sappers & Miners, Indian Engineers
 64th Field Company, Indian Engineers
 65th Field Company, Indian Engineers
 327th Field Park Company, Indian Engineers
 Royal Bombay Sappers and Miners, Indian Engineers
 29th Field Company, Indian Engineers
 9th Bridging Platoon, Indian Engineers

Postwar

Just before the Indian/Pakistani war of 1965 began, 19th Infantry Division was at Baramula under XV Corps (India). Its brigades were the 104th Brigade, Tithwal, the 161st Brigade, Uri and the 268th Indian Infantry Brigade, Baramula.

References

Further reading
 Latimer, Jon Burma: The Forgotten War, London: John Murray, 2004
 Masters, John The Road Past Mandalay London:Cassell Military, Reprinted 2002

External links

Indian World War II divisions
Divisions of the Indian Army
British Indian Army divisions
Military units and formations established in 1941
Military units and formations of the British Empire in World War II
D

19th Indian Infantry Division


Het Boston African American National Historic Site ligt in het hart van de stad Boston Massachusetts. Verspreid over de wijk Beacon Hill staan vijftien structuren die dateren van voor de Amerikaanse Burgeroorlog. Elk verwijzen ze naar de 19e-eeuwse geschiedenis van de Afro-Amerikanen in de stad. Het betreft onder andere twee schoolgebouwen, een oorlogsherdenkingssteen en verschillende huizen. Daarnaast ook het African Meeting House, het oudste overgebleven Afro-Amerikaanse kerkgebouw in de Verenigde Staten dat dateert uit 1806. De verschillende structuren van de site worden met elkaar verbonden door een 2,5 km lang traject Black Heritage Trail.

Externe link
 Official Park Service site

Afro-Amerikaanse geschiedenis
Bouwwerk in Boston
National Register of Historic Places
Geschiedenis van Massachusetts
Gebied beheerd door de National Park Service


Элой Артуро Хименес Солано (, 27 ноября 1996, Санто-Доминго) — доминиканский бейсболист, аутфилдер клуба Главной лиги бейсбола «Чикаго Уайт Сокс». Обладатель награды «Сильвер Слаггер» по итогам сезона 2020 года.

Биография
Элой Хименес родился 27 ноября 1996 года в Санто-Доминго. В детстве он увлекался баскетболом, в который играл его отец Луис Артуро. В возрасте 12 лет именно по настоянию отца, считавшего что пробиться в НБА, не обучаясь в колледже в США, невозможно, Элой сконцентрировался на занятиях бейсболом. Летом 2013 года он считался лучшим молодым игроком среди иностранцев. Борьбу за Хименеса выиграл клуб «Чикаго Кабс», сумма соглашения с бейсболистом составила 2,8 млн долларов.

В 2014 году Хименес дебютировал в профессиональном бейсболе в фарм-клубе «Кабс» в Аризонской лиге для новичков. Свой первый сезон он завершил с показателем отбивания 22,7 %. В 2015 году его перевели в команду Северо-Западной лиги «Юджин Эмералдс», где атакующая эффективность Элоя выросла до 28,4 %. Прорывным для молодого игрока стал 2016 год, который он провёл в Лиге Среднего Запада в составе «Саут-Бенд Кабс». В играх регулярного чемпионата Хименес отбивал с эффективностью 32,9 %, отметившись 14 выбитыми хоум-ранами и 40 даблами. После вылета команды из плей-офф он был переведён уровнем выше в «Мертл-Бич Пеликанс». После завершения сезона Элой успешно выступил в Аризонской осенней лиге. В первой половине сезона 2017 года он провёл 42 игры в составе «Пеликанс», отбивая с показателем 27,1 %. Летом Хименес сыграл за сборную мира в Матче всех звёзд будущего. В июле «Кабс» обменяли его и ещё трёх молодых игроков в «Чикаго Уайт Сокс» на питчера Хосе Кинтану. После перехода Хименес провёл 29 матчей в составе «Уинстон-Сейлем Даш» и 18 матчей за «Бирмингем Бэронс».

В сезоне 2018 года Хименес суммарно сыграл в 108 матчах на уровнях AA- и AAA-лиг, отбивая с эффективностью 33,7 % и выбив 53 экстра-бейс-хита. Весной 2019 года он хорошо проявил себя на сборах, но перед стартом чемпионата был возвращён в команду AAA-лиги «Шарлотт Найтс». Главной причиной стало желание клуба сократить время, проведённое игроком в Главной лиге бейсбола, и отсрочить получение им статуса свободного агента на год. В основном составе «Уайт Сокс» Хименес дебютировал в марте 2019 года. Из-за травм голеностопа и локтя он принял участие только в 122 матчах регулярного чемпионата. Несмотря на это он стал лидером среди новичков Американской лиги по числу выбитых хоум-ранов (31) и набранных RBI (79). В голосовании, определявшем лучшего новичка сезона в Американской лиге, Хименес занял четвёртое место. В сокращённом чемпионате 2020 года он принял участие в 55 матчах, отбивая с показателем 29,6 % и выбив 14 хоум-ранов. По итогам сезона он стал обладателем награды Сильвер Слаггер, самым молодым в истории клуба.

Весной 2021 года во время предсезонного матча Хименес получил разрыв сухожилия грудной мышцы и выбыл из строя на срок до шести месяцев.

Примечания

Ссылки

Бейсболисты Доминиканской Республики
Игроки «Чикаго Уайт Сокс»

Хименес, Элой


Papyrus 95 (nach Gregory-Aland mit Sigel  bezeichnet) ist eine frühe griechische Abschrift des Neuen Testaments. Mittels Paläographie wurde sie auf das 3. Jahrhundert datiert.

Beschreibung
Dieses Papyrusmanuskript des Johannesevangelium enthält nur die Verse 5,26–29. 36–38.

Text
Der griechische Text des Kodex repräsentiert den Alexandrinischen Texttyp.

Aufbewahrungsort
Die Handschrift wird zurzeit im Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana (PL II/31) in Florenz aufbewahrt.

Einzelnachweise

Siehe auch
 Liste der Papyri des Neuen Testaments

Literatur
 Jean Lenaerts, Un papyrus de l’Évangile de Jean : PL II/31, Chronique d’ Egypte 60 (Brussels: 1985), SS. 117–120.
 Philip W. Comfort, The Text of the Earliest New Testament Greek Manuscripts, 2001, S. 627–628.

Abbildungen
 Bilder von

Papyrus des Neuen Testaments
Handschrift der Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana (Florenz)

Papyrus 95


Helga Helene Moos (født 26. juli 1951) er forfatter, foredragsholder og tidligere folketingsmedlem for Venstre.

Biografi
Helga Moos gik i folkeskole 1958-65 og tog realeksamen 1968. Efter et højskoleskoleophold 1969-70 tog hun en landbrugsfaglig uddannelse. Hun var derefter ansat ved et fjerkræprojekt i Tanzania, og fra 1974 har hun været gårdejer med ægproduktion og eget ægpakkeri 1984-92. Siden 1991 har hun fungeret som fuldtidsforfatter og -foredragsholder

Ved siden af sit erhverv har Helga Moos sammen med sin familie fungeret som værtsfamilie for AFS (American Field Service) i forbindelse med international udveksling 1993-98. Hun har været medlem af Grundlovskomiteen fra 1997, medlem af LOF's landsstyrelse fra 1999 og af bestyrelsen i Eltra, transmissions- og systemansvarlig virksomhed for elproduktion i Vestdanmark.

Politisk blev hun Venstres folketingskandidat i Augustenborgkredsen fra februar 1998, og hun blev valgt ind for Sønderjyllands Amtskreds ved valget 11. marts 1998. Ved valget 8. februar 2005 blev hun ikke genvalgt.

Helga Moos har modtaget Landbrugets Kulturpris 1991, SiD-pris for »Fuld beskæftigelse i 90'erne – hvordan?«, pris fra Ældre Sagen 1994 samt pris fra Indenrigsministeriet for »Udvikling i landsbyer og landdistrikter«.

Bibliografi
Helga Moos har udgivet følgende bøger:
 Kvindefælder 1991
 Hvad har du lært dit barn i dag? 1995
 Kvinde kend din værktøjskasse 1995
 Øko-ideologi – nej tak 1997
 Skal de andre ikke have noget at spise? 2001
 Syv år for folkestyret 2006
Hun har endvidere fungeret som fast kronikør ved Jyllands-Posten siden 1994.

Eksterne henvisninger
 Helga Moos' hjemmeside
 Arkiveret CV på Folketinget.dk Dato: 4. september 2006.
 Gammelt portrætfoto

Tidligere folketingsmedlemmer fra Venstre
Faglitterære forfattere fra Danmark
Dansksprogede forfattere fra Danmark
Personer i Kraks Blå Bog

Helga Moos


Nikolaj Konstantinovič Rerich, rusky Николай Константинович Рéрих, v anglosaském světě známý jako Nicholas Roerich ( – 13. prosinec 1947) byl ruský mystik, malíř, scénograf, filozof, archeolog, teozof, spisovatel a cestovatel. Vytvořil na 7000 obrazů a 30 literárních děl.

Život
Narodil se v bohaté rodině, jeho otec byl notář, patřil do tzv. vyšší střední třídy a stýkal se s umělci a spisovateli. Nikolaj měl už jako dítě všestranné zájmy – kromě malování také archeologii a přírodní vědy. Chtěl studovat malířství, otec mu však doporučoval práva, a tak se roku 1893 zapsal zároveň na akademii výtvarných umění a na universitu (práva). Hudební teoretik a kritik Vladimir Vasiljevič Stasov v něm v té době probudil zájem o hudbu a seznámil ho s vynikajícími hudebníky Modestem Petrovičem Musorgským, Nikolajem Andrejevičem Rimským-Korsakovem, Alexandrem Konstantinovičem Glazunovem. Rerich se stal ctitelem a znalcem vážné hudby, nejvíce miloval dílo Richarda Wagnera. Seznámil se i s mladým Sergejen Pavlovičem Ďagilevem, který také studoval práva. Později s Ďagiljevem, organizátorem slavného Ruského baletu, působícího v Paříži, spolupracoval. Vytvořil např. scénický návrh pro tehdy skandální premiéru Stravinského baletu Svěcení jara (Paříž, 29. května 1913).

Roku 1899 po dokončení studií se Rerich rozhodl, že bude cestovat po Evropě, aby poznal kulturní život a hlavně výstavy, muzea a výtvarné umění v Paříži, Bruselu a Berlíně. Ještě před odjezdem se seznámil s Helenou Šapošnikovou, neteří skladatele Musorgského, se kterou se zasnoubil a po návratu z evropské studijní cesty si ji vzal za ženu. Helena byla všestranně nadaná spisovatelka (jejím nejvýznamnějším dílem jsou Základy buddhismu). Celý život byla manželovi oporou, měla stejné zájmy a doprovázela ho i na jeho cestách. V roce 1902 se jim narodil syn Grigorij, 1904 syn Svjatoslav.

Další studijní cestu podnikl Rerich v letech 1903–04 po evropském Rusku, kreslil a maloval chrámy, hrady, města. Uvědomil si, že většina památek je ve špatném stavu, upozorňoval na tyto nedostatky, a již tehdy vznikal plán na záchranu památek, který později rozšířil na celý svět – za 30 let vyhlásil slavný Roerichův pakt.

Roku 1915 onemocněl zápalem plic a dlouhodobě se léčil ve Finsku, revoluce ho zastihla mimo území Ruska. V nepřehledné situaci uvažoval, že se usadí v Indii, dostal však pozvání k návštěvě Spojených států a v roce 1920 tam s rodinou odjel. Měl velmi úspěšnou výstavu v New Yorku a ještě několik dalších výstav po celých Spojených státech. Pracoval tam i jako scénický výtvarník (Wagnerova opera Tristan a Isolda pro Operu v Chicagu). V roce 1921 založil v New Yorku vzdělávací Mistrovský institut spojených umění, který se snažil propojit malířství s ostatními druhy výtvarného umění. Institutu se dařilo do roku 1937, kdy byl zrušen, a až 1949 byl obnoven jako N. Roerich Museum. Je v něm veliká sbírka umělcových obrazů.

Konečně v roce 1923 se Rerichovi dostali do Indie. Nejdříve se soustředili na prohlídku kulturních a historických center a seznámení s vynikajícími učenci a umělci. Přestěhovali se do podhůří Himálaje, údolí Kullu blízko městečka Naggar, kde založili nový domov a ústředí himálajských studií, které bylo zaměřeno na botaniku, etnografii, lingvistiku a starou indickou a čínskou medicínu. Toto zařízení se rozkládá na ploše 16 hektarů a má 11 budov. Funguje dodnes jako mezinárodní nadace Institution Roerich Memorial Trust (IRMT), která má výzkumné centrum, galerii Rerichových obrazů a především školu pro 150 dětí, kde se vyučuje vedle výtvarného umění také indický klasický balet, klasická hudba, umění řezbářské a textilní (tradiční tkaní).

Rericha, který se hluboce zajímal o náboženství a kulturu Východu, fascionovala pověst o bájné podzemní říši Šambala, která se prý nachází v Himálaji. Svoji velikou výzkumnou expedici (1924-28) věnoval právě hledání této bájné země. Putoval s manželkou a syny a vyšli ze Šrínagaru v Kašmíru, pokračovali přes Ladak, Tibet, Turkestán a pohoří Altaj až do Mongolska. Po cestě studovali náboženství, mýty, bajky a jazyky obyvatel všech území, kterými prošli, hovořili s domorodci i s mnichy z vysokohorských klášterů. Cesta byla nesmírně náročná, i když byli dobře vybaveni – expedice měla sto velbloudů, pět koní, pět nákladních povozů a několik desítek nosičů. Postupovali starými karavanními cestami, museli překonat přes třicet vysokohorských průsmyků ve výšce 4 až 6 tisíc metrů, přešli pohoří Karákóram i Altaj a putovali po okrajích čínské pouště Taklamakan. Cestu popisuje kniha Srdce Asie, vznikla na ní řada obrazů a byla inspirací i pro další díla.

Po návratu Rerich maloval a psal knihy a filozofická pojednání z etnografie, archeologie, mystiky a náboženství. Roku 1935 začal realizovat záměr, o kterém uvažoval již řadu let - zformuloval a propagoval mezinárodní dohodu o ochraně uměleckých, historických a kulturních památek v případě války (tzv. Rerichův mírový pakt), který podepsalo 21 států panamerické unie a významní světoví umělci (Rabíndranáth Thákur, G. B. Shaw, H. G. Wells aj.). Namaloval pro tuto akci obraz „Pakt kultury“, který má ve svém středu čintámani, buddhistický a hinduistický symbol, který byl pro Roericha znakem duchovna a míru. Čintámani (sanskrt), je bájný drahokam s osmi fazetami, který plní všechna přání. V Rerichiově stylizovaném zobrazení je to červeně orámovaný bílý kruh, který má uprostřed tři pyramidovitě uspořádané červené čintámani (kruhy). Roerich navrhl také vlajku paktu kultury – kruh čintámani v bílém poli. Tento symbol se stal zobrazením jeho nejvnitřnějšího přesvědčení, že mír je bezpodmínečnou nutností pro další duchovní rozvoj lidstva. Za svoji mírovou iniciativu byl N. K. Rerich nominován v roce 1935 na Nobelovu cenu míru.

Celý život se snažil přispívat k duchovnímu rozvoji lidstva. Proto spolu s manželkou Helenou vytvořil novou duchovní cestu nazvanou agni-jóga (agni znamená v sanskrtu oheň), pokus o syntézu buddhismu, teosofie, ruského ortodoxního křesťanství a Einsteinovy teorie relativity.

Dílo
V prvním období (kolem roku 1904) maloval hlavně ruská posvátná místa a kláštery (Starý Novgorod, Jaroslavl, Rostov Veliký, Suzdal, Smolensk, Kostroma, Pečora). Obrazy zachycovaly náboženské témata a pravoslavné světce, ale již v nich převládal mysticismus - motiv andělů, strážců duchovních pokladů, motiv cesty, brány, mostu jako symbol duchovního hledání. Objevovalo se i poselství dávných věků a kultur (Ilja Muromec, Velké očekávání), do obrazů zakomponovával také zapomenuté symboly. Po první světové válce maloval především alegorické a symbolické obrazy (Bitva v nebesích).

Další tvorba byla ovlivněna studiem náboženství a mystiky, zvláště východní. Jeho díla byla poznamenána pobytem v Indii a Himálajskou expedicí (obrazy Himálaj, Brahmaputra, Horská pevnost, Horské jezero, Klášter, Lama, Hranice Tibetu, Kančendženga, Tibetský stan, Mongolské jurty, Mongolský jezdec, Kůň štěstí – znak čintamani, Gessar-chán). Věčným tématem bylo zachycení mužského a ženského principu a série ikonografických představ o matce boží. Zobrazoval ji jako křesťanskou Marii (Madona laboris), nebo hinduistické bohyně (Lakšmí a hněvivá Kálí). Maloval také společně představitele různých světových náboženství – Krista, Muhammada, Buddhu, Konfucuia. Zajímal se i o „bohy budoucnosti“, Buddhu příštích věků Majtreju a Kalkího, posledního avatara (vtělení) boha Višnua.

Rerichovy knihy byly věnovány především filosofii, náboženství a mystice (Adamant, Plamen v kalichu, Říše světla), ale i etnografii a archeologii. Duchovní hledání odráží sbírka básní Květy Morya (1916–19). Cesty zachycují knihy Srdce Asie a Požehnaná cesta.

Řády a vyznamenání

 Řád sv. Stanislava (Rusko)
 Řád sv. Anny (Rusko)
 Řád sv. Vladimíra (Rusko)
 Řád sv. Sávy (Srbsko)
 Rytíř čestné legie (Francie).

V češtině vyšla v 2003 Rerichova kniha Zářící Šambala v nakladatelství Kitěž.

V Rusku si N. K. Rericha i jeho díla vždy velmi vážili, jeho obrazy jsou v moskevské Treťjakovské galerii a stále vycházejí v ruštině jeho knížky. Roku 2014 byla v Petrohradě uspořádána k 150. výročí umělcova narození veliká výstava, na které byly i obrazy zapůjčené ze zahraničí, především z Indie a USA.

Související články
 Agni-jóga

Externí odkazy

  Životopis a rozsáhlá galerie obrazů na stránkách Fondu Daniila Andrejeva
  Rerichovo muzeum

Ruští malíři
Ruští spisovatelé
Ruští archeologové
Ruští filozofové
Mystikové
Teosofové
Nositelé Řádu svatého Stanislava
Narození v roce 1874
Narození 9. října
Narození v Petrohradu
Úmrtí v roce 1947
Úmrtí 13. prosince
Muži
Rytíři Řádu čestné legie
Absolventi vysokých škol v Rusku
Archeologové 20. století
Filozofové 20. století

Nikolaj Konstantinovič Rerich


Tulfes is a municipality in the district of Innsbruck-Land in the Austrian state of Tyrol, located 12 km east of Innsbruck and 6 km above Hall in Tirol. The village was mentioned as “Tellevo” for the first time in 1240. Main source of income is tourism. Tulfes became a popular area of settlement due to the cities of Innsbruck and Hall.

Population

References

External links

 Municipality Tulfes: Official website of the municipality in the Hall-Wattens region

Cities and towns in Innsbruck-Land District

Tulfes


Star Istevnik (en macédonien Стар Истевник) est un village de l'est de la Macédoine du Nord, situé dans la municipalité de Deltchevo. Le village comptait  en 2002.

Démographie
Lors du recensement de 2002, le village comptait :
 Macédoniens : 70

Voir aussi

Liens internes
 Deltchevo (Macédoine)

Liens externes
  Site officiel de la municipalité de Deltchevo

Références

Village dans la commune de Delčevo

Star Istevnik


E.Town Concrete, ou parfois appelé E-Town, est un groupe de rap metal américain, originaire d'Elizabeth, dans le New Jersey.

Biographie
Le groupe est formé en 1995. Leur premier album Time 2 Shine sort en 1999 sur le label Resurrection A.D. Ils publieront par la suite quatre autres albums sur différents labels, tels que Razor & Tie ou Ironbound Recordings. En 2004, le groupe joue au Hellfest, à Clisson, en France. Le groupe décide de se séparer en 2006, jouant leur dernier concert le 20 mai de cette même année.

Le , la page Myspace du groupe indiquait leur retour imminent. Deux concerts au Starland Ballroom de Sareyville, New Jersey, sont annoncés le 13 octobre 2008, et programmés pour le 20 et 21 février 2009. Depuis leur réunification en 2009, le groupe comprend également un claviériste et un percussionniste lors de leurs concerts. Ils rejouent au Starland Ballroom le  avec entre autres The Acacia Strain, Ill Bill, Reign Supreme, et Razorblade Handgrenade. Ils revinrent une quatrième fois au Starland Ballroom avec Hatebreed le 8 janvier 2011. En février 2012, E-Town Concrete publie une nouvelle chanson intitulée Someone Tell 'Em, leur première depuis neuf ans. En juin 2013, les groupes qui joueront au East Coast Tsunami 2013 sont annoncés. Le festival fera jouer E.Town Concrete le 29 septembre aux côtés de groupes comme Sworn Enemy. En 2014, le groupe publie son nouvel album, The Renaissance, chez Roadrunner Records.

En juillet 2016, E.Town Concrete annonce un concert spécial 20 ans, le  octobre, au Starland Ballroom de Sayreville, dans le New Jersey. Ils joueront aux côtés de Candiria et All Out War.

Membres

Membres actuels
 Anthony Martini (Ant-Money ; Ignant Ass Ant) - chant (depuis 1995)
 David  Mondragon - guitare (depuis 1995)
 Ted P. (Theodore Panagopoulos) - batterie (depuis 1995)
 Eric DeNault - basse (depuis 1997)

Anciens membres
 Ken Pescatore - guitare (1995–1998)
 Henry W Hess IV - basse (1995–1997)

Discographie
 2014 : The Renaissance

Notes et références

Liens externes
  E.Town Concrete sur PureVolume

Groupe américain de rap metal
Groupe américain de punk hardcore
Groupe américain de metal alternatif
Groupe musical formé en 1995
Groupe musical du New Jersey
Artiste de Triple Crown Records

E.Town Concrete