Атмосферата на Земята е слоестата обвивка на земното кълбо, съставена от различни газове и наричана общо въздух. Освен, че е тяхна жизнена среда, атмосферата предпазва живите организми, като спира голяма част от вредните за тях ултравиолетови лъчи. Около 99 % от газовете са азот и кислород.

Структура
Атмосферата на Земята няма ясно изразена горна граница. Най-външните ѝ слоеве се простират до няколко хиляди километра височина, но 90 % от нейната маса е съсредоточена в приземния 16-километров слой. Въпреки липсата на точна геометрична граница между атмосферата и космическото пространство, може да се дефинира понятието физическа граница. Физическата граница на атмосферата е височината, до която въздухът е все още достатъчно плътен, за да се регистрират ред физични явления, съотносими към земните, а не към космическите.

По своите физически свойства атмосферата е нееднородна – не само по вертикала, но и по хоризонтала. С увеличаване на височината се изменят съставът и редица други нейни свойства и параметри. Съществуват няколко деления на атмосферата.

Температурно деление
За основа се взема средното изменение на температурата на въздуха с изкачването по височината (g = − dT/dz). Според отделните си признаци (изменение на температурата във височина, състав на атмосферния въздух и наличие на заредени частици) атмосферата се дели на пет основни слоя, наречени сфери. Между всеки от тях има преходни слоеве с малка дебелина, наречени паузи. Имената им зависят от местонахождението им, например над тропосферата се намира тропопаузата и т.н.

Тропосфера

Тропосферата е най-ниският слой от атмосферата. Има средна дебелина около 15 km. Дебелината ѝ нараства от полюса към екватора, като средните ѝ стойности са: над полюса – 8 – 10 km, в умерените ширини – до 10 – 12 km, в тропичните и екваториалните райони – 16 – 18 km. През лятото горната граница се издига, а през зимата височината ѝ намалява. С изкачването към горния край на тропосферата температурата намалява средно с 6 °C на километър, а налягането със 120 mbar/km. За горна граница на тропосферата се приема височината, на която температурата престава да се понижава. Средната годишна температура в горната граница на тропосферата на екватора е от – 47 °С до – 75 °С.

Тропосферата има постоянен състав: 4/5 азот и 1/5 кислород. Тя е разделена на три подслоя: ниска – на височина от 0 до 1 – 1,5 km; средна – от 1 – 1,5 km до 6 – 7 km и висока тропосфера – от 6 – 7 km до тропопаузата. В тропосферата се съдържа средно около 80 % от масата на атмосферата. Отвъд тропосферата условията не позволяват развитието на живота.

Тропопауза

Тропопаузата разделя тропосферата от стратосферата. Има дебелина от няколкостотин метра до 10 – 11 km. Представлява задържащ слой за вертикалните движения, като резултат се получава разстилане на върховете на мощните купесто-дъждовни облаци (Cb). Само най-мощните купесто-дъждовни облаци, във взаимодействие с най-интензивни възходящи движения, могат да пробият тропопаузата. На нивото на тропопаузата се наблюдават така наречените струйни течения – въздушни потоци със скорост от 150 до 300 km/h. В границата на тропопаузата температурата не се изменя и за неин горен край се приема началото на повишаването на въздушната температура.

Стратосфера

Разположена е над тропопаузата. Характерно за нея е, че през цялата година над тропичните ширини (от екватора до около 30°) и през лятото в умерените (до 40 – 50°), а понякога и в полярните ширини температурата се повишава с височина. През цялата година над полярните райони (над 60°) и през зимата над ширините, по-високи от 30 – 40°, се наблюдава постоянна температура до височина около 30 km, след тази граница температурата осезаемо нараства. Това явление се дължи на поглъщането на ултравиолетовите лъчи от озоносферата, намираща се на тази височина.

Стратопауза

Представлява слой с максимална температура. Разделя стратосферата от мезосферата.

Мезосфера

Разположена над стратосферата. Характерно за нея е бързото понижаване на температурата – с 3 до 4 °С на всеки километър. На височината на мезопаузата температурата достига до − 80 – 90 °С, а в някои случаи – и до − 120 °С.

Мезопауза
Разположена на височина 82 – 85 km. От нея нагоре свойствата на атмосферата започват да се изменят много съществено и в много отношения. Разделя мезосферата от термосферата.

Термосфера

Наблюдават се изключително големи денонощни колебания на температурата. Установено е, че дневната температура може да достигне 1800 К (около 1500 °С), докато нощната е от порядъка на 300 – 1000 К (около 30 – 730 °С) в зависимост от височината. Има повишена йонизация на газовите молекули.

Термопауза
Височина около 1000 km. В нея има забележимо разсейване на атмосферни газове в междупланетното пространство.

Екзосфера
Последният слой от земната атмосфера. Смята се за външна част на атмосферата, в която плътността на въздуха е все още различна от тази на междупланетния газ. Газовете и молекулите се движат с голяма скорост и се разсейват в космоса. Достига до 20 000 km, като тази височина се смята за крайна височина на атмосферата.

Деление по състав на въздуха
За основа се взема съставът на атмосферния въздух. Разграничават се два слоя:

Хомосфера
Дебелина до около 60 km. Обединява тропосферата и стратосфератата. Пропорционалното съотношение между постоянните компоненти на въздуха остава неизменно с височината. Съставът на въздуха е постоянен и не се променя.

Хетеросфера
Намира се над хомосферата. Пропорционалното съотношение между постоянните компоненти на въздуха се изменя. Съставът на въздуха търпи промени и вследствие на йонизацията. Фактически това е йоносферата, която обхваща слоевете мезосфера, йоносфера и екзосфера.

Деление по слънчевото въздействие
За основа на разделянето се взема влиянието на слънчевото излъчване върху атмосферата. Разграничават се два слоя:
 Ниска атмосфера. Наблюдава се минимално влияние на непосредственото слънчево излъчване.
 Висока атмосфера. Увеличено влияние на слънчевата активност.

Деление според взаимодействието на атмосферата със земната повърхност
За основа се взема взаимодействието между атмосферата и земната повърхност. Разграничават се два слоя:
 Планетарен слой – влиянието на земната повърхност се отразява на всички метеоелементи.
 Свободна атмосфера – влиянието на земната повърхност върху метеоелементите е по-слабо.

Атмосферата на височина над 80 – 85 km се нарича йоносфера. Тя има високата степен на йонизация на атмосферните газове. Ултравиолетови и други излъчвания йонизират азотните и кислородните атоми, като откъсват по един електрон от външната им обвивка и такъв атом се превръща в положителна частица (йон).

Състав и строеж на атмосферата
Въздухът, който образува земната атмосфера, представлява смес от различни газове. Поради това, че тези газове не влизат в химични реакции помежду си, сместа се нарича механична. Съставът на въздуха близо до земната повърхност е установен с голяма точност. Освен основните газове – азот, кислород и аргон, в механичната смес участват и други газообразни примеси с много по-малка концентрация. Съставът на въздуха не е еднакъв на различни височини.

До височина от около 800 km в атмосферата преобладават азотът и кислородът. Над 400 km започва да нараства съдържанието на леките газове – в началото на хелия, а след това и на водорода. Над 800 km основното съдържание на атмосферата е главно водород.

Чисто схематично може да се приеме, че до около 200 km въздухът, обгръщащ Земята, представлява тънка и еднородна по своите физически характеристики обвивка. С издигането над повърхността намалява плътността, като неравномерното разпределение на плътността води до неравномерно разпределяне на масата на атмосферата. Около половината от масата се намира в слоя с височина до 5 km над Земята, а на височина до 30 km се съдържа около 99 %. Над 35 km атмосферната маса е не повече от 1 %. Въпреки това, и там протичат редица процеси и явления, които са резултат от прякото въздействие на слънчевото излъчване. Този 1 % всъщност представлява междинна брънка, реагираща на слънчевите излъчвания, и ги предава на по-долните слоеве от атмосферата.

От газовите примеси с по-малка концентрация, участващи в състава на атмосферата, най-голямо значение имат водните пари, въглеродният диоксид, озонът, серният диоксид и атмосферните аерозоли.

 Водни пари: Около 13 000 km3 вода в трите си агрегатни състояния се разпростират в атмосферата. Най-често срещано е газообразното и състояние – около 95 % под формата на водна пара. Тя постъпва в атмосферата при изпарението на океаните, моретата, както и от реките, езерата и другите водни басейни, разположени на сушата. Основното количество водни пари се намира в слоевете близо до земната повърхност (височина 2 – 3 km). Наличието на водни пари в атмосферата е изключително важно по няколко причини – образуват облаците и валежите, участват в атмосферните топлообменни процеси и поглъщат лъчиста енергия (дълговълнова радиация 5,5 – 7 μm и над 18 μm).

 Въглероден диоксид (CO2): Има концентрация по-малка от водните пари – около 0,032 %. Поглъща интензивно дълговълновата (топлинна) радиация и допринася за парниковия ефект. Получава се от два източника – естествен (вулканична дейност, дишане, гниене, фотосинтеза), и изкуствен (антропогенна дейност).

 Озон (О3): Образува се в горната част на стратосферата от UV радиацията, чрез рекомбинация на атомите кислород, и в тропосферата при гръмотевична дейност. Има най-голяма концентрация в слоя между 20 и 50 km, наречен озоносфера. Максималната му концентрация е на височина около 25 km. Озонната обвивка играе ролята на радиационен щит, защото поглъща биологично активната UV радиация от Слънцето (0,2 – 0,29 nm). Озонът е химически неустойчив газ и количеството му намалява застрашително. Това се дължи на редица човешки дейности – отделяне на Н2, СО, СН4 и органични вещества, използването на фреони.

 Серен диоксид (SO2): От другите променливи газове голямо внимание заслужава серният диоксид. Той реагира с водните пари и образува частици, участващи в кондензационните процеси при образуване на облаци и валежи (т. нар. киселинни дъждове).

 Атмосферни аерозоли: Така се наричат съществуващите в атмосферата течни и твърди частици от различни вещества. Обикновено те са с много малки размери, намират се в хаотично разпръснато състояние и заедно с газообразните вещества са неотделима съставна част на атмосферата. Като хигиенен фактор, наличието им в приземния въздух над определени количества е вредно – те го замърсяват, но от друга страна служат за кондензационни ядра при образуване на облаци и валежи. Поглъщат и разсейват лъчистата енергия в атмосферата. Произходът им е главно естествен земен – изригване на вулкани, прашни бури и др., и антропогенен – сажди, димни частици и други продукти при битови и промишлени процеси. В атмосферата постъпва и космическа пепел.

Процеси в атмосферата
Основните процеси в атмосферата са нагряването и изстиването на атмосферния въздух, изпарението и кондензацията, движението на въздуха.

Нагряване и изстиване
Основен източник на топлина за Земята е Слънцето, което излъчва огромно количество енергия. Вътрешната топлина на Земята е също голяма, но земната кора е прекрасен изолатор и почти не я пропуска. Под влияние на слънчевите лъчи земната повърхност се нагрява. Най-силно се нагряват районите около екватора, между тропиците, където слънчевите лъчи падат почти отвесно. В посока към полюсите слънчевите лъчи падат все по-полегато и в тези части от света е студено. Количеството радиация, което постъпва на земната повърхност, е най-голямо в малките ширини (горещ топлинен пояс) и по-малко – в големите ширини (студен топлинен пояс). Едновременно с нагряването на Земята протича и отдаване на топлина в пространството. Колкото е по-нагрята земната повърхност, толкова повече топлина отделя. Затова топлоотдаването е по-голямо през деня, отколкото през нощта, и повече през лятото отколкото през зимата. Отделяната топлина затопля приземния въздух и затова той е най-топъл близо до земята. Във височина температурата на въздуха се понижава. Сушата се нагрява и изстива по-бързо от водата, затова въздухът над нея през лятото е по-топъл, а през зимата – по-студен в сравнение с този над водната повърхност.

Изпарение и кондензация
Нагряването на земната повърхност предизвиква отделяне от нея на водни пари, или изпарение. Най-голямо е изпарението от океаните, а най-малко – над пустините. На определена височина в атмосферата водните пари се сгъстяват, охлаждат и преминават в малки водни капки. Този процес на кондензация се съпътства с образуване на облаци и мъгли. При определени условия водните капки натежават и падат на земната повърхност във вид на валежи – течни (дъжд) и твърди (сняг, град). Под влияние на кондензацията на земната повърхност се образуват роса и слана. Извън тропосферата не се образуват облаци, така че няма дъждове или бури. Отвъд тропосферата условията не позволяват развитието на живота.

Движение на въздуха
 Атмосферно налягане. Различно затопляне на земната повърхност предизвиква нееднакво атмосферно налягане. Въздухът има определено тегло и оказва натиск върху земната повърхност, който се нарича атмосферно налягане. Различното нагряване и затопляне е причина за различното атмосферно налягане в определени райони на Земята. Когато въздухът е силно нагрят, той се разширява и се издига във височина. При ниски температури е обратното. Районите, които се нагряват по-силно, затоплят повече атмосферния въздух и над тях той се издига във височина. Там атмосферното налягане е най-ниско. Местата, които се загряват по-слабо, се характеризират с по-студен и тежък въздух и над тях атмосферното налягане е най-високо. Зони с високо атмосферно налягане са тропиците и полярните райони, а с ниско – субполярните. Разликите в атмосферното налягане предизвикват хоризонтални (адвекция) и вертикални (конвекция) движения на въздуха.
 Атмосферна циркулация. Разпределението на атмосферното налягане е причина за формирането на общата атмосферна циркулация на Земята – движения на въздуха от районите с високо атмосферно налягане към районите с ниско атмосферно налягане. Във височина се развива противоположно движение на въздуха в обратна посока и по този начин се образуват циркулационни кръгове. В атмосферната циркулация се образуват три циркулационни зони: зона на пасатна циркулация (тропици – екватор), зона на западните ветрове и на полярна циркулация (полюси-умерени ширини).
 Циклони и антициклони. Движението на атмосферния въздух е свързано с образуването на огромни вихри – циклони и антициклони. Въздухът в циклона се движи възходящо от периферията към центъра поради ниското атмосферно налягане в центъра на вихъра. В циклоните на умерените ширини има два сектора – с топъл и студен въздух, разделени от топъл и студен атмосферен фронт. Въздухът в антициклона се движи низходящо от центъра към периферията, където налягането е по-ниско.

Източници

Литература
 Векилска, Б. „Обща климатология“, Университетско издателство, 1991 г.

Външни препратки

  Атмосферни модели от НАСА

Земя
Строеж на Земята

Атмосфера на Земята


Mitra Jashni (; born 16 December 1976) is an Iranian visual artist and political activist, of Kurdish ethnicity. She works in the mediums of painting, drawing, and sculpture; as well as works as an art teacher, poet, and singer of Iranian contemporary music. She is one of the founders and executive director of Farashgard, an Iranian political party and activist group based in Washington, D.C..

Biography
Jashni was born in Iran on 16 December 1976 in Mashhad, Pahlavi Iran. In 2008, she received a MA degree in painting from Tehran's Soore University.

, she had worked as an artist for more than ten years in Iran, Canada, South America, and Europe.

References

1976 births
Living people
Iranian women painters
Iranian Kurdish women
21st-century women artists

Mitra Jashni


Le Puy-Sainte-Réparade – miejscowość i gmina we Francji, w regionie Prowansja-Alpy-Lazurowe Wybrzeże, w departamencie Delta Rodanu.

Według danych na rok 1990 gminę zamieszkiwały 4414 osoby, a gęstość zaludnienia wynosiła 95 osób/km² (wśród 963 gmin regionu Prowansja-Alpy-W. Lazurowe Le Puy-Sainte-Réparade plasuje się na 145. miejscu pod względem liczby ludności, natomiast pod względem powierzchni na miejscu 159.).

Bibliografia

Puy-Sainte-Réparade

Le Puy-Sainte-Réparade


El río Altmühl es un río de Alemania que discurre por el estado de Baviera. Se trata de un afluente del río Danubio de unos 230 km de longitud.

La fuente del Altmühl está situada cerca de la ciudad de Ansbach. Desde aquí, el río corre hacia el sudeste, como un arroyo estrecho para entrar en el Altmühlsee (un lago) al norte de Gunzenhausen. Después de salir de Gunzenhausen, el río describe una amplia curva a través del Jura Francón. Entra en el parque natural Valle Altmühl, famoso por su belleza natural: los meandros del río Altmühl han cortado profundas gargantas en las montañas del Jura Francón.

El Altmühl pasa las ciudades de Treuchtlingen (13 124 hab. en 2006), Eichstätt (13 721 hab.) y Beilngries (8 680 hab.). Después de Dietfurt, el curso del río se endereza y se integra en un canal que conecta el Main y el Danubio (el canal Rin-Main-Danubio). A pesar de las protestas de los conservacionistas, este canal fue inaugurado en 1992 y ha destruido gran parte de la belleza de la parte oriental del valle Altmühl.

El Altmühl finalmente desagua en el río Danubio en Kelheim (15 656 hab.).

Enlaces externos

Altmühl

Río Altmühl


The 24 Hours of Portimão is both a sports car and touring car automobile endurance race held annually at the Algarve International Circuit. It was inaugurated in 2017. The race is currently part of 24H GT Series and Touring Car Endurance Series.

Entrants and participants
As with all races in the 24H Series, promoted by Dutch promoter Creventic, they are open to both professional and semi-professional teams.
The races are contested with GT3-spec cars, GT4-spec cars, sports cars, touring cars and 24H-Specials, like silhouette cars.

History
The first race took part in 2017 as part of 2017 24H Series, the 3rd season with FIA status.
Since 2018 the race became also part of Touring Car Endurance Series, and in that same year was part of 2018 24H Proto Series.
The 2021 race was cancelled due to Covid-19.

Race winners

Manufacturer title wins

See also
 24H Series
 Touring Car Endurance Series

References

External links

24H Series
Auto races in Portugal
Sports car races
Touring car races
Endurance motor racing
Recurring sporting events established in 2017

24 Hours of Portimão


Jorge Horacio Zorreguieta Stefanini (* 28. Januar 1928 in Buenos Aires; † 8. August 2017 ebenda) war ein argentinischer Politiker und der Vater der niederländischen Königin Máxima.

Leben

Herkunft
Er wurde als Sohn des Bankiers Juan Antonio Zorreguieta Bonorino (1899–1959) und der Cesina Stefanini Borella (1901–1999), Tochter eines gebürtigen Genuesen, geboren. Sein Großvater war Amadeo Zorreguieta Hernandez, Oberbürgermeister von Mendoza und Minister für öffentliche Arbeiten der Provinz Mendoza, der mit Máxima Blanca Bonorino Gonzalez (1874–1965) verheiratet war, Tochter von Máxima González y de Islas, einer Verwandten des argentinischen Präsidenten Justo José de Urquiza († 1870).

Jorge Zorreguietas Urgroßvater war Mariano Zorreguieta Maurin (1830–1893), Senatspräsident der argentinischen Provinz Salta, ein unehelicher Enkel des wohlhabenden Kaufmanns José Antonio de Sorreguieta y Oyarzabal, Gamboa y Sagastume, der 1777 im nordspanischen (baskischen) Tolosa als Sohn des Juan Antonio de Sorreguieta y Gamboa geboren wurde und 1790 nach Salta in Argentinien kam.

Jorge Zorreguieta wurde wegen eines Non-Hodgkin-Lymphoms in Verbindung mit einer Lungenentzündung in ein Krankenhaus eingeliefert und verstarb am 8. August 2017 an den Folgen des Lymphdrüsenkrebses.

Ehen und Kinder
Jorge Zorreguieta war zweimal verheiratet und hatte aus diesen beiden Ehen sieben Kinder. Die 1956 geschlossene Ehe mit Martha López Gil (* 1935) wurde geschieden. Seine bekannteste Tochter, aus der seit 27. Mai 1970 bestehenden Ehe mit María del Carmen Cerruti Carricart (* 1944), ist die mit dem König Willem-Alexander der Niederlande verheiratete Máxima (* 1971). Zorreguieta durfte wegen seiner mit der argentinischen Militärdiktatur verknüpften Vergangenheit 2002 nicht an der Hochzeit seiner Tochter teilnehmen.

Auch der Inthronisierung seines Schwiegersohnes am 30. April 2013 musste er fernbleiben.

Beruf
Jorge Zorreguieta war von 1976 bis 1979 Staatssekretär und dann bis 1981 Minister für Landwirtschaft in der Diktatur von Jorge Rafael Videla.

Seit 1984 war er Präsident des Centro Azucarero Argentino und seit 1995 Präsident eines Interessenverbandes von in Argentinien lebenden Basken, der „Fundación Vasco Argentina Juan de Garay“.

Anklagen
2001 lehnte die niederländische Staatsanwaltschaft eine Anzeige gegen Zorreguieta wegen seiner Rolle in der Diktatur ab. Grund war mangelnde Zuständigkeit.

Am 7. September 2011 bestätigte die niederländische Staatsanwaltschaft, dass gegen Zorreguieta Klage im Zusammenhang mit dem Verschwinden des Arztes Samuel Leonardo Slutzky eingereicht wurde. Möglich wurde dies durch eine Änderung verschiedener Gesetze seit 2001.

Einzelnachweise

Landwirtschaftsminister (Argentinien)
Argentinier
Geboren 1928
Gestorben 2017
Mann

Jorge Zorreguieta


Chelun è un comune francese di 337 abitanti situato nel dipartimento dell'Ille-et-Vilaine nella regione della Bretagna.

Società

Evoluzione demografica

Note

Altri progetti

Collegamenti esterni

Comuni dell'Ille-et-Vilaine

Chelun


Schablonen der Gewalt (Originaltitel: Patterns of Force) ist eine 1968 erstmals ausgestrahlte Episode aus der zweiten Staffel der US-amerikanischen Science-Fiction-Fernsehserie Raumschiff Enterprise. In der Handlung infiltrieren Kirk und Spock auf der Suche nach einem vermissten Historiker einen außerirdischen Planeten, auf dem ein Regime nach Vorbild Nazideutschlands aufgebaut worden ist. Wegen der heiklen Thematik und scheinbar positiven Aussagen über das Dritte Reich wurde die Episode bei der deutschen Synchronisation und Erstausstrahlung zunächst übergangen. Sie hatte ihre deutschsprachige Erstausstrahlung erst über 30 Jahre nach der US-Erstausstrahlung.

Handlung
Die Enterprise-Crew will beim Planeten Ekos das Verschwinden des zur Föderation gehörenden Historikers und Kulturbeobachters Professor John Gill untersuchen. Ekos ist der Föderation bislang als Planet mit eher primitiven, kriegsähnlichen Zuständen bekannt, der benachbarte Planet Zeon als vergleichsweise friedlicherer, fortschrittlicherer Planet.

Kirk und Spock beamen, als Einheimische verkleidet und mit unter die Haut transplantierten Transpondern zum Beamen ausgestattet, auf Ekos hinunter, um Gill zu suchen. Zu beider Überraschung herrschen auf Ekos Zustände wie im Dritten Reich, die Ekosianer sind Nationalsozialisten. Jedoch ist hier John Gill der „Führer“ und das Ziel der Bewegung ist es, Zeon und die Zeonisten zu vernichten, da diese eine minderwertige Rasse seien. Um sich Gill zu nähern, geben sich Kirk und Spock uniformiert als Nazi-Offiziere aus. Da Spock wegen seiner spitzen Ohren aber rasch auffällt, werden beide von der SS als Zeonisten verdächtigt und gefoltert und auf Anweisung des Parteivorsitzenden Eneg verhaftet.

Unter Verwendung ihrer Transponder brechen Kirk und Spock aus dem Gefängnis aus. Dabei nehmen sie den mitgefangenen Zeonisten Isak mit und geben sich erneut als Nazi-Offiziere aus. Isak führt sie zu seiner Widerstandsgruppe, die im Untergrund agiert und die beiden Fremden zunächst einer Prüfung unterzieht, ob sie auf ihrer Seite seien. Zur Widerstandsgruppe gehört auch die Ekosianerin und NS-Parteifunktionärin Daras.

Mit der Hilfe von Daras und der Widerstandsgruppe begeben sich Kirk und Spock, die sich als SS-Offiziere und Fotografen ausgeben, in die Reichskanzlei, wo an dem Tag eine Versammlung anlässlich einer Rede des Führers zur „Endlösung“ stattfindet. Mittlerweile hat Spock es möglich gemacht, mit der Enterprise Funksprechkontakt aufzunehmen. Daher können sie McCoy herunterbeamen lassen, der sich als Major ausgibt und Gill untersuchen soll.

Beim Halten seiner Rede ist Gill nur auf einem Bildschirm zu sehen, wobei sein Mund von einem Gegenstand verdeckt ist. Während die Rede endet und Gills Anhänger dem Führer huldigen, gelangen Kirk, Spock, McCoy, Daras und Isak in den Raum, in dem Gill gefesselt, bewusstlos und offensichtlich unter Drogen stehend sitzt. Offenbar wurde Gill nur als Galionsfigur benutzt. Ehe er erneut bewusstlos wird, stellt Kirk ihm die Frage, weshalb er sich in die Entwicklung des Planeten eingemischt habe. Gill meint, dass der Planet tief gespalten war und er ihn retten wollte. Auf Kirks Nachfrage, weshalb er dann ausgerechnet Nazi-Deutschland als Vorbild nahm, meint Gill, dass es der effektivste Staat der Weltgeschichte gewesen sei. Kirk zeigt sich erstaunt, schließlich handelte es sich um ein menschenverachtendes System. Spock hingegen kann den Gedanken dahinter verstehen und erinnert daran, dass ein kleines, besiegtes und bankrottes Land wie Deutschland es in kurzer Zeit schaffte, wieder aufzusteigen und es dabei fast zur Weltherrschaft gebracht hätte. Er vermutet daher, dass Gill wohl der Meinung war, man könne ein solches System nachbauen, es aber gütig leiten. Gills Stellvertreter Melakon übernahm dann jedoch die Macht und setzte ihn unter Drogen.

Indes beginnen die Ekosianer mit Raumschiffen mit der Umsetzung der Endlösung und binnen einer Stunde sollen alle Zeonisten vernichtet sein. Um Zeit zu gewinnen, lassen die Widerständler Spock als ungewöhnlichen Zeonisten verhaften. Kirk gelingt es währenddessen, Gill zu einer Fernsehansprache zu bewegen, in der Gill Melakon als Verräter entlarvt und das Stoppen des Angriffs auf Zeon befiehlt. Melakon erschießt daraufhin Gill, ehe er selbst erschossen wird. Im Sterben gesteht Gill gegenüber Kirk ein, dass er die Oberste Direktive, d. h. das Gebot der Nichteinmischung in fremde Kulturen, hätte beachten sollen.

Schließlich beamen Kirk, Spock und McCoy zurück auf die Enterprise.

Deutschsprachige Veröffentlichung
Von 1972 bis 1974 hatte das ZDF einen Teil der Episoden von Raumschiff Enterprise erstmals deutsch synchronisiert ausgestrahlt, 1987/88 sendete Sat.1 die restlichen Episoden erstmals auf Deutsch. Beide Sender ließen jedoch die Episode Schablonen der Gewalt aus und gaben keine deutsche Synchronfassung in Auftrag. Patterns of Force wurde erst 1995 für die Videoveröffentlichung ins Deutsche übersetzt und erschien 1996 erstmals als deutsch synchronisierte Fassung auf VHS bei Paramount. Die Originalfassung mit deutschen Untertiteln wurde am 19. November 1996 im Rahmen der spätabendlichen Sendereihe kunst-stücke im ORF 2 erstmals im deutschen Sprachraum ausgestrahlt. Am 25. Juli 1999 hatte sie ihre deutschsprachige Erstausstrahlung auf dem Pay-TV-Sender DF1. Die deutschsprachige Free-TV-Premiere war am 4. November 2011 im ZDFneo. Zudem wurde die Synchronfassung zu einem Teil der deutschen DVD- und Blu-ray-Veröffentlichungen von Raumschiff Enterprise. Sowohl für die ZDFneo-Ausstrahlung als auch für die Heimvideos erhielt sie die Altersfreigabe FSK ab 16 Jahren.

Kritik
Die Thematisierung des Nationalsozialismus in der Episode wurde als vereinfachend und verharmlosend kritisiert. Der Journalist Joachim Huber meinte 2011 im Tagesspiegel: „Von auch nur annähernd kritischer Aufarbeitung ist diese unbedarfte Darstellung Lichtjahre entfernt.“ Die Autoren Mike Hillenbrand und Thomas Höhl kritisierten in ihrem Buch Star Trek in Deutschland (2008), dass die Folge suggeriere, Gills Plan von einem nationalsozialistischen Staat hätte funktioniert, wenn Melakon die Macht nicht an sich gerissen hätte.

Literatur
 Mike Hillenbrand, Thomas Höhl: Star Trek in Deutschland. Heel Verlag, Königswinter 2008, ISBN 978-3-86852-006-4, S. 184–191
 Joachim Huber: Mr. Spock: „Sie geben einen überzeugenden Nazi ab“, in: Der Tagesspiegel vom 3. Nov. 2011

Weblinks

 Schablonen der Gewalt bei Fernsehserien.de
 Patterns of Force Transkript auf chakoteya.net (englisch)

Einzelnachweise

Star-Trek-Episode
Außerirdische im Film

Schablonen der Gewalt


Amblysaphes is een kevergeslacht uit de familie van de boktorren (Cerambycidae). De wetenschappelijke naam van het geslacht werd voor het eerst geldig gepubliceerd in 1885 door Bates.

Soorten
Amblysaphes is monotypisch en omvat slechts de volgende soort:
 Amblysaphes striatus Bates, 1885

Boktorren

Amblysaphes


Die Liste der Stolpersteine im Kölner Stadtteil Humboldt/Gremberg führt die vom Künstler Gunter Demnig verlegten Stolpersteine im Kölner Stadtteil Humboldt/Gremberg auf.

Die Liste der Stolpersteine beruht auf den Daten und Recherchen des NS-Dokumentationszentrums der Stadt Köln, zum Teil ergänzt um Informationen und Anmerkungen aus Wikipedia-Artikeln und externen Quellen. Ziel des Kunstprojektes ist es, biografische Details zu den Personen, die ihren (letzten) freiwillig gewählten Wohnsitz in Köln hatten, zu dokumentieren, um damit ihr Andenken zu bewahren.

 Anmerkung: Vielfach ist es jedoch nicht mehr möglich, eine lückenlose Darstellung ihres Lebens und ihres Leidensweges nachzuvollziehen. Insbesondere die Umstände ihres Todes können vielfach nicht mehr recherchiert werden. Offizielle Todesfallanzeigen aus den Ghettos, Haft-, Krankenanstalten sowie den Konzentrationslagern können oft Angaben enthalten, die die wahren Umstände des Todes verschleiern, werden aber unter der Beachtung dieses Umstandes mitdokumentiert.

Quelle
 NS-Dokumentationszentrum - Stolpersteine | Erinnerungsmale für die Opfer des Nationalsozialismus (Stadtteilliste Humboldt/Gremberg)

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

 Gunter Demnigs Webseite zum Stolperstein-Projekt

Humboldt/Gremberg
Humboldt/Gremberg


El Campeonato Nacional de Fútbol de la Primera B de 1998 fue el torneo disputado de la segunda categoría del fútbol profesional chileno en el año 1998.

El campeón del torneo fue Cobresal, que logró ascender a la Primera División, en compañía de O'Higgins, que fue el subcampeón y Santiago Morning, que ascendió por la Liguilla de Promoción, tras vencer a Provincial Osorno.

Este torneo además, fue el último torneo de Regional Atacama, ya que a fines de ese año, una vez consumado su descenso, se confirma su desaparición y a partir del año siguiente, tuvo que ser refundado como Deportes Copiapó, como se conoce en la actualidad. También marca la primera temporada de Unión Española en la segunda categoría del fútbol chileno tras su descenso de la Primera División, en la temporada anterior y el debut en el profesionalismo, de la Universidad de Concepción, que terminó en el 5° lugar de la tabla, por lo que no alcanzó un cupo en la Liguilla de Promoción.

En el torneo participaron 16 equipos, que jugaron en dos rondas en un sistema de todos-contra-todos.

Movimientos divisionales
{|
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|

</td>

|}

Equipos participantes

{| border=0
| <div style="position:relative;">

Tabla final

PJ=Partidos jugados; PG=Partidos ganados; PE=Partidos empatados; PP=Partidos perdidos; GF=Goles a favor; GC=Goles en contra; Dif=Diferencia de gol; Pts=Puntos

Liguilla de promoción

Clasificaron a la liguilla de promoción los equipos que se ubicaron en 3° y 4° lugar de la Primera B (Santiago Morning y Unión Española), con los equipos que se ubicaron en 14° y 13° lugar de la Primera División (Coquimbo Unido y Provincial Osorno). Se agrupó a los equipos en dos llaves, el 3° de la B con el 14° de Primera y el 4° de la B con el 13° de Primera. El que ganara cada una de las llaves, jugaría en Primera División en 1999.

Primera llave

Santiago Morning ascendió a la Primera División y Provincial Osorno descendió a la Primera B, para el año 1999.

Segunda llave

Ambos equipos mantienen la categoría para el próximo año.

Goleadores

Estadísticas

 El equipo con mayor cantidad de partidos ganados: Cobresal y O'Higgins 19 triunfos.
 El equipo con menor cantidad de partidos perdidos: Cobresal 3 derrotas.
 El equipo con menor cantidad de partidos ganados: Regional Atacama 3 triunfos.
 El equipo con mayor cantidad de partidos perdidos: Unión San Felipe, Ñublense y Regional Atacama 17 derrotas.
 El equipo con mayor cantidad de empates: Deportes Melipilla 13 empates.
 El equipo con menor cantidad de empates: Unión San Felipe y O'Higgins 2 empates.
 El equipo más goleador del torneo: Cobresal 79 goles a favor.
 El equipo más goleado del torneo: Unión San Felipe 65 goles en contra.
 El equipo menos goleado del torneo: Cobresal 22 goles en contra.
 El equipo menos goleador del torneo: Regional Atacama 23 goles a favor.
 Mejor diferencia de gol del torneo: Cobresal convirtió 57 goles más de los que recibió.
 Peor diferencia de gol del torneo: Regional Atacama recibió 27 goles más de los convirtió.
 Mayor goleada del torneo: Cobresal 8-1 Deportes Linares.

Véase también

 Copa Apertura 1998
 Primera División de Chile 1998
 Tercera División de Chile 1998
 Cuarta División de Chile 1998

Enlaces externos
 RSSSF Chile 1998

1998
2

Primera B de Chile 1998


Il suo culto come santo fu confermato da papa Leone XIII nel 1900.

Biografia
Louis Duchesne considerò il suo nome una corruzione di Migetius e collocò il suo episcopato dopo quello di Donato alla metà del VII secolo; in base a studi successivi, Bernard de Vregille ritenne giusto accettare i dati dell'antico catalogo episcopale di Besançon che poneva l'episcopato di Nicezio prima di quello di Protadio, negli anni a cavallo tra il VI e il VII secolo.

Scarse e poco attendibili le notizie sul suo episcopato: nel 602 avrebbe partecipato a un concilio di cui non si conoscono gli atti; sarebbe stato contemporaneo e amico di papa Gregorio magno e avrebbe promosso l'erezione della chiesa di San Pietro a Besançon.

Sotto il suo episcopato Colombano fondò il monastero di Luxeuil, in diocesi di Besançon, ma né il nome di Nicezio, né quello di altri vescovi di quella sede viene menzionato dal biografo del monaco irlandese, Giona di Bobbio. Ciò potrebbe dipendere dall'ostilità di Nicezio e degli altri vescovi franchi verso alcune posizioni di Colombano, come la sua pratica di celebrare la Pasqua al modo irlandese.

Culto
Fu sepolto nella chiesa di San Pietro. La sua festa era celebrata nella diocesi l'8 febbraio, ma per un certo periodo la celebrazione fu spostata al 31 gennaio.

Gli sono dedicate parrocchie nelle diocesi di Besançon, in quella di Saint-Claude e ad Augerans.

Il suo culto come santo fu confermato da papa Leone XIII con decreto del 24 novembre 1900.

Il suo elogio si legge nel martirologio romano all'8 febbraio.

Note

Bibliografia
 Il martirologio romano. Riformato a norma dei decreti del Concilio ecumenico Vaticano II e promulgato da papa Giovanni Paolo II, LEV, Città del Vaticano 2004.
 Claude Fohlen (cur.), Histoire de Besançon, 2 voll., Nouvelle librairie de France, Parigi 1964-1965.
 Congregatio de Causis Sanctorum, Index ac status causaruom, Città del Vaticano 1999.
 Filippo Caraffa e Giuseppe Morelli (curr.), Bibliotheca Sanctorum (BSS), 12 voll., Istituto Giovanni XXIII nella Pontificia Università Lateranense, Roma 1961-1969.

Santi franchi del VII secolo
Santi canonizzati da Leone XIII
Vescovi e arcivescovi di Besançon

Nicezio di Besançon


Lesiny ist ein polnischer Ortsname:
 Lesiny (Sorkwity), Powiat Mrągowski, Woiwodschaft Ermland-Masuren, bis 1945: Leschienen, Kreis Sensburg, Ostpreußen
 Lesiny (Namysłów), Powiat Namysłowski, Woiwodschaft Oppeln, bis 1945: Waldhof, Kreis Namslau, Schlesien

Lesiny


Back On Track is an album by country singer Billy "Crash" Craddock. It was released in 1989 on Atlantic Records.

Track listing
Big River to Cross
Love Night
To Love Somebody
Life's Too Short (To Hurt This Long)
Some Such Foolishnesses

You Got the Job
Just Another Miserable Day Here in Paradise
I Can't Help It (If I'm Still In Love With You)
Girls That Everybody Knew
What Good Is Falling Asleep
Softly Diana

References

Billy "Crash" Craddock albums
1989 albums

Back on Track (Billy Craddock album)


Schwartziella inscripta is a species of minute sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk or micromollusk in the family Zebinidae. The specific name refers to grooves on the first whorl of the shell.

Description
The height of the shell attains 3.4 mm.

Distribution
This species occurs in the Atlantic Ocean off the Cape Verdes.

References

 Rolán E., 2005. Malacological Fauna From The Cape Verde Archipelago. Part 1, Polyplacophora and Gastropoda.

inscripta
Gastropods of Cape Verde
Gastropods described in 2000

Schwartziella inscripta


Hyalinobatrachium fleischmanni est une espèce d'amphibiens, de la famille des Centrolenidae. Elle est ainsi nommée en l'honneur de Carl Fleischmann, son inventeur en 1892.

Répartition
Cette espèce se rencontre au Mexique (Guerrero, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Chiapas et Tabasco), en Amérique centrale (Belize, Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica et Panama), en Colombie (basses terres de l'ouest, du nord et de la vallée du río Magdalena) et dans le nord-ouest de l'Équateur.

Description

Les mâles mesurent de  à  et les femelles de  à .

Éthologie
Le mâle « couve » les œufs pour maintenir leur humidité.

Hyalinobatrachium fleischmanni fait partie des « grenouilles de verre », ainsi nommées en raison de leur translucidité. En 2022, cette espèce fait l'objet d'une étude sur la modulation de cette translucidité : elle maintient activement des niveaux élevés de transparence pendant son sommeil diurne, transmettant alors de 34 à 61 % plus de lumière que dans toutes les autres conditions. Elle obtient ce résultat en stockant dans son foie 89 % de ses globules rouges, le plasma ne véhiculant plus que des globules rouges clairsemés ; la concentration en globules rouges du plasma revient à la normale au réveil.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Bibliographie
 Publication originale : Boettger, 1893 : Ein neuer Laubfrosch aus Costa Rica. Bericht der Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Frankfurt am Main, ,  (texte intégral)

Liens externes

Anoure (nom scientifique)
Hyalinobatrachiinae

Hyalinobatrachium fleischmanni


A kova–szaru szivacsok (Demospongiae) a szivacsok (Porifera) törzsének egy osztálya nagyjából  recens fajjal; ez a ma élő szivacsfajok 90 százaléka.

Származásuk, elterjedésük

Meglehetősen rosszul fosszilizálódnak, de akkora tömegekben éltek, hogy viszonylag sok kövületük maradt fenn. Az osztály a kambrium elején alakult ki, és a korai krétára már valamennyi rendje kifejlődött (Hoffmann–Mátics).

Megjelenésük, felépítésük

Vázuk szilícium-dioxid anyagú szivacstűkből és sok esetben sponginból épül fel — a spongin egy kizárólag erre az osztályra jellemző, szálas, szaruszerű fehérje. A sponginrostok a kovatűket kapcsolják össze. Kovatűi a szivacsok egy másik osztályának, az üvegszivacsoknak is vannak, de a két osztály tűinek alakja eltérő. A fosszíliák ásványos összetétele értékes információkat nyújt az óceán vizének egykori sótartalmáról és hőmérsékletéről.

Méretük és alakjuk igen változatos; egyes fajok élénk színűek (Lőrinczi–Torma).

Felépítésük túlnyomórészt leukonoid típusú (aszimmetrikus). Méretük és formájuk változatos; a legnagyobbak átmérője eléri az 1 métert. Belsejükben bonyolult csatornarendszer alakult ki.

Életmódjuk, élőhelyük

Legtöbbjük tengeri, de  a szivacsok másik két osztályától eltérően közöttük előfordulnak édesvízi fajok is. Hosszú életűek; a fajok többségének várható élettartama 500–1000 év.

Az elmúlt több mint félmilliárd évben rendkívül változatos környezeti feltételekhez alkalmazkodtak, így a trópusok sekély és meleg partmenti vizeitől a mélytengerekig mindenfelé megtalálhatók.

Ebbe az osztályba tartozik az édesvízi szivacsok egyetlen rendje (Spongillida), de a fajok nagy többsége ebben az osztályban is tengeri (Lőrinczi–Torma).

Ivaros szaporodásuk

Nagy többségük hímnős (hermafrodita), de az önnemzés kivételesen ritka. Nincsenek ivarmirigyek: a spermiumok feladatait choanocyták láltják el, a petesejtekké pedig az archeociták alakulnak át.

A vízbe engedett hím sejtek a pórusokon jutnak be a másik szivacsba, és ott mennek a mezóliumban termékenyítik meg a petesejteket. Néhány kivétellel elevenszülők: a megtermékenyített petesejt a testben marad, amíg a lárva ki nem kel.

Néhány faj a petesejteket is a vízbe engedi, és ott termékenyülnek meg.

A lárvák egy ideig planktonikus életet élnek (lebegnek), majd valamilyen felülethez tapadnak, és ott kifejlett szivaccsá alakulnak.

Rendszertani felosztásuk
Az osztályt 3 alosztályra és az alosztályba nem sorolt Myceliospongia nemre bontják:

1. Heteroscleromorpha alosztály 17 renddel
 Agelasida
 Agelasida
 Biemnida
 Bubarida
 Clionaida
 Desmacellida
 Haplosclerida
 Merliida
 Poecilosclerida
 Polymastiida
 Scopalinida
 Sphaerocladina
 édesvízi szivacsok (Spongillida)
 Suberitida
 Tethyida
 Tetractinellida
 Trachycladida

2. Keratosa alosztály 2 renddel

 Dendroceratida
 Dictyoceratida

3. Tetractinomorpha alosztály 3 renddel:

 Chondrillida
 Chondrosiida
 Verongiida

Jegyzetek

Források

 Farkas et al.: Farkas János, Szővényi Gergely, Török János, Török Júlia Katalin (2013):Állatrendszertani gyakorlatok
 Hoffmann–Mátics: Hoffmann Gyula, Mátics Róbert: Élet a Földön – történeti földtan
Warbletoncouncil enciklopédia
 Lőrinczi–Torma: Lőrinczi Gábor, Torma Attila, 2019: Bevezetés a zoológiába. Egyetemi jegyzet. Szeged, 2019. p. 22.

Szivacsok
Állatosztályok

Kova–szaru szivacsok


Бря́нка — посёлок в Северо-Енисейском районе Красноярского края России.

До 2001 года на уровне муниципального устройства и до 2005 года на уровне административно-территориального устройства являлся административным центром Брянковского сельсовета.

География
Расположен на реке Большой Пит (правый приток Енисея), при впадении реки Брянки, в 168 км к югу от районного центра — посёлка Северо-Енисейский. Через посёлок проходит региональная автодорога 04К-053 Епишино — Северо-Енисейский. Расстояние от Епишино — 125 км.

История
Развитие посёлка началось с начала 1920-х годов. Посёлок расстраивался и к 1943 году здесь уже стоял кожзавод, кирпичный завод, построена электростанция, работающая на древесном топливе. Имелся конный двор, гараж. Коней было более 100 голов, без молодняка. На острове, чуть выше посёлка, располагалась нефтебаза. И хотя весной грузы с 1955 года доставлялись судами по Большому Питу, в поселке имелся большой флот илимок, которые доставляли грузы из Усть-Пита, Сухого Пита на Брянку, а из Пит-городка возили молоко, птиц, свиней, овощи. Главными предприятиями посёлка в это время становятся: Брянковский заготовительно-складской цех, автотранспортное и продснаб, главным направлением работы которых была приёмка грузов во время караванов, его вывозка и хранение, заготовка древесины для нужд района.

Мост через Большой Пит начали строить в 1985 году и в мае 1989 года мост вступил в эксплуатацию. Почти в это время начинается движение по дороге Епишино-Брянка, которая вошла в Северно-Енисейский тракт, протяжённостью 294 км, включающая 30 мостов.

Население

Население за последние десять лет резко сократилось, хотя в последние года заметен небольшой прирост. В настоящее время в посёлке нет никаких градообразующих предприятий и население работает в основном на предприятиях социальной и торговой сферы. Численность населения — 651 человек (2010), среди которых — 83 человека старше 60 лет.

 Данные Красноярскстата на 2008 год

Демографическое положение. Соотношение групп населения.

Соотношение групп населения Количество человек
   дети от 0 до 14                                   124
   трудоспособное население от 15 до 60              451
   старше 61                                         83
   женщин                                            330
   мужчин                                            328
         Всего 627 человек.

                       Естественный прирост.
                    Год	родившиеся	умершие
          2006 г              5         10
          2007 г.	      4         8
          2008 г.              5         6
          2009 г.              5         4

Образование
На правом берегу Пита в 1936 году была открыта начальная школа. С 1937 года это уже семилетняя школа, с 1953 года — десятилетняя.

В 1999 году было построено новое двухэтажное здание школы со спортивным и актовым залами, столовой и кабинетами, но из-за резкого сокращения учеников под школу занята только часть здания.

Примечания

Населённые пункты Северо-Енисейского района

Брянка (Красноярский край)


Диего Карлос Сантос Силва (; ) — бразильский футболист, защитник английского клуба «Астон Вилла». Чемпион Олимпийских игр 2020 года.

Карьера
Профессиональную карьеру Диего Карлос начал в клубе «Деспортиво Бразил», из которого три раза уходил в другие бразильские команды, в том числе за выступавший в Серии A «Сан-Паулу». Летом 2014 года футболист перешёл в португальский «Эшторил-Прая», который сразу же отдал бразильца в аренду на сезон в клуб Сегунды «Порту Б». Следующим летом Диего Карлос вернулся в «Эшторил» и в сезоне 2015/16 закрепился в основном составе команды. Защитник провёл 31 матч в чемпионате Португалии, забил два гола, а также заслужил себе репутацию грубого игрока, получив за этот период девять жёлтых и три красные карточки.

Летом 2016 года бразилец перешёл в французский «Нант», сумма трансфера превысила 1 млн евро. Диего Карлос быстро стал игроком стартового состава и одним из лучших игроков клуба. 14 января 2018 года в игре чемпионата Франции против ПСЖ на 90-й минуте Диего Карлос задел главного арбитра матча Тони Шапрона, который, упав на газон, ударил игрока ногой, после чего показал бразильцу вторую жёлтую карточку и удалил футболиста с поля. Дисциплинарный комитет наказал судью, который в итоге закончил судейскую карьеру раньше времени, трёхмесячной дисквалификацией. Всего за два сезона Диего Карлос принял участие в 62 матчах чемпионата Франции.

В 2019 году перешёл в испанскую «Севилью», с которой выиграл Лигу Европы УЕФА.

Достижения
 «Севилья»
 Победитель Лиги Европы УЕФА: 2019/20

Примечания

Ссылки

Футболисты Бразилии
Игроки олимпийской сборной Бразилии по футболу
Олимпийские чемпионы по футболу
Олимпийские чемпионы от Бразилии
Чемпионы летних Олимпийских игр 2020 года
Футболисты на летних Олимпийских играх 2020 года
Игроки ФК «Деспортиво Бразил»
Игроки ФК «Сан-Паулу»
Игроки ФК «Паулиста»
Игроки ФК «Мадурейра»
Игроки ФК «Эшторил-Прая»
Игроки ФК «Порту B»
Игроки ФК «Нант»
Игроки ФК «Севилья»
Игроки ФК «Астон Вилла»

Диего Карлос (футболист, 1993)


Play Music is the second studio album by electronic group Thieves Like Us.

Critical reception

IndieLondon criticized Play Music for the song tempos being too slow for the dance style it aimed for and also panned the lead singer's performance. An extremely negative NME review from Alex Hoban dismissed the album as a set of "boring songs about drugs" with "vaguely voguish words" and "empty lyrics," wondering if he was "caught up in some kind of late April Fool" instead of an actual record. The Line of Best Fit bashed the record for its lack of stylistic and instrumental variety between tracks, describing the experience as "faceless, soulless, heartless synthetics in its prime as this Parisian trio pursue only what they know, and care nothing for what they don't."

Exclaim! was one of the few publications to run a favorable review, where Cam Lindsay praised its mixture of styles from different countries with pop music elements and a dark mood: "Play Music is the complete package, with a resounding desire to keep you locked in with misshapen melodies and distorted emotion. Even two years after its debut, it still sounds freshly squeezed, without any indication of going sour any time soon."

References

2008 albums

Play Music (album)


The 2008 Sunshine Tour was the ninth season of professional golf tournaments since the southern Africa based Sunshine Tour was relaunched in 2000, and the second since the tour switched a calendar based season in 2007. The Sunshine Tour represents the highest level of competition for male professional golfers in the region.

The tour was based predominantly in South Africa, with 26 of the 30 tournaments being held in the country. Two events were held in Swaziland, with one each in Zambia and Namibia. There were two new tournaments, The Africa Open, which the tour hopes will become "Africa's Major" in the future, and the BMG Classic, founded by the Bearing Man Group, who wished to continue their involvement with the tour following the end of their long run as title sponsors of the Highveld Classic.

As usual, the tour consisted of two distinct parts, commonly referred to as the "Summer Swing" and "Winter Swing". Tournaments held during the Summer Swing generally had much higher prize funds, attracted stronger fields, and were the only tournaments on the tour to carry world ranking points, with three events being co-sanctioned with the European Tour. Since the tour switched to a calendar based season, this part of the tour has been split in two, with six events being held at the start of the year, and the remainder in December.

The Winter Swing ran from March to November, starting with the Mount Edgecombe Trophy, and closing with the Coca-Cola Charity Championship, hosted by Gary Player.

The order of merit was dominated by Richard Sterne, who won all three European Tour co-sanctioned tournaments, by far the richest on the tour.

Schedule
The following table lists official events during the 2008 season.

Order of Merit
The Order of Merit was based on prize money won during the season, calculated in South African rand.

Robert Rock was the third highest money winner (with R1,280,632.80) but did not qualify for the Order of Merit, having only played in two events.

Notes

References

External links

Sunshine Tour
Sunshine Tour

2008 Sunshine Tour


Sextus Attius Suburanus Aemilianus war ein römischer Senator und Prätorianerpräfekt unter Kaiser Trajan.

Suburanus stammte aus dem Ritterstand. Durch eine Inschrift ist seine Laufbahn vor der Prätorianerpräfektur bekannt geworden. Demnach war er praefectus fabrum, Präfekt der Ala Tauriana, Assistent des legatus Augusti pro praetore der Provinz Hispania citerior bei der Abhaltung des Census, Assistent eines praefectus annonae und Präfekten von Ägypten, procurator Augusti ad Mercurium, procurator Augusti Alpium Cottianarum et Pedatium Tyriorum et Cammuntiorum et Lepontiorum sowie Prokurator der Provinzen Iudaea und Belgica.

Suburanus wurde um das Jahr 99 Nachfolger des Casperius Aelianus, der im Jahr 97 einen Aufstand gegen Kaiser Nerva unternommen hatte und deshalb vom neuen Kaiser Trajan ein Jahr später hingerichtet worden war. Plinius der Jüngere berichtet in seiner Lobrede auf Trajan über das Vertrauensverhältnis zwischen dem Kaiser und Suburanus. Ihm habe Trajan sein Schwert überreicht mit den Worten: „Nimm dieses Schwert und verwende es für mich, wenn ich gut regiere; andernfalls gegen mich.“  Die Nachricht von der Überreichung des Schwerts findet sich auch bei den späteren Autoren Cassius Dio und Aurelius Victor.

Suburanus begleitete als comes Trajan während seiner Inspektionsreisen. Er wurde in den Senat aufgenommen und bekleidete zweimal das Konsulat. Durch Militärdiplome, die auf den 13. März 101 datiert sind, ist belegt, dass 101 Suffektkonsul war; er folgte Trajan nach, der als ordentlicher Konsul zurückgetreten war und übte dieses Amt zusammen mit Quintus Articuleius Paetus aus. Im Jahr 104 war dann zusammen mit Marcus Asinius Marcellus ordentlicher Konsul.

Siehe auch
 Liste der römischen Konsuln

Literatur

 Prosopographia Imperii Romani (PIR) ² A 1366

Anmerkungen

Eques
Konsul (Römische Kaiserzeit)
Prätorianerpräfekt
Geboren im 1. Jahrhundert
Gestorben im 2. Jahrhundert
Mann
Pontifex
Römer

Sextus Attius Suburanus Aemilianus


Quthing est un district du Lesotho.

Quthing

District de Quthing


Le monastère Notre-Dame de Macourt était un monastère de l'ordre des chartreux, située d'abord à Macourt-lez-Marly, au bord de la Rhonelle, puis à Valenciennes.

Histoire

La chartreuse de Marly (1288-1566)
Jean d'Avesnes, à la demande de son frère de Guillaume d'Avesnes, évêque de Cambrai, fonde une chartreuse appelée Val-Saint-Pierre ou Val-Saint-Paul près de Cambrai en 1288. Dès 1293, la communauté se retire en ville, chez les cordeliers. En 1295 ou 1297, le comte Jean de Hainaut, l’installe à Macourt-lez-Marly, faubourg de Valenciennes. L’église est consacrée en 1298 ou 1304 ; transformée en réfectoire, elle est remplacée par une autre, consacrée en 1343 grâce à un bienfaiteur, Jacques de Maubeuge, chanoine de Cambrai.

En 1566, la maison est saccagée par les huguenots, qui finalement la rasent. Les religieux se réfugient en ville. Il y a un projet de transfert à Douai, mais en 1575 on commence à construire un nouveau monastère dans Valenciennes intra-muros.

La chartreuse de Valenciennes (1575-1791)
Les chartreux achètent l'hôtel d'Aerschot et dix-neuf maison dans la paroisse Saint-Nicolas et construisent un nouveau monastère. L'église est consacré le  par André Francquart, évêque de Chalcédoine.

Le , l'assemblée constituante prononce l'abolition des vœux monastiques et la suppression des congrégations religieuses. La communauté est dispersée en 1791 ; beaucoup de religieux gagnent la Boutillerie, désignée comme maison de réunion. Quatre d’entre eux reviennent réoccuper la chartreuse à la faveur de l’invasion autrichienne en 1792.  La chartreuse est bombardée pendant le siège de Valenciennes en 1793. 4 des 6 derniers chartreux de Valenciennes sont guillotinés sur la place de Valenciennes en 1794.

Prieurs
Le prieur est le supérieur d'une chartreuse, élu par ses comprofès ou désigné par les supérieurs majeurs.
1298 : Pierre Douchart, premier prieur
...
1509 : Jean Donas
...
1526-1527: Antoine Wastel, profès de Saint-Omer, nommé procureur des moniales de Gosnay (1513-1520 et 1533-1535), recteur (1524-1526) et prieur (1526-1527) de Valenciennes, nommé vicaire à Saint-Omer en 1527.
...
~1545 :  Jean Morocourt (†1548), alias
~1557-1610 : Jean de l'Ecluse (†1610), restaurateur du monastère à Valenciennes, visiteur de la province de Picardie , en 1586.
...
1627 : Pierre Lyon, prieur de Valenciennes et visiteur de la province de Picardie.
~1630 : Antelme de Pronville
1640 : Pierre Carré.
1655 : Bernard Pamard, prieur et convisiteur de la province
1658- : Pierre-Antoine van Pecque (Pecquius) (1614-1679), prieur de Zelem, d'Anvers (1664-1666), de Sainte-Sophie-de-Constantinople (1664-1666)
...
1678 : Lucas (ou Nicolas) Lescailliet ou Lescallier.
...
 - : Hugues Verez (1712-1793), profès de Valenciennes en 1733, prieur de Saint-Omer en 1772, coadjuteur de Valenciennes en 1778. S'est retiré à Lille.

Patrimoine foncier
Les chartreux de Valenciennes possédaient des terres à Aulnoy, Blaringhem, Marly, Solesmes.

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Bibliographie
Archives départementales du Nord, .

.
.
.

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
Chartreuse Saints-Joseph-et-Morand de Douai

Liens externes

Chartreuse dans le département du Nord
Macourt
Notre-Dame de Macourt
Chartreuse Notre-Dame de Macourt
Chartreuse disparue
Chartreuse Notre-Dame de Macourt
Fondation en 1288

Chartreuse Notre-Dame de Macourt


Biografia
Italoamericano nato nello stato di New York, Nino Tempo è stato un bambino prodigio, essendosi esibito in televisione al clarinetto e al sax tenore accanto a Benny Goodman durante l'infanzia. A questi anni risale anche il suo debutto di attore. Nel 1953, benché non accreditato, ha affiancato James Stewart nella pellicola cult La storia di Glenn Miller.

Per tutti gli anni '50 è stato attivissimo come musicista. Nel 1963 ha inciso Deep Purple, duetto con April Stevens, sua sorella: la canzone, a lungo al primo posto nelle classifiche americane, è stata premiata col Grammy l'anno dopo. Sono poi seguiti altri brani di successo e prove da musicista importanti, come la collaborazione all'album Rock 'n' Roll di John Lennon. Ha lavorato anche con Bobby Darin, Diane Schuur, Rosemary Clooney, Cher, Linda Ronstadt, Liza Minnelli.

Discografia

Filmografia

Altri progetti

Collegamenti esterni

Bambini prodigio
Musicisti statunitensi del XX secolo
Sassofonisti statunitensi
Clarinettisti statunitensi
Attori statunitensi del XX secolo

Nino Tempo


Matti Nuutinen, nació en Turku (Finlandia), el 6 de marzo de 1990. Es un baloncestista finlandés que actualmente forma parte de la plantilla del Oviedo Club Baloncesto y de la Selección de baloncesto de Finlandia. Con 2.00 metros juega en la posición de alero.

Trayectoria profesional

Su debut al máximo nivel fue con el Kouvot (07/08), donde permaneció hasta la 09/10; su proyección y juventud llamó la atención de otros equipos, dando el salto al Salon Vilpas la temporada  10/11, donde rindió bien (8.9 pt, 5.2 re), lo que hizo que se fijara en él Bisons Loimaa, uno de los equipos más potentes de Finlandia en esos momentos.

Disputó cuatro temporadas en las filas del Bisons Loimaa (11-15) y dos ligas domésticas ganadas, además jugó la prestigiosa VTB League la temporada 14/15 (11.0 puntos, 4.0 rebotes) y todo ello con rol de titular, desde la posición de combo forward.

Se convertiría en un fijo en la selección de baloncesto de Finlandia desde 2012 con la que disputaría el Mundobasket 2014 y el Eurobasket de 2015, en este último realizando unos promedios de 7.3 puntos y 3.8 rebotes por partido.

En 2015, tras el fin del proyecto de Bisons Loimaa al alto nivel, el alero llegaba a Grecia para disputar la temporada 2015-2016 en el SEFA Arkadikos, promediando nueve puntos y cuatro rebotes por encuentro, un equipo recién ascendido a la HEBA que no logró el objetivo de la permanencia. Su buen año hizo que fichara la temporada 2016-2017 por el Chorale de Roanne Basket, de la liga ProB francesa, donde promedió siete puntos y tres rebotes.

Disputó la temporada 2017-18 en las filas del BCM U Pitesti de Rumanía, donde promedió en veintitrés partidos, seis puntos y cuatro rebotes por encuentro.

En agosto de 2018, llega a España, en concreto a la Liga LEB Oro, firmando un contrato en su nueva aventura en el Oviedo Club Baloncesto por una temporada.

Clubs

 Kouvot (2007–2010)
 Salon Vilpas Vikings (2010–2011)
 Bisons Loimaa (2011–2015)
 Arkadikos (2015–2016)
 Chorale Roanne (2016–2017)
 Pitești (2017-2018)
 Oviedo Club Baloncesto (2018-)

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Perfil del jugador en realgm

Baloncestistas de Finlandia
Baloncestistas de la selección de Finlandia
Baloncestistas del Chorale Roanne Basket
Baloncestistas de la Liga LEB
Baloncestistas del Salon Vilpas Vikings
Baloncestistas del Oviedo Club Baloncesto
Nacidos en Turku

Matti Nuutinen


Żerebkowicze (; ) – agromiasteczko na Białorusi, w obwodzie brzeskim, w rejonie lachowickim, w sielsowiecie Żerebkowicze, przy drodze republikańskiej .

W dwudziestoleciu międzywojennym leżały w Polsce, w województwie nowogródzkim, w powiecie baranowickim.

Znajduje tu się przystanek kolejowy Żerebkowicze, położony na linii Osipowicze – Baranowicze.

Przypisy

Bibliografia

 Żerebkowicze na mapie WIG

Wsie w rejonie lachowickim

Żerebkowicze


Francesco Gentile es un deportista italiano que compitió en taekwondo. Ganó una medalla de bronce en el Campeonato Europeo de Taekwondo de 1986 en la categoría de –83 kg.

Palmarés internacional

Referencias

Gentile, Francesco

Francesco Gentile


Christine Keeler (født 22. februar 1942, død 4. december 2017) var en engelsk fotomodel og korpige. Hendes forbindelse med en minister i den konservative engelske regering under Harold Macmillan medførte i 1963 den krise, der er kendt som Profumo-skandalen.

Hun blev født i Uxbridge i Middlesex i England og voksede op i den lille by Wraysbury i Berkshire. Som 15-årig fik hun arbejde som model i en kjoleforretning i Soho-kvarteret i London. Som 16-årig fik hun en søn med en farvet amerikansk soldat. Den nyfødte levede kun få dage, og Keeler fik hurtigt arbejde som korpige i en klub i Soho, hvor hun mødte dr. Stephen Ward. De to flyttede kort efter sammen og gav udadtil indtryk af at være et par, men ifølge hende var det et platonisk forhold.

Profumo-skandalen
I juli 1961 introducerede Ward hende ved en fest på Cliveden (tilhørende lord Astor) for John Profumo, den britiske krigsminister. Profumo indledte en affære med Keeler uden at vide, at hun også gik i seng med Jevgenij Ivanov, der var militærattaché ved den sovjetiske ambassade.

Keeler var fængslet i ni måneder for mened i en sag, der involverede en tidligere elsker Lucky Gordon, som var immigrant fra Jamaica. Stephen Ward blev anklaget for at leve af indtægter fra prostitution tjent af Christine Keeler og hendes veninde Mandy Rice-Davies. Ward begik selvmord før dommen.

Hun havde udgivet flere bøger om affæren, og i 2001 skrev hun og redaktøren Douglas Thompson sin autobiografi med titlen Den endelige sandhed – Min historie (The Truth at Last: My Story).

I filmen Scandal fra 1989 om Profumo-affæren spillede skuespillerinden Joanne Whalley rollen som Keeler.

Hun var også emnet for en sang af Phil Ochs med titlen "Christine Keeler". Desuden optræder hendes navn i Porcupine Trees sang "Piano Lessons" og i "Post World War II Blues" af Al Stewart.

Portrættet
Midt under Profumo-skandalen i 1963 tog fotografen Lewis Morley et berømt fotografi af Keeler til reklamen for en film, som aldrig blev udsendt. Keeler havde underskrevet en kontrakt, ifølge hvilken hun var forpligtet til at optræde nøgen på reklamefotos. Keeler tøvede med at gennemføre dem, men filmproduceren insisterede, så Morley overtalte Keeler til at sidde omvendt på en stol, så hun teknisk set var nøgen, men stolen dækkede det meste af hende. (Se billederne via den eksterne henvisning nedenfor).

På det tidspunkt var Morley og Keeler allerede berømte, men fotografiet medvirkede til at give Arne Jacobsens stol model 3107 stjernestatus. For at undgå alle retslige spørgsmål om ophavsret var den benyttede stol imidlertid ændret, så den havde et udskåret håndtag i stoleryggen. Fotografiet er blevet efterlignet og gjort til genstand for satire, også af Morley selv.

Referencer

Litteratur
 Sex Scandals af Christine Keeler og Robert Meadley, Xanadu Publications 1985
 Scandal af Christine Keeler, St. Martin's Press 1985 . (Basis for filmen af samme navn.)
 The Businessperson's Guide to Intelligent Social Drinking af Richard Basini og Christine Keeler, Congdon & Weed 1989
 The Naked Spy af Christine Keeler, Ivanov Yevgeny og Sokolov Gennady, Blake Publishing 1992
 The Truth At Last: My Story af Christine Keeler med Douglas Thompson, Sidgwick & Jackson Ltd, 2001

Ekstern henvisning
 Morley's erindring om fotooptagelsen af Keeler fra Victoria and Albert Museum.

Fotomodeller fra England

Christine Keeler


Scenic is an unincorporated community in Pennington County, South Dakota, United States. It is located within Scenic Township, which had a 2010 census population of 58 inhabitants.  The community is located adjacent to the Badlands National Park, about  southeast of Rapid City, or about one hour by car, along Highway 44.

History

The community was so named for the "scenic" setting of the town site.

As an economic decline hit the town in the 21st century, local businesswoman Twila Merrill acquired more and more of the town property until she owned most of it.

In July 2011, the  town and surrounding area—about  total—was listed for sale at $799,000.  The sale included the post office  (ZIP code 57780), Longhorn Saloon, a dance hall, bunkhouse, museum, and two stores.  It also includes a train depot that is on an abandoned line that was part of the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad and is the subject of a  rails-to-trail project between Rapid City and Kadoka.

In August 2011, the Iglesia ni Cristo (INC, ), an independent, nontrinitarian Christian denomination based in the Philippines, bought the property for nearly $800,000, Pennington County records show. The church never disclosed why it acquired the property. In 2014, Daniel Simmons-Ritchie of the Rapid City Journal wrote that the INC "has done little with the town since its purchase."

In April 2015, an INC minister moved to the area and soon afterwards began leading services for 10–15 congregants who live near Scenic.

See also
 Swett, South Dakota, another town put up for sale
 Johnsonville Village, Connecticut, an abandoned community also purchased by the Iglesia ni Cristo

References

Unincorporated communities in Pennington County, South Dakota
Rapid City, South Dakota metropolitan area
Unincorporated communities in South Dakota
Iglesia ni Cristo

Scenic, South Dakota


Paroster wedgeensis är en skalbaggsart som först beskrevs av Watts och William F. Humphreys 2003.  Paroster wedgeensis ingår i släktet Paroster och familjen dykare. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.

Källor

Dykare
wedgeensis

Paroster wedgeensis


Carolinenthal ist ein bewohnter Gemeindeteil im Ortsteil Güterberg der amtsfreien Gemeinde Uckerland im Landkreis Uckermark in Brandenburg.

Geographie
Der Ort liegt zwei Kilometer nordwestlich von Güterberg und drei Kilometer südlich von Strasburg (Uckermark). Die Nachbarorte sind Strasburg (Uckermark) im Norden, Ludwigsthal und Köhnshof im Nordosten, Güterberg und Fahrenholz im Südosten, Kleisthöhe im Süden, Hornshagen im Südwesten sowie Luisenburg im Nordwesten.

Geschichte
Carolinenthal wurde 1745 erstmals urkundlich erwähnt. Der ursprüngliche Name Mücken-Krug war vermutlich ein Spottname für einen Krug, in dem es reichlich Mücken gab. Auch die Bezeichnung Guterbocksches Vorwerk ist überliefert. Ab 1818 trug die Ortschaft ihren heutigen Namen. Vermutlich war eine Angehörige des Besitzers die Namenspatin.

Literatur

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Ersterwähnung 1745
Geographie (Uckerland)
Ort im Landkreis Uckermark

Carolinenthal


Герб города Дюртюли — опознавательно-правовой знак, составленный и употребляемый в соответствии с правилами геральдики, являющийся основным официальным символом местного самоуправления города Дюртюли.

Муниципальный герб утверждён Решением Совета городского поселения город Дюртюли муниципального района Дюртюлинский район № 80 от 30 ноября 2006 года.

Описание герба

История
5 декабря 1999 года решением собрания депутатов города Дюртюли был утверждён муниципальный герб города и Положение о гербе. Автор герба — Ф.Галлямов.

.

Герб городского поселения город Дюртюли утверждён Решением Совета городского поселения город Дюртюли муниципального района Дюртюлинский район № 80 от 30 ноября 2006 года.

Ссылки
 Герб городского поселения город Дюртюли

Гербы городов России
Дюртюли
Д
Гербы с изображением руки, держащей колос
Гербы с изображением факела

Герб Дюртюли


Carriera

Giocatore
Cresciuto calcisticamente nel , di cui secondo il Resto del Carlino è tra i migliori giocatori che vi abbiano giocato. Con la maglia del club esordì in massima serie a 16 anni nella partita in Pisa-Modena del dicembre 1924 segnando anche il suo primo gol, che garantì il successo agli emiliani e che lo fece diventare il più giovane marcatore del club.

Passò nel 1931 al , prima di collezionare 5 presenze nell'Ambrosiana-Inter vicecampione d'Italia. Tornò poi per un anno al , per essere quindi ceduto alla Roma. Giocò in seguito con la maglia del Ravenna, dopo aver militato anche un anno con la .

Ritorna a giocare nel  durante il Campionato Alta Italia 1944, rivestendo contemporaneamente anche il ruolo di allenatore.

Nelle varie competizioni, ha amareggiato 91 volte gli avversari del Modena con i suoi tiri, risultando il miglior marcatore della storia del club canarino.

Conta inoltre sei presenze in Nazionale B.

Allenatore
La carriera d'allenatore intraprese nel Ravenna mentre vi giocava; sfiorò nella stagione 1940-1941 la promozione in Serie B, persa a favore del Pescara solo per il quoziente reti. Passò quindi alla .

Da allenatore, portò il , nel 1946-1947, al terzo posto nel campionato di Serie A, dietro il Grande Torino e la Juve, dalla quale il distacco fu solo di due punti; durante la stagione la squadra batté in casa il Milan per 2-1, il 24 novembre 1946, la Juventus per 1-0, il 22 dicembre 1946 e l'Inter, anche per 1-0, il 19 gennaio 1947.

Nel 1950 guidò il Vicenza, per passare l'anno successivo al ; nel 1954 Fulvio Bernardini lo scelse per le squadre giovanili della Fiorentina, dove questi scoprì Giuliano Sarti; per la sua opera a Firenze ottenne il Seminatore d'Oro, quindi tornò a Modena, dove scoprì Giorgio Rognoni.

Il  lo ha inserito nella sua Hall of fame.

Statistiche

Presenze e reti nei club

Note

Bibliografia

Collegamenti esterni

 Mazzoni, una vita in campo ad insegnare l'arte del calcio ilrestodelcarlino.it

Alfredo Mazzoni


Pandora (hangeul :  ; RR : Pan-do-ra) est un film catastrophe sud-coréen écrit et réalisé par Park Jung-woo, sorti en 2016.

Synopsis
Quand un séisme dévaste un village coréen où une centrale nucléaire est en activité malgré sa vétusté, un homme risque sa vie pour sauver le pays du désastre annoncé. (Source: cinemotions.com)

Fiche technique
 Titre original :
 Titre international : Pandora
 Réalisation : Park Jung-woo
 Scénario : Park Jung-woo
 Direction artistique : Kang Seung-yong
 Photographie : Choi Young-hwan
 Montage : Park Gok-ji
 Musique : Jo Yeong-wook
 Production : Park Kyeong-sook et Kang Seong-ho
 Sociétés de production : CAC Entertainment
 Société de distribution : Contents Panda (Corée du Sud) ; Netflix (France)
 Pays d'origine :
 Langue officielle : coréen
 Format : couleur
 Genre : catastrophe
 Durée : 136 minutes
 Dates de sortie :
  :
 , , ,  :  sur Netflix

Distribution
 Kim Nam-gil  : Jae-hyeok
 Kim Joo-hyeon  : Yeon-joo
 Jeong Jin-yeong  : Pyeong-seok
 Kim Yeong-ae  :  Seok
 Moon Jeong-hee  : Jeong-hye
 Kim Dae-myeong  : Gil-seop
 Lee Kyeong-yeong : le Premier ministre
 Kang Shin-il :  Kong
 Yoo Seung-mok :  Kam
 Joo Jin-mo : le ministre
 Song Yeong-chang : le nouveau directeur
 Kim Yeong-woong :  Kang
 Kim Myeong-min : le président de la Corée du Sud
 Version française
 Studio de doublage : Cinephase
 Direction artistique : Olivier Cuvellier
 Adaptation : Cendryl Blanchon et Sandra Devonssay

Accueil

Sortie internationale
Pandora sort le  dans les salles sud-coréennes.

Netflix a demandé les droits du film, dont la diffusion est prévue en  dans  tels que la Belgique, la France, le Québec et la Suisse romande.

Box-office

Notes et références

Annexes

Articles connexes
 Catastrophe nucléaire
 Cinéma sud-coréen
 Film catastrophe

Liens externes

  Pandora sur Korean Movie Database
  Pandora sur Korean Film Council
  Pandora sur HanCinema

Film sud-coréen sorti en 2016
Film dramatique sud-coréen
Film catastrophe sud-coréen
Thriller (film) sud-coréen
Film se déroulant en Corée du Sud
Film tourné en Corée du Sud
Film en coréen
Film de Next Entertainment World

Pandora (film, 2016)


De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (English translation: On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) is the seminal work on the heliocentric theory of the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) of the Polish Renaissance. The book, first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg, Holy Roman Empire, offered an alternative model of the universe to Ptolemy's geocentric system, which had been widely accepted since ancient times.

History

Copernicus initially outlined his system in a short, untitled, anonymous manuscript that he distributed to several friends, referred to as the Commentariolus. A physician's library list dating to 1514 includes a manuscript whose description matches the Commentariolus, so Copernicus must have begun work on his new system by that time. Most historians believe that he wrote the Commentariolus after his return from Italy, possibly only after 1510. At this time, Copernicus anticipated that he could reconcile the motion of the Earth with the perceived motions of the planets easily, with fewer motions than were necessary in the Alfonsine Tables, the version of the Ptolemaic system current at the time. In particular, the heliocentric Copernican model made use of the Urdi Lemma developed in the 13th century by Mu'ayyad al-Din al-'Urdi, the first of the Maragha astronomers to develop a non-Ptolemaic model of planetary motion.

Observations of Mercury by Bernhard Walther (1430–1504) of Nuremberg, a pupil of Regiomontanus, were made available to Copernicus by Johannes Schöner, 45 observations in total, 14 of them with longitude and latitude. Copernicus used three of them in De revolutionibus, giving only longitudes, and erroneously attributing them to Schöner. Copernicus' values differed slightly from the ones published by Schöner in 1544 in Observationes XXX annorum a I. Regiomontano et B. Walthero Norimbergae habitae, [4°, Norimb. 1544].

A manuscript of De revolutionibus in Copernicus' own hand has survived. After his death, it was given to his pupil, Rheticus, who for publication had only been given a copy without annotations. Via Heidelberg, it ended up in Prague, where it was rediscovered and studied in the 19th century. Close examination of the manuscript, including the different types of paper used, helped scholars  construct an approximate timetable for its composition. Apparently Copernicus began by making a few astronomical observations to provide new data to perfect his models. He may have begun writing the book while still engaged in observations. By the 1530s a substantial part of the book was complete, but Copernicus hesitated to publish. In 1536, Cardinal Nikolaus von Schönberg wrote to Copernicus and urged him to publish his manuscript.

In 1539, Georg Joachim Rheticus, a young mathematician from Wittenberg, arrived in Frauenburg (Frombork) to study with him. Rheticus read Copernicus' manuscript and immediately wrote a non-technical summary of its main theories in the form of an open letter addressed to Schöner, his astrology teacher in Nürnberg; he published this letter as the Narratio Prima in Danzig in 1540. Rheticus' friend and mentor Achilles Gasser published a second edition of the Narratio in Basel in 1541. Due to its friendly reception, Copernicus finally agreed to publication of more of his main work—in 1542, a treatise on trigonometry, which was taken from the second book of the still unpublished De revolutionibus. Rheticus published it in Copernicus' name.

Under strong pressure from Rheticus, and having seen that the first general reception of his work had not been unfavorable, Copernicus finally agreed to give the book to his close friend, Bishop Tiedemann Giese, to be delivered to Rheticus in Wittenberg for printing by Johannes Petreius at Nürnberg (Nuremberg). It was published just before Copernicus' death, in 1543.

Copernicus kept a copy of his manuscript which, sometime after his death, was sent to Rheticus in the attempt to produce an authentic, unaltered version of the book. The plan failed but the copy was found during the 18th century and was published later. It is kept at the Jagiellonian University Library in Kraków,  where it remains bearing the library number BJ 10 000.

Contents

From the first edition, Copernicus' book was prefixed with an anonymous preface which argues that the following is a calculus consistent with the observations, and cannot resolve philosophical truths. Only later was this revealed to be the unauthorized interjection by Lutheran preacher Andreas Osiander, who lived in Nuremberg when the first edition was printed there. This is followed by Copernicus' own preface, where he dedicates his work to Pope Paul III and appeals to the latter's skill as a mathematician to recognize the truth of Copernicus' hypothesis.

De revolutionibus is divided into six "books" (sections or parts), following closely the layout of Ptolemy's Almagest which it updated and replaced:
 Book I chapters 1–11 are a general vision of the heliocentric theory, and a summarized exposition of his cosmology. The world (heavens) is spherical, as is the Earth, and the land and water make a single globe. The celestial bodies, including the Earth, have regular circular and everlasting movements. The Earth rotates on its axis and around the Sun. Answers to why the ancients thought the Earth was central. The order of the planets around the Sun and their periodicity. Chapters 12–14 give theorems for chord geometry as well as a table of chords.
 Book II describes the principles of spherical astronomy as a basis for the arguments developed in the following books and gives a comprehensive catalogue of the fixed stars.
 Book III describes his work on the precession of the equinoxes and treats the apparent movements of the Sun and related phenomena.
 Book IV is a similar description of the Moon and its orbital movements.
 Book V explains how to calculate the positions of the wandering stars based on the heliocentric model and gives tables for the five planets.
 Book VI deals with the digression in latitude from the ecliptic of the five planets.

Copernicus argued that the universe comprised eight spheres. The outermost consisted of motionless, fixed stars, with the Sun motionless at the center. The known planets revolved about the Sun, each in its own sphere, in the order: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn. The Moon, however, revolved in its sphere around the Earth. What appeared to be the daily revolution of the Sun and fixed stars around the Earth was actually the Earth's daily rotation on its own axis.

Copernicus adhered to one of the standard beliefs of his time, namely that the motions of celestial bodies must be composed of uniform circular motions. For this reason, he was unable to account for the observed apparent motion of the planets without retaining a complex system of epicycles similar to those of the Ptolemaic system.
Despite Copernicus' adherence to this aspect of ancient astronomy, his radical shift from a geocentric to a heliocentric cosmology was a serious blow to Aristotle's science—and helped usher in the Scientific Revolution.

Ad lectorem

Rheticus left Nürnberg to take up his post as professor in Leipzig. Andreas Osiander had taken over the task of supervising the printing and publication. In an effort to reduce the controversial impact of the book Osiander added his own unsigned letter Ad lectorem de hypothesibus huius operis (To the reader concerning the hypotheses of this work) printed in front of Copernicus' preface which was a dedicatory letter to Pope Paul III and which kept the title "Praefatio authoris" (to acknowledge that the unsigned letter was not by the book's author).
Osiander's letter stated that Copernicus' system was mathematics intended to aid computation and not an attempt to declare literal truth:

As even Osiander's defenders point out, the Ad lectorem "expresses views on the aim and nature of scientific theories at variance with Copernicus' claims for his own theory".
Many view Osiander's letter as a betrayal of science and Copernicus, and an attempt to pass his own thoughts off as those of the book's author. An example of this type of claim can be seen in the Catholic Encyclopedia, which states "Fortunately for him [the dying Copernicus], he could not see what Osiander had done. This reformer, knowing the attitude of Luther and Melanchthon against the heliocentric system ... without adding his own name, replaced the preface of Copernicus by another strongly contrasting in spirit with that of Copernicus."

While Osiander's motives behind the letter have been questioned by many, he has been defended by historian Bruce Wrightsman, who points out he was not an enemy of science. Osiander had many scientific connections including "Johannes Schoner, Rheticus's teacher, whom Osiander recommended for his post at the Nurnberg Gymnasium; Peter Apian of Ingolstadt University; Hieronymous Schreiber...Joachim Camerarius...Erasmus Reinhold...Joachim Rheticus...and finally, Hieronymous Cardan."

The historian Wrightsman put forward that Osiander did not sign the letter because he "was such a notorious [Protestant] reformer whose name was well-known and infamous among Catholics", so that signing would have likely caused negative scrutiny of the work of Copernicus (a loyal Catholic canon and scholar). Copernicus himself had communicated to Osiander his "own fears that his work would be scrutinized and criticized by the 'peripatetics and theologians'," and he had already been in trouble with his bishop, Johannes Dantiscus, on account of his former relationship with his mistress and friendship with Dantiscus's enemy and suspected heretic, Alexander Scultetus. It was also possible that Protestant Nurnberg could fall to the forces of the Holy Roman Emperor and since "the books of hostile theologians could be burned...why not scientific works with the names of hated theologians affixed to them?" Wrightsman also holds that this is why Copernicus did not mention his top student, Rheticus (a Lutheran) in the book's dedication to the Pope.

Osiander's interest in astronomy was theological, hoping for "improving the chronology of historical events and thus providing more accurate apocalyptic interpretations of the Bible... [he shared in] the general awareness that the calendar was not in agreement with astronomical movement and therefore, needed to be corrected by devising better models on which to base calculations." In an era before the telescope, Osiander (like most of the era's mathematical astronomers) attempted to bridge the "fundamental incompatibility between Ptolemaic astronomy and Aristotlian physics, and the need to preserve both", by taking an 'instrumentalist' position. Only the handful of "Philosophical purists like the Averroists... demanded physical consistency and thus sought for realist models."

Copernicus was hampered by his insistence on preserving the idea that celestial bodies had to travel in perfect circles — he "was still attached to classical ideas of circular motion around deferents and epicycles, and spheres." This was particularly troubling concerning the Earth because he "attached the Earth's axis rigidly to a Sun-centered sphere. The unfortunate consequence was that the terrestrial rotation axis then maintained the same inclination with respect to the Sun as the sphere turned, eliminating the seasons." To explain the seasons, he had to propose a third motion, "an annual contrary conical sweep of the terrestrial axis". It was not until the Great Comet of 1577, which moved as if there were no spheres to crash through, that the idea was challenged. In 1609, Kepler fixed Copernicus' theory by stating that the planets orbit the sun not in circles, but ellipses. Only after Kepler's refinement of Copernicus' theory was the need for deferents and epicycles abolished.

In his work, Copernicus "used conventional, hypothetical devices like epicycles...as all astronomers had done since antiquity. ...hypothetical constructs solely designed to 'save the phenomena' and aid computation". Ptolemy's theory contained a hypothesis about the epicycle of Venus that was viewed as absurd if seen as anything other than a geometrical device (its brightness and distance should have varied greatly, but they don't). "In spite of this defect in Ptolemy's theory, Copernicus' hypothesis predicts approximately the same variations." Because of the use of similar terms and similar deficiencies, Osiander could see "little technical or physical truth-gain" between one system and the other. It was this attitude towards technical astronomy that had allowed it to "function since antiquity, despite its inconsistencies with the principles of physics and the philosophical objections of Averroists."

Writing Ad lectorem, Osiander was influenced by Pico della Mirandola's idea that humanity "orders [an intellectual] cosmos out of the chaos of opinions." From Pico's writings, Osiander "learned to extract and synthesize insights from many sources without becoming the slavish follower of any of them." The effect of Pico on Osiander was tempered by the influence of Nicholas of Cusa's and his idea of coincidentia oppositorum. Rather than having Pico's focus on human effort, Osiander followed Cusa's idea that understanding the Universe and its Creator only came from divine inspiration rather than intellectual organization. From these influences, Osiander held that in the area of philosophical speculation and scientific hypothesis there are "no heretics of the intellect", but when one gets past speculation into truth-claims the Bible is the ultimate measure. By holding Copernicianism was mathematical speculation, Osiander held that it would be silly to hold it up against the accounts of the Bible.

Pico's influence on Osiander did not escape Rheticus, who reacted strongly against the Ad lectorem. As historian Robert S. Westman puts it, "The more profound source of Rheticus's ire however, was Osiander's view of astronomy as a disciple fundamentally incapable of knowing anything with certainty. For Rheticus, this extreme position surely must have resonated uncomfortably with Pico della Mirandola's attack on the foundations of divinatory astrology."

In his Disputations, Pico had made a devastating attack on astrology. Because those who were making astrological predictions relied on astronomers to tell them where the planets were, they also became a target. Pico held that since astronomers who calculate planetary positions could not agree among themselves, how were they to be held as reliable? While Pico could bring into concordance writers like Aristotle, Plato, Plotinus, Averroes, Avicenna, and Aquinas, the lack of consensus he saw in astronomy was a proof to him of its fallibility alongside astrology. Pico pointed out that the astronomers' instruments were imprecise and any imperfection of even a degree made them worthless for astrology, people should not trust astrologists because they should not trust the numbers from astronomers. Pico pointed out that astronomers couldn't even tell where the Sun appeared in the order of the planets as they orbited the Earth (some put it close to the Moon, others among the planets). How, Pico asked, could astrologists possibly claim they could read what was going on when the astronomers they relied on could offer no precision on even basic questions?

As Westman points out, to Rheticus "it would seem that Osiander now offered new grounds for endorsing Pico's conclusions: not merely was the disagreement among astronomers grounds for mistrusting the sort of knowledge that they produced, but now Osiander proclaimed that astronomers might construct a world deduced from (possibly) false premises. Thus the conflict between Piconian skepticism and secure principles for the science of the stars was built right into the complex dedicatory apparatus of De Revolutionibus itself." According to the notes of Michael Maestlin, "Rheticus...became embroiled in a very bitter wrangle with the printer [over the Ad lectorem]. Rheticus...suspected Osiander had prefaced the work; if he knew this for certain, he declared, he would rough up the fellow so violently that in future he would mind his own business."

Objecting to the Ad lectorem, Tiedemann Giese urged the Nuremberg city council to issue a correction, but this was not done, and the matter was forgotten. Jan Broscius, a supporter of Copernicus, also despaired of the Ad lectorem, writing "Ptolemy's hypothesis is the earth rests. Copernicus' hypothesis is that the earth is in motion. Can either, therefore, be true? ... Indeed, Osiander deceives much with that preface of his ... Hence, someone may well ask: How is one to know which hypothesis is truer, the Ptolemaic or the Copernican?"

Petreius had sent a copy to Hieronymus Schreiber, an astronomer from Nürnberg who had substituted for Rheticus as professor of mathematics in Wittenberg while Rheticus was in Nürnberg supervising the printing.  Schreiber, who died in 1547, left in his copy of the book a note about Osiander's authorship. Via Michael Mästlin, this copy came to Johannes Kepler, who discovered what Osiander had done and methodically demonstrated that Osiander had indeed added the foreword. The most knowledgeable astronomers of the time had realized that the foreword was Osiander's doing.

Owen Gingerich gives a slightly different version: Kepler knew of Osiander's authorship since he had read about it in one of Schreiber's annotations in his copy of De Revolutionibus; Maestlin learned of the fact from Kepler. Indeed, Maestlin perused Kepler's book, up to the point of leaving a few annotations in it. However, Maestlin already suspected Osiander, because he had bought his De revolutionibus from the widow of Philipp Apian; examining his books, he had found a note attributing the introduction to Osiander.

Johannes Praetorius (1537–1616), who learned of Osiander's authorship from Rheticus during a visit to him in Kraków, wrote Osiander's name in the margin of the foreword in his copy of De revolutionibus.

All three early editions of De revolutionibus included Osiander's foreword.

Reception
Even before the 1543 publication of De revolutionibus, rumors circulated
about its central theses. Martin Luther is quoted as saying in 1539:

People gave ear to an upstart astrologer who strove to show that the earth revolves, not the heavens or the firmament, the sun and the moon ... This fool wishes to reverse the entire science of astronomy; but sacred Scripture tells us [Joshua 10:13] that Joshua commanded the sun to stand still, and not the earth.

When the book was finally published, demand was low, with an initial print run of 400 failing to sell out. Copernicus had made the book extremely technical, unreadable to all but the most advanced astronomers of the day, allowing it to disseminate into their ranks before stirring great controversy. And, like Osiander, contemporary mathematicians and astronomers encouraged its audience to view it as a useful mathematical model without necessarily being true about causes, thereby somewhat shielding it from accusations of blasphemy.

Among some astronomers, the book "at once took its place as a worthy successor to the Almagest of Ptolemy, which had hitherto been the Alpha and Omega of astronomers". Erasmus Reinhold hailed the work in 1542 and by 1551 had developed the Prutenic Tables ("Prussian Tables"; ; ) using Copernicus' methods. The Prutenic Tables, published in 1551, were used as a basis for the calendar reform instituted in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII. They were also used by sailors and maritime explorers, whose 15th-century predecessors had used Regiomontanus' Table of the Stars. In England, Robert Recorde, John Dee, Thomas Digges and William Gilbert were among those who adopted his position; in Germany, Christian Wurstisen, Christoph Rothmann and Michael Mästlin, the teacher of Johannes Kepler; in Italy, Giambattista Benedetti and Giordano Bruno whilst Franciscus Patricius accepted the rotation of the Earth. In Spain, rules published in 1561 for the curriculum of the University of Salamanca gave students the choice between studying Ptolemy or Copernicus. One of those students, Diego de Zúñiga, published an acceptance of Copernican theory in 1584.

Very soon, nevertheless, Copernicus' theory was attacked with Scripture and with the common Aristotelian proofs. In 1549, Melanchthon, Luther's principal lieutenant, wrote against Copernicus, pointing to the theory's apparent conflict with Scripture and advocating that "severe measures" be taken to restrain the impiety of Copernicans.
The works of Copernicus and Zúñiga—the latter for asserting that De revolutionibus was compatible with Catholic faith—were placed on the Index of Forbidden Books by a decree of the Sacred Congregation of March 5, 1616 (more than 70 years after Copernicus' publication):

This Holy Congregation has also learned about the spreading and acceptance by many of the false Pythagorean doctrine, altogether contrary to the Holy Scripture, that the earth moves and the sun is motionless, which is also taught by Nicholaus Copernicus' De revolutionibus orbium coelestium and by Diego de Zúñiga's In Job ... Therefore, in order that this opinion may not creep any further to the prejudice of Catholic truth, the Congregation has decided that the books by Nicolaus Copernicus [De revolutionibus] and Diego de Zúñiga [In Job] be suspended until corrected.

De revolutionibus was not formally banned but merely withdrawn from circulation, pending "corrections" that would clarify the theory's status as hypothesis. Nine sentences that represented the heliocentric system as certain were to be omitted or changed. After these corrections were prepared and formally approved in 1620 the reading of the book was permitted. But the book was never reprinted with the changes and was available in Catholic jurisdictions only to suitably qualified scholars, by special request. It remained on the Index until 1758, when Pope Benedict XIV (1740–58) removed the uncorrected book from his revised Index.

Census of copies
Arthur Koestler described De revolutionibus as "The Book That Nobody Read" saying the book "was and is an all-time worst seller", despite the fact that it was reprinted four times. Owen Gingerich, a writer on both Nicolaus Copernicus and Johannes Kepler, disproved this after a 35-year project to examine every surviving copy of the first two editions. Gingerich showed that nearly all the leading mathematicians and astronomers of the time owned and read the book; however, his analysis of the marginalia shows that they almost all ignored the cosmology at the beginning of the book and were only interested in Copernicus' new equant-free models of planetary motion in the later chapters. Also, Nicolaus Reimers in 1587 translated the book into German.

Gingerich's efforts and conclusions are recounted in The Book Nobody Read, published in 2004 by Walker & Co. His census included 276 copies of the first edition (by comparison, there are 228 extant copies of the First Folio of Shakespeare) and 325 copies of the second. The research behind this book earned its author the Polish government's Order of Merit in 1981. Due largely to  Gingerich's scholarship, De revolutionibus has been researched and catalogued better than any other first-edition historic text except for the original Gutenberg Bible.
One of the copies now resides at the Archives of the University of Santo Tomas in the Miguel de Benavides Library. In January 2017, a second-edition copy was stolen as part of a heist of rare books from Heathrow Airport and remains unrecovered.

Editions

 1543, Nuremberg, by Johannes Petreius a copy of this is held at University of Edinburgh, owned by an astronomer, who filled the pages with scholarly annotations,  and subsequently owned by the Scottish economist Adam Smith.
 1566, Basel, by Henricus Petrus
 1617, Amsterdam, by Nicolaus Mulerius
 1854, Warsaw, with Polish translation and the authentic preface by Copernicus.
 1873, Thorn, German translation sponsored by the local Coppernicus Society, with all Copernicus' textual corrections given as footnotes.

Translations
English translations of De revolutionibus have included:
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, translated by C. G. Wallis, Annapolis, St John's College Bookstore, 1939. Republished in volume 16 of the Great Books of the Western World, Chicago, Encyclopædia Britannica, 1952; in the series of the same name, published by the Franklin Library, Franklin Center, Philadelphia, 1985; in volume 15 of the second edition of the Great Books, Encyclopædia Britannica, 1990; and Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1995, Great Minds Series – Science, .
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, translated with an introduction and notes by A. M. Duncan, Newton Abbot, David & Charles, ; New York: Barnes and Noble, 1976, .
On the Revolutions; translation and commentary by Edward Rosen, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992, . (Foundations of Natural History. Originally published in Warsaw, Poland, 1978.)

See also
 List of most expensive books and manuscripts
 Wittenberg interpretation of Copernicus

Notes

References

Gassendi, Pierre: The Life of Copernicus, biography (1654), with notes by Olivier Thill (2002),  ()

 Analyses the varieties of argument used by Copernicus.
Heilbron, J.L.: The Sun in the Church: Cathedrals as Solar Observatories. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1999

Sobel, D, A More Perfect Heaven - How Copernicus Revolutionised the Cosmos, Bloomsbury 2011.
Swerdlow, N.M., O. Neugebauer: Mathematical astronomy in Copernicus' De revolutionibus. New York : Springer, 1984   (Studies in the history of mathematics and physical sciences ; 10)
Vermij, R.H.: The Calvinist Copernicans: The Reception of the New Astronomy in the Dutch Republic, 1575–1750 . Amsterdam : Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, 2002
Westman, R.S., ed.: The Copernican achievement. Berkeley : University of California Press, 1975
Zinner, E.: Entstehung und Ausbreitung der coppernicanischen Lehre. 2. Aufl. durchgesehen und erg. von Heribert M. Nobis und Felix Schmeidler. München : C.H. Beck, 1988

External links
Manuscript of De Revolutionibus by Nicolaus Copernicus, from Jagiellonian Library, Poland.

De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, from Harvard University.
De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, from Jagiellon University, Poland.
De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, from Rare Book Room.
On the Revolutions, from WebExhibits. English translation of part of Book I.
On the Revolutions, Warsaw-Cracow 1978. Full English translation.
River Campus Libraries, Book of the Month December 2005: De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
 A facsimile of De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (1543) from the Rare Book and Special Collection Division at the Library of Congress
De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (1566) From the Rare Book and Special Collection Division at the Library of Congress
A facsimile of De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (1543) with annotations by Michael Maestlin from Stadtbibliothek Schaffhausen (Schaffhausen City Library)

1543 books
1543 in science
History of astronomy
Astronomy books
16th-century Latin books
Memory of the World Register
Works by Nicolaus Copernicus
Copernican Revolution

De revolutionibus orbium coelestium


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