diff --git "a/wikipedia_9.txt" "b/wikipedia_9.txt" new file mode 100644--- /dev/null +++ "b/wikipedia_9.txt" @@ -0,0 +1,10000 @@ +1943 – Ronnie Campbell, English miner and politician + 1943 – Ben Sidran, American jazz and rock keyboardist +1945 – Steve Martin, American actor, comedian, musician, producer, and screenwriter + 1945 – Wim Wenders, German director, producer, and screenwriter +1946 – Antonio Fargas, American actor + 1946 – Larry Graham, American soul/funk bass player and singer-songwriter + 1946 – Susan Saint James, American actress + 1946 – Tom Walkinshaw, Scottish race car driver and businessman (d. 2010) +1947 – Maddy Prior, English folk singer + 1947 – Danielle Steel, American author + 1947 – Joop van Daele, Dutch footballer +1949 – Bob Backlund, American wrestler + 1949 – Morten Olsen, Danish footballer +1950 – Gary Larson, American cartoonist +1951 – Slim Dunlap, American singer-songwriter and guitarist + 1951 – Carl Lumbly, American actor +1952 – Debbie Meyer, American swimmer +1953 – James Horner, American composer and conductor (d. 2015) +1954 – Mark Fidrych, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2009) + 1954 – Stanley A. McChrystal, American general +1956 – Jackée Harry, American actress and television personality + 1956 – Andy King, English footballer and manager (d. 2015) + 1956 – Rusty Wallace, American race car driver +1957 – Peter Costello, Australian lawyer and politician +1959 – Frank Brickowski, American basketball player + 1959 – Marcia Gay Harden, American actress + 1959 – Magic Johnson, American basketball player and coach +1960 – Sarah Brightman, English singer and actress + 1960 – Fred Roberts, American basketball player +1961 – Susan Olsen, American actress and radio host +1962 – Mark Gubicza, American baseball player +1963 – José Cóceres, Argentinian golfer +1964 – Neal Anderson, American football player and coach + 1964 – Jason Dunstall, Australian footballer +1965 – Paul Broadhurst, English golfer +1966 – Halle Berry, American model, actress, and producer + 1966 – Karl Petter Løken, Swedish-Norwegian footballer +1968 – Ben Bass, American actor + 1968 – Catherine Bell, English-American actress and producer + 1968 – Darren Clarke, Northern Irish golfer + 1968 – Jason Leonard, English rugby player +1969 – Tracy Caldwell Dyson, American chemist and astronaut + 1969 – Stig Tøfting, Danish footballer +1970 – Kevin Cadogan, American rock guitarist +1971 – Raoul Bova, Italian actor, producer, and screenwriter + 1971 – Benito Carbone, Italian footballer + 1971 – Peter Franzén, Finnish actor + 1971 – Mark Loretta, American baseball player +1972 – Laurent Lamothe, Haitian businessman and politician, Prime Minister of Haiti +1973 – Jared Borgetti, Mexican footballer + 1973 – Kieren Perkins, Australian swimmer +1974 – Chucky Atkins, American basketball player + 1974 – Christopher Gorham, American actor +1975 – Mike Vrabel, American football player +1976 – Fabrizio Donato, Italian triple jumper +1977 – Juan Pierre, American baseball player +1978 – Anastasios Kyriakos, Greek footballer + 1978 – Greg Rawlinson, New Zealand rugby player +1979 – Paul Burgess, Australian pole vaulter +1980 – Peter Malinauskas, Australian politician, 47th Premier of South Australia +1981 – Earl Barron, American basketball player + 1981 – Paul Gallen, Australian rugby league player, boxer, and sportscaster + 1981 – Julius Jones, American football player + 1981 – Kofi Kingston, Ghanian-American wrestler + 1981 – Scott Lipsky, American tennis player +1983 – Elena Baltacha, Ukrainian-Scottish tennis player (d. 2014) + 1983 – Mila Kunis, Ukrainian-American actress + 1983 – Lamorne Morris, American actor and comedian + 1983 – Spencer Pratt, American television personality +1984 – Eva Birnerová, Czech tennis player + 1984 – Clay Buchholz, American baseball player + 1984 – Giorgio Chiellini, Italian footballer + 1984 – Josh Gorges, Canadian ice hockey player + 1984 – Nick Grimshaw, English radio and television host + 1984 – Nicola Slater, Scottish tennis player + 1984 – Robin Söderling, Swedish tennis player +1985 – Christian Gentner, German footballer + 1985 – Shea Weber, Canadian ice hockey player +1986 – Braian Rodríguez, Uruguayan footballer +1987 – Johnny Gargano, American wrestler + 1987 – David Peralta, Venezuelan baseball player + 1987 – Tim Tebow, American football and baseball player and sportscaster +1989 – Ander Herrera, Spanish footballer + 1989 – Kyle Turris, Canadian ice hockey player +1991 – Richard Freitag, German ski jumper +1991 – Giovanny Gallegos, Mexican baseball player +1995 – Léolia Jeanjean, French tennis player +1997 – Greet Minnen, Belgian tennis player +2004 – Marsai Martin, American actress and producer + +Deaths + +Pre-1600 + 582 – Tiberius II Constantine, Byzantine emperor +1040 – Duncan I of Scotland +1167 – Rainald of Dassel, Italian archbishop +1204 – Minamoto no Yoriie, second Shōgun of the Kamakura shogunate +1433 – John I of Portugal (b. 1357) +1464 – Pope Pius II (b. 1405) +1573 – Saitō Tatsuoki, Japanese daimyō (b. 1548) + +1601–1900 +1691 – Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell, Irish soldier and politician (b. 1630) +1716 – Madre María Rosa, Capuchin nun from Spain, to Peru (b. 1660) +1727 – William Croft, English organist and composer (b. 1678) +1774 – Johann Jakob Reiske, German physician and scholar (b. 1716) +1784 – Nathaniel Hone the Elder, Irish-born English painter and academic (b. 1718) +1852 – Margaret Taylor, First Lady of the United States (b. 1788) +1854 – Carl Carl, Polish-born actor and theatre director (b. 1787) +1860 – André Marie Constant Duméril, French zoologist and entomologist (b. 1774) +1870 – David Farragut, American admiral (b. 1801) +1890 – Michael J. McGivney, American priest, founded the Knights of Columbus (b. 1852) +1891 – Sarah Childress Polk, First Lady of the United States (b. 1803) + +1901–present +1905 – Simeon Solomon, English soldier and painter (b. 1840) +1909 – William Stanley, British engineer and author (b. 1829) +1922 – Rebecca Cole, American physician and social reformer (b. 1846) +1928 – Klabund, German author and poet (b. 1890) +1938 – Hugh Trumble, Australian cricketer and accountant (b. 1876) +1941 – Maximilian Kolbe, Polish martyr and saint (b. 1894) + 1941 – Paul Sabatier, French chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1854) +1943 – Joe Kelley, American baseball player and manager (b. 1871) +1948 – Eliška Misáková, Czech gymnast (b. 1926) +1951 – William Randolph Hearst, American publisher and politician, founded the Hearst Corporation (b. 1863) +1954 – Hugo Eckener, German pilot and designer (b. 1868) +1955 – Herbert Putnam, American lawyer and publisher, Librarian of Congress (b. 1861) +1956 – Bertolt Brecht, German poet, playwright, and director (b. 1898) + 1956 – Konstantin von Neurath, German lawyer and politician, Reich Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1873) +1958 – Frédéric Joliot-Curie, French physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1900) +1963 – Clifford Odets, American director, playwright, and screenwriter (b. 1906) +1964 – Johnny Burnette, American singer-songwriter (b. 1934) +1965 – Vello Kaaristo, Estonian skier (b. 1911) +1967 – Bob Anderson, English motorcycle racer and race car driver (b. 1931) +1972 – Oscar Levant, American actor, pianist, and composer (b. 1906) + 1972 – Jules Romains, French author and poet (b. 1885) +1973 – Fred Gipson, American journalist and author (b. 1908) +1978 – Nicolas Bentley, English author and illustrator (b. 1907) +1980 – Dorothy Stratten, Canadian-American model and actress (b. 1960) +1981 – Karl Böhm, Austrian conductor and director (b. 1894) + 1981 – Dudley Nourse, South African cricketer (b. 1910) +1982 – Mahasi Sayadaw, Burmese monk and philosopher (b. 1904) +1984 – Spud Davis, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1904) + 1984 – J. B. Priestley, English novelist and playwright (b. 1894) +1985 – Gale Sondergaard, American actress (b. 1899) +1988 – Roy Buchanan, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1939) + 1988 – Robert Calvert, South African-English singer-songwriter and playwright (b. 1945) + 1988 – Enzo Ferrari, Italian race car driver and businessman, founded Ferrari (b. 1898) +1991 – Alberto Crespo, Argentinian race car driver (b. 1920) +1992 – John Sirica, American lawyer and judge (b. 1904) +1994 – Elias Canetti, Bulgarian-Swiss author, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1905) + 1994 – Alice Childress, American actress, playwright, and author (b. 1912) +1996 – Sergiu Celibidache, Romanian conductor and composer (b. 1912) +1999 – Pee Wee Reese, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1918) +2002 – Larry Rivers, American painter and sculptor (b. 1923) +2003 – Helmut Rahn, German footballer (b. 1929) +2004 – Czesław Miłosz, Polish-born American novelist, essayist, and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1911) + 2004 – Trevor Skeet, New Zealand-English lawyer and politician (b. 1918) +2006 – Bruno Kirby, American actor (b. 1949) +2007 – Tikhon Khrennikov, Russian pianist and composer (b. 1913) +2010 – Herman Leonard, American photographer (b. 1923) +2012 – Vilasrao Deshmukh, Indian lawyer and politician, Chief Minister of Maharashtra (b. 1945) + 2012 – Svetozar Gligorić, Serbian chess player (b. 1923) + 2012 – Phyllis Thaxter, American actress (b. 1919) +2013 – Jack Germond, American journalist and author (b. 1928) +2014 – Leonard Fein, American journalist and academic, co-founded Moment Magazine (b. 1934) + 2014 – George V. Hansen, American politician (b. 1930) +2015 – Bob Johnston, American songwriter and producer (b. 1932) +2016 – Fyvush Finkel, American actor (b. 1922) +2018 – Jill Janus, American singer (b. 1975) +2019 – Polly Farmer, Australian footballer and coach (b. 1935) +2020 – Julian Bream, English classical guitarist and lutenist (b. 1933) + 2020 – Angela Buxton, British tennis player (b. 1934) + 2020 – James R. Thompson, American politician, Governor of Illinois (b. 1936) +2021 – Michael Aung-Thwin, American historian and scholar of Burmese and Southeast Asian history (b. 1946) + +Holidays and observances +Christian feast day: +Arnold of Soissons +Domingo Ibáñez de Erquicia +Eusebius of Rome +Jonathan Myrick Daniels (Episcopal Church) +Maximilian Kolbe +Falklands Day is the celebration of the first sighting of the Falkland Islands by John Davis in 1592. +Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Pakistan from the United Kingdom in 1947. +Partition Horrors Remembrance Day commemorates the victims and sufferings of people during the Partition of India in 1947. + +References + +External links + + + + + +Days of the year +August +Absolute zero is the lowest limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale; a state at which the enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reach their minimum value, taken as zero kelvin. The fundamental particles of nature have minimum vibrational motion, retaining only quantum mechanical, zero-point energy-induced particle motion. The theoretical temperature is determined by extrapolating the ideal gas law; by international agreement, absolute zero is taken as −273.15 degrees on the Celsius scale (International System of Units), which equals −459.67 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale (United States customary units or imperial units). The corresponding Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales set their zero points at absolute zero by definition. + +It is commonly thought of as the lowest temperature possible, but it is not the lowest enthalpy state possible, because all real substances begin to depart from the ideal gas when cooled as they approach the change of state to liquid, and then to solid; and the sum of the enthalpy of vaporization (gas to liquid) and enthalpy of fusion (liquid to solid) exceeds the ideal gas's change in enthalpy to absolute zero. In the quantum-mechanical description, matter at absolute zero is in its ground state, the point of lowest internal energy. + +The laws of thermodynamics indicate that absolute zero cannot be reached using only thermodynamic means, because the temperature of the substance being cooled approaches the temperature of the cooling agent asymptotically. Even a system at absolute zero, if it could somehow be achieved, would still possess quantum mechanical zero-point energy, the energy of its ground state at absolute zero; the kinetic energy of the ground state cannot be removed. + +Scientists and technologists routinely achieve temperatures close to absolute zero, where matter exhibits quantum effects such as Bose–Einstein condensate, superconductivity and superfluidity. + +Thermodynamics near absolute zero +At temperatures near , nearly all molecular motion ceases and ΔS = 0 for any adiabatic process, where S is the entropy. In such a circumstance, pure substances can (ideally) form perfect crystals with no structural imperfections as T → 0. Max Planck's strong form of the third law of thermodynamics states the entropy of a perfect crystal vanishes at absolute zero. The original Nernst heat theorem makes the weaker and less controversial claim that the entropy change for any isothermal process approaches zero as T → 0: + +The implication is that the entropy of a perfect crystal approaches a constant value. An adiabat is a state with constant entropy, typically represented on a graph as a curve in a manner similar to isotherms and isobars. + +The Nernst postulate identifies the isotherm T = 0 as coincident with the adiabat S = 0, although other isotherms and adiabats are distinct. As no two adiabats intersect, no other adiabat can intersect the T = 0 isotherm. Consequently no adiabatic process initiated at nonzero temperature can lead to zero temperature. (≈ Callen, pp. 189–190) + +A perfect crystal is one in which the internal lattice structure extends uninterrupted in all directions. The perfect order can be represented by translational symmetry along three (not usually orthogonal) axes. Every lattice element of the structure is in its proper place, whether it is a single atom or a molecular grouping. For substances that exist in two (or more) stable crystalline forms, such as diamond and graphite for carbon, there is a kind of chemical degeneracy. The question remains whether both can have zero entropy at T = 0 even though each is perfectly ordered. + +Perfect crystals never occur in practice; imperfections, and even entire amorphous material inclusions, can and do get "frozen in" at low temperatures, so transitions to more stable states do not occur. + +Using the Debye model, the specific heat and entropy of a pure crystal are proportional to T 3, while the enthalpy and chemical potential are proportional to T 4. (Guggenheim, p. 111) These quantities drop toward their T = 0 limiting values and approach with zero slopes. For the specific heats at least, the limiting value itself is definitely zero, as borne out by experiments to below 10 K. Even the less detailed Einstein model shows this curious drop in specific heats. In fact, all specific heats vanish at absolute zero, not just those of crystals. Likewise for the coefficient of thermal expansion. Maxwell's relations show that various other quantities also vanish. These phenomena were unanticipated. + +Since the relation between changes in Gibbs free energy (G), the enthalpy (H) and the entropy is + +thus, as T decreases, ΔG and ΔH approach each other (so long as ΔS is bounded). Experimentally, it is found that all spontaneous processes (including chemical reactions) result in a decrease in G as they proceed toward equilibrium. If ΔS and/or T are small, the condition ΔG < 0 may imply that ΔH < 0, which would indicate an exothermic reaction. However, this is not required; endothermic reactions can proceed spontaneously if the TΔS term is large enough. + +Moreover, the slopes of the derivatives of ΔG and ΔH converge and are equal to zero at T = 0. This ensures that ΔG and ΔH are nearly the same over a considerable range of temperatures and justifies the approximate empirical Principle of Thomsen and Berthelot, which states that the equilibrium state to which a system proceeds is the one that evolves the greatest amount of heat, i.e., an actual process is the most exothermic one. (Callen, pp. 186–187) + +One model that estimates the properties of an electron gas at absolute zero in metals is the Fermi gas. The electrons, being fermions, must be in different quantum states, which leads the electrons to get very high typical velocities, even at absolute zero. The maximum energy that electrons can have at absolute zero is called the Fermi energy. The Fermi temperature is defined as this maximum energy divided by the Boltzmann constant, and is on the order of 80,000 K for typical electron densities found in metals. For temperatures significantly below the Fermi temperature, the electrons behave in almost the same way as at absolute zero. This explains the failure of the classical equipartition theorem for metals that eluded classical physicists in the late 19th century. + +Relation with Bose–Einstein condensate + +A Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) is a state of matter of a dilute gas of weakly interacting bosons confined in an external potential and cooled to temperatures very near absolute zero. Under such conditions, a large fraction of the bosons occupy the lowest quantum state of the external potential, at which point quantum effects become apparent on a macroscopic scale. + +This state of matter was first predicted by Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein in 1924–25. Bose first sent a paper to Einstein on the quantum statistics of light quanta (now called photons). Einstein was impressed, translated the paper from English to German and submitted it for Bose to the Zeitschrift für Physik, which published it. Einstein then extended Bose's ideas to material particles (or matter) in two other papers. + +Seventy years later, in 1995, the first gaseous condensate was produced by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman at the University of Colorado at Boulder NIST-JILA lab, using a gas of rubidium atoms cooled to 170 nanokelvin (nK) (). + +A record cold temperature of 450 ± 80 picokelvin (pK) () in a BEC of sodium atoms was achieved in 2003 by researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). The associated black-body (peak emittance) wavelength of 6,400 kilometers is roughly the radius of Earth. + +Absolute temperature scales +Absolute, or thermodynamic, temperature is conventionally measured in kelvin (Celsius-scaled increments) and in the Rankine scale (Fahrenheit-scaled increments) with increasing rarity. Absolute temperature measurement is uniquely determined by a multiplicative constant which specifies the size of the degree, so the ratios of two absolute temperatures, T2/T1, are the same in all scales. The most transparent definition of this standard comes from the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. It can also be found in Fermi–Dirac statistics (for particles of half-integer spin) and Bose–Einstein statistics (for particles of integer spin). All of these define the relative numbers of particles in a system as decreasing exponential functions of energy (at the particle level) over kT, with k representing the Boltzmann constant and T representing the temperature observed at the macroscopic level. + +Negative temperatures + +Temperatures that are expressed as negative numbers on the familiar Celsius or Fahrenheit scales are simply colder than the zero points of those scales. Certain systems can achieve truly negative temperatures; that is, their thermodynamic temperature (expressed in kelvins) can be of a negative quantity. A system with a truly negative temperature is not colder than absolute zero. Rather, a system with a negative temperature is hotter than any system with a positive temperature, in the sense that if a negative-temperature system and a positive-temperature system come in contact, heat flows from the negative to the positive-temperature system. + +Most familiar systems cannot achieve negative temperatures because adding energy always increases their entropy. However, some systems have a maximum amount of energy that they can hold, and as they approach that maximum energy their entropy actually begins to decrease. Because temperature is defined by the relationship between energy and entropy, such a system's temperature becomes negative, even though energy is being added. As a result, the Boltzmann factor for states of systems at negative temperature increases rather than decreases with increasing state energy. Therefore, no complete system, i.e. including the electromagnetic modes, can have negative temperatures, since there is no highest energy state, so that the sum of the probabilities of the states would diverge for negative temperatures. However, for quasi-equilibrium systems (e.g. spins out of equilibrium with the electromagnetic field) this argument does not apply, and negative effective temperatures are attainable. + +On 3 January 2013, physicists announced that for the first time they had created a quantum gas made up of potassium atoms with a negative temperature in motional degrees of freedom. + +History + +One of the first to discuss the possibility of an absolute minimal temperature was Robert Boyle. His 1665 New Experiments and Observations touching Cold, articulated the dispute known as the primum frigidum. The concept was well known among naturalists of the time. Some contended an absolute minimum temperature occurred within earth (as one of the four classical elements), others within water, others air, and some more recently within nitre. But all of them seemed to agree that, "There is some body or other that is of its own nature supremely cold and by participation of which all other bodies obtain that quality." + +Limit to the "degree of cold" +The question whether there is a limit to the degree of coldness possible, and, if so, where the zero must be placed, was first addressed by the French physicist Guillaume Amontons in 1702, in connection with his improvements in the air thermometer. His instrument indicated temperatures by the height at which a certain mass of air sustained a column of mercury—the volume, or "spring" of the air varying with temperature. Amontons therefore argued that the zero of his thermometer would be that temperature at which the spring of the air was reduced to nothing. He used a scale that marked the boiling point of water at +73 and the melting point of ice at +, so that the zero was equivalent to about −240 on the Celsius scale. Amontons held that the absolute zero cannot be reached, so never attempted to compute it explicitly. +The value of −240 °C, or "431 divisions [in Fahrenheit's thermometer] below the cold of freezing water" was published by George Martine in 1740. + +This close approximation to the modern value of −273.15 °C for the zero of the air thermometer was further improved upon in 1779 by Johann Heinrich Lambert, who observed that might be regarded as absolute cold. + +Values of this order for the absolute zero were not, however, universally accepted about this period. Pierre-Simon Laplace and Antoine Lavoisier, in their 1780 treatise on heat, arrived at values ranging from 1,500 to 3,000 below the freezing point of water, and thought that in any case it must be at least 600 below. John Dalton in his Chemical Philosophy gave ten calculations of this value, and finally adopted −3,000 °C as the natural zero of temperature. + +Charles's law +From 1787 to 1802, it was determined by Jacques Charles (unpublished), John Dalton, and Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac that, at constant pressure, ideal gases expanded or contracted their volume linearly (Charles's law) by about 1/273 parts per degree Celsius of temperature's change up or down, between 0° and 100° C. This suggested that the volume of a gas cooled at about −273 °C would reach zero. + +Lord Kelvin's work +After James Prescott Joule had determined the mechanical equivalent of heat, Lord Kelvin approached the question from an entirely different point of view, and in 1848 devised a scale of absolute temperature that was independent of the properties of any particular substance and was based on Carnot's theory of the Motive Power of Heat and data published by Henri Victor Regnault. It followed from the principles on which this scale was constructed that its zero was placed at −273 °C, at almost precisely the same point as the zero of the air thermometer, where the air volume would reach "nothing". This value was not immediately accepted; values ranging from to , derived from laboratory measurements and observations of astronomical refraction, remained in use in the early 20th century. + +The race to absolute zero + +With a better theoretical understanding of absolute zero, scientists were eager to reach this temperature in the lab. By 1845, Michael Faraday had managed to liquefy most gases then known to exist, and reached a new record for lowest temperatures by reaching . Faraday believed that certain gases, such as oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen, were permanent gases and could not be liquefied. Decades later, in 1873 Dutch theoretical scientist Johannes Diderik van der Waals demonstrated that these gases could be liquefied, but only under conditions of very high pressure and very low temperatures. In 1877, Louis Paul Cailletet in France and Raoul Pictet in Switzerland succeeded in producing the first droplets of liquid air . This was followed in 1883 by the production of liquid oxygen by the Polish professors Zygmunt Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski. + +Scottish chemist and physicist James Dewar and Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes took on the challenge to liquefy the remaining gases, hydrogen and helium. In 1898, after 20 years of effort, Dewar was the first to liquefy hydrogen, reaching a new low-temperature record of . However, Kamerlingh Onnes, his rival, was the first to liquefy helium, in 1908, using several precooling stages and the Hampson–Linde cycle. He lowered the temperature to the boiling point of helium . By reducing the pressure of the liquid helium, he achieved an even lower temperature, near 1.5 K. These were the coldest temperatures achieved on Earth at the time and his achievement earned him the Nobel Prize in 1913. Kamerlingh Onnes would continue to study the properties of materials at temperatures near absolute zero, describing superconductivity and superfluids for the first time. + +Very low temperatures + +The average temperature of the universe today is approximately , or about −270.42 °C, based on measurements of cosmic microwave background radiation. Standard models of the future expansion of the universe predict that the average temperature of the universe is decreasing over time. This temperature is calculated as the mean density of energy in space; it should not be confused with the mean electron temperature (total energy divided by particle count) which has increased over time. + +Absolute zero cannot be achieved, although it is possible to reach temperatures close to it through the use of evaporative cooling, cryocoolers, dilution refrigerators, and nuclear adiabatic demagnetization. The use of laser cooling has produced temperatures of less than a billionth of a kelvin. At very low temperatures in the vicinity of absolute zero, matter exhibits many unusual properties, including superconductivity, superfluidity, and Bose–Einstein condensation. To study such phenomena, scientists have worked to obtain even lower temperatures. + In November 2000, nuclear spin temperatures below 100 pK were reported for an experiment at the Helsinki University of Technology's Low Temperature Lab in Espoo, Finland. However, this was the temperature of one particular degree of freedom—a quantum property called nuclear spin—not the overall average thermodynamic temperature for all possible degrees in freedom. + In February 2003, the Boomerang Nebula was observed to have been releasing gases at a speed of for the last 1,500 years. This has cooled it down to approximately 1 K, as deduced by astronomical observation, which is the lowest natural temperature ever recorded. + In November 2003, 90377 Sedna was discovered and is one of the coldest known objects in the Solar System. With an average surface temperature of -400°F (-240°C), due to its extremely far orbit of 903 astronomical units. + In May 2005, the European Space Agency proposed research in space to achieve femtokelvin temperatures. + In May 2006, the Institute of Quantum Optics at the University of Hannover gave details of technologies and benefits of femtokelvin research in space. + In January 2013, physicist Ulrich Schneider of the University of Munich in Germany reported to have achieved temperatures formally below absolute zero ("negative temperature") in gases. The gas is artificially forced out of equilibrium into a high potential energy state, which is, however, cold. When it then emits radiation it approaches the equilibrium, and can continue emitting despite reaching formal absolute zero; thus, the temperature is formally negative. + In September 2014, scientists in the CUORE collaboration at the Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso in Italy cooled a copper vessel with a volume of one cubic meter to for 15 days, setting a record for the lowest temperature in the known universe over such a large contiguous volume. + In June 2015, experimental physicists at MIT cooled molecules in a gas of sodium potassium to a temperature of 500 nanokelvin, and it is expected to exhibit an exotic state of matter by cooling these molecules somewhat further. + In 2017, Cold Atom Laboratory (CAL), an experimental instrument was developed for launch to the International Space Station (ISS) in 2018. The instrument has created extremely cold conditions in the microgravity environment of the ISS leading to the formation of Bose–Einstein condensates. In this space-based laboratory, temperatures as low as 1 picokelvin (10−12 K) are projected to be achievable, and it could further the exploration of unknown quantum mechanical phenomena and test some of the most fundamental laws of physics. + The current world record for effective temperatures was set in 2021 at 38 picokelvin (pK), or 0.000000000038 of a kelvin, through matter-wave lensing of rubidium Bose–Einstein condensates. + +See also + + Kelvin (unit of temperature) + Charles's law + Heat + International Temperature Scale of 1990 + Orders of magnitude (temperature) + Thermodynamic temperature + Triple point + Ultracold atom + Kinetic energy + Entropy + Planck temperature and Hagedorn temperature, hypothetical upper limits to the thermodynamic temperature scale + +References + +Further reading + + + + + BIPM Mise en pratique - Kelvin - Appendix 2 - SI Brochure + +External links + "Absolute zero": a two part NOVA episode originally aired January 2008 + "What is absolute zero?" Lansing State Journal + +Cold +Cryogenics +Temperature +In thermodynamics, an adiabatic process (Greek: adiábatos, "impassable") is a type of thermodynamic process that occurs without transferring heat or mass between the thermodynamic system and its environment. Unlike an isothermal process, an adiabatic process transfers energy to the surroundings only as work. As a key concept in thermodynamics, the adiabatic process supports the theory that explains the first law of thermodynamics. + +Some chemical and physical processes occur too rapidly for energy to enter or leave the system as heat, allowing a convenient "adiabatic approximation". For example, the adiabatic flame temperature uses this approximation to calculate the upper limit of flame temperature by assuming combustion loses no heat to its surroundings. + +In meteorology and oceanography, adiabatic expanding produces condensation of moisture or salinity, oversaturating the parcel. Therefore, the excess must be removed. There, the process becomes a pseudo-adiabatic process whereby the liquid water or salt that condenses is assumed to be removed upon formation by idealized instantaneous precipitation. The pseudoadiabatic process is only defined for expansion because a compressed parcel becomes warmer and remains undersaturated. + +Description + +A process without transfer of heat to or from a system, so that , is called adiabatic, and such a system is said to be adiabatically isolated. The simplifying assumption frequently made is that a process is adiabatic. For example, the compression of a gas within a cylinder of an engine is assumed to occur so rapidly that on the time scale of the compression process, little of the system's energy can be transferred out as heat to the surroundings. Even though the cylinders are not insulated and are quite conductive, that process is idealized to be adiabatic. The same can be said to be true for the expansion process of such a system. + +The assumption of adiabatic isolation is useful and often combined with other such idealizations to calculate a good first approximation of a system's behaviour. For example, according to Laplace, when sound travels in a gas, there is no time for heat conduction in the medium, and so the propagation of sound is adiabatic. For such an adiabatic process, the modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus) can be expressed as , where is the ratio of specific heats at constant pressure and at constant volume () and is the pressure of the gas. + +Various applications of the adiabatic assumption + +For a closed system, one may write the first law of thermodynamics as , where denotes the change of the system's internal energy, the quantity of energy added to it as heat, and the work done by the system on its surroundings. + +If the system has such rigid walls that work cannot be transferred in or out (), and the walls are not adiabatic and energy is added in the form of heat (), and there is no phase change, then the temperature of the system will rise. +If the system has such rigid walls that pressure–volume work cannot be done, but the walls are adiabatic (), and energy is added as isochoric (constant volume) work in the form of friction or the stirring of a viscous fluid within the system (), and there is no phase change, then the temperature of the system will rise. +If the system walls are adiabatic () but not rigid (), and, in a fictive idealized process, energy is added to the system in the form of frictionless, non-viscous pressure–volume work (), and there is no phase change, then the temperature of the system will rise. Such a process is called an isentropic process and is said to be "reversible". Ideally, if the process were reversed the energy could be recovered entirely as work done by the system. If the system contains a compressible gas and is reduced in volume, the uncertainty of the position of the gas is reduced, and seemingly would reduce the entropy of the system, but the temperature of the system will rise as the process is isentropic (). Should the work be added in such a way that friction or viscous forces are operating within the system, then the process is not isentropic, and if there is no phase change, then the temperature of the system will rise, the process is said to be "irreversible", and the work added to the system is not entirely recoverable in the form of work. +If the walls of a system are not adiabatic, and energy is transferred in as heat, entropy is transferred into the system with the heat. Such a process is neither adiabatic nor isentropic, having , and according to the second law of thermodynamics. + +Naturally occurring adiabatic processes are irreversible (entropy is produced). + +The transfer of energy as work into an adiabatically isolated system can be imagined as being of two idealized extreme kinds. In one such kind, no entropy is produced within the system (no friction, viscous dissipation, etc.), and the work is only pressure-volume work (denoted by ). In nature, this ideal kind occurs only approximately because it demands an infinitely slow process and no sources of dissipation. + +The other extreme kind of work is isochoric work (), for which energy is added as work solely through friction or viscous dissipation within the system. A stirrer that transfers energy to a viscous fluid of an adiabatically isolated system with rigid walls, without phase change, will cause a rise in temperature of the fluid, but that work is not recoverable. Isochoric work is irreversible. The second law of thermodynamics observes that a natural process, of transfer of energy as work, always consists at least of isochoric work and often both of these extreme kinds of work. Every natural process, adiabatic or not, is irreversible, with , as friction or viscosity are always present to some extent. + +Adiabatic compression and expansion +The adiabatic compression of a gas causes a rise in temperature of the gas. Adiabatic expansion against pressure, or a spring, causes a drop in temperature. In contrast, free expansion is an isothermal process for an ideal gas. + +Adiabatic compression occurs when the pressure of a gas is increased by work done on it by its surroundings, e.g., a piston compressing a gas contained within a cylinder and raising the temperature where in many practical situations heat conduction through walls can be slow compared with the compression time. This finds practical application in diesel engines which rely on the lack of heat dissipation during the compression stroke to elevate the fuel vapor temperature sufficiently to ignite it. + +Adiabatic compression occurs in the Earth's atmosphere when an air mass descends, for example, in a Katabatic wind, Foehn wind, or Chinook wind flowing downhill over a mountain range. When a parcel of air descends, the pressure on the parcel increases. Because of this increase in pressure, the parcel's volume decreases and its temperature increases as work is done on the parcel of air, thus increasing its internal energy, which manifests itself by a rise in the temperature of that mass of air. The parcel of air can only slowly dissipate the energy by conduction or radiation (heat), and to a first approximation it can be considered adiabatically isolated and the process an adiabatic process. + +Adiabatic expansion occurs when the pressure on an adiabatically isolated system is decreased, allowing it to expand in size, thus causing it to do work on its surroundings. When the pressure applied on a parcel of gas is reduced, the gas in the parcel is allowed to expand; as the volume increases, the temperature falls as its internal energy decreases. Adiabatic expansion occurs in the Earth's atmosphere with orographic lifting and lee waves, and this can form pilei or lenticular clouds. + +Due in part to adiabatic expansion in mountainous areas, snowfall infrequently occurs in some parts of the Sahara desert. + +Adiabatic expansion does not have to involve a fluid. One technique used to reach very low temperatures (thousandths and even millionths of a degree above absolute zero) is via adiabatic demagnetisation, where the change in magnetic field on a magnetic material is used to provide adiabatic expansion. Also, the contents of an expanding universe can be described (to first order) as an adiabatically expanding fluid. (See heat death of the universe.) + +Rising magma also undergoes adiabatic expansion before eruption, particularly significant in the case of magmas that rise quickly from great depths such as kimberlites. + +In the Earth's convecting mantle (the asthenosphere) beneath the lithosphere, the mantle temperature is approximately an adiabat. The slight decrease in temperature with shallowing depth is due to the decrease in pressure the shallower the material is in the Earth. + +Such temperature changes can be quantified using the ideal gas law, or the hydrostatic equation for atmospheric processes. + +In practice, no process is truly adiabatic. Many processes rely on a large difference in time scales of the process of interest and the rate of heat dissipation across a system boundary, and thus are approximated by using an adiabatic assumption. There is always some heat loss, as no perfect insulators exist. + +Ideal gas (reversible process) + +The mathematical equation for an ideal gas undergoing a reversible (i.e., no entropy generation) adiabatic process can be represented by the polytropic process equation + +where is pressure, is volume, and is the adiabatic index or heat capacity ratio defined as + +Here is the specific heat for constant pressure, is the specific heat for constant volume, and is the number of degrees of freedom (3 for a monatomic gas, 5 for a diatomic gas or a gas of linear molecules such as carbon dioxide). + +For a monatomic ideal gas, , and for a diatomic gas (such as nitrogen and oxygen, the main components of air), . Note that the above formula is only applicable to classical ideal gases (that is, gases far above absolute zero temperature) and not Bose–Einstein or Fermi gases. + +One can also use the ideal gas law to rewrite the above relationship between and as + + + + + +where T is the absolute or thermodynamic temperature. + +Example of adiabatic compression +The compression stroke in a gasoline engine can be used as an example of adiabatic compression. The model assumptions are: the uncompressed volume of the cylinder is one litre (1 L = 1000 cm3 = 0.001 m3); the gas within is the air consisting of molecular nitrogen and oxygen only (thus a diatomic gas with 5 degrees of freedom, and so ); the compression ratio of the engine is 10:1 (that is, the 1 L volume of uncompressed gas is reduced to 0.1 L by the piston); and the uncompressed gas is at approximately room temperature and pressure (a warm room temperature of ~27 °C, or 300 K, and a pressure of 1 bar = 100 kPa, i.e. typical sea-level atmospheric pressure). + + + +so the adiabatic constant for this example is about 6.31 Pa m4.2. + +The gas is now compressed to a 0.1 L (0.0001 m3) volume, which we assume happens quickly enough that no heat enters or leaves the gas through the walls. The adiabatic constant remains the same, but with the resulting pressure unknown + + + +We can now solve for the final pressure + + +or 25.1 bar. This pressure increase is more than a simple 10:1 compression ratio would indicate; this is because the gas is not only compressed, but the work done to compress the gas also increases its internal energy, which manifests itself by a rise in the gas temperature and an additional rise in pressure above what would result from a simplistic calculation of 10 times the original pressure. + +We can solve for the temperature of the compressed gas in the engine cylinder as well, using the ideal gas law, PV = nRT (n is amount of gas in moles and R the gas constant for that gas). Our initial conditions being 100 kPa of pressure, 1 L volume, and 300 K of temperature, our experimental constant (nR) is: + + + +We know the compressed gas has  = 0.1 L and  = , so we can solve for temperature: + + + +That is a final temperature of 753 K, or 479 °C, or 896 °F, well above the ignition point of many fuels. This is why a high-compression engine requires fuels specially formulated to not self-ignite (which would cause engine knocking when operated under these conditions of temperature and pressure), or that a supercharger with an intercooler to provide a pressure boost but with a lower temperature rise would be advantageous. A diesel engine operates under even more extreme conditions, with compression ratios of 16:1 or more being typical, in order to provide a very high gas pressure, which ensures immediate ignition of the injected fuel. + +Adiabatic free expansion of a gas + +For an adiabatic free expansion of an ideal gas, the gas is contained in an insulated container and then allowed to expand in a vacuum. Because there is no external pressure for the gas to expand against, the work done by or on the system is zero. Since this process does not involve any heat transfer or work, the first law of thermodynamics then implies that the net internal energy change of the system is zero. For an ideal gas, the temperature remains constant because the internal energy only depends on temperature in that case. Since at constant temperature, the entropy is proportional to the volume, the entropy increases in this case, therefore this process is irreversible. + +Derivation of P–V relation for adiabatic compression and expansion +The definition of an adiabatic process is that heat transfer to the system is zero, . Then, according to the first law of thermodynamics, + +where is the change in the internal energy of the system and is work done by the system. Any work () done must be done at the expense of internal energy , since no heat is being supplied from the surroundings. Pressure–volume work done by the system is defined as + +However, does not remain constant during an adiabatic process but instead changes along with . + +It is desired to know how the values of and relate to each other as the adiabatic process proceeds. For an ideal gas (recall ideal gas law ) the internal energy is given by + +where is the number of degrees of freedom divided by 2, is the universal gas constant and is the number of moles in the system (a constant). + +Differentiating equation (a3) yields + +Equation (a4) is often expressed as because . + +Now substitute equations (a2) and (a4) into equation (a1) to obtain + + + +factorize : + + + +and divide both sides by : + + + +After integrating the left and right sides from to and from to and changing the sides respectively, + + + +Exponentiate both sides, substitute with , the heat capacity ratio + + + +and eliminate the negative sign to obtain + + + +Therefore, + + + +and + + + +At the same time, the work done by the pressure–volume changes as a result from this process, is equal to + +Since we require the process to be adiabatic, the following equation needs to be true + +By the previous derivation, + +Rearranging (b4) gives + +Substituting this into (b2) gives + +Integrating we obtain the expression for work, + +Substituting in second term, + +Rearranging, + +Using the ideal gas law and assuming a constant molar quantity (as often happens in practical cases), + +By the continuous formula, + +or + +Substituting into the previous expression for , + +Substituting this expression and (b1) in (b3) gives + +Simplifying, + +Derivation of discrete formula and work expression +The change in internal energy of a system, measured from state 1 to state 2, is equal to + +At the same time, the work done by the pressure–volume changes as a result from this process, is equal to + +Since we require the process to be adiabatic, the following equation needs to be true + +By the previous derivation, + +Rearranging (c4) gives + +Substituting this into (c2) gives + +Integrating we obtain the expression for work, + +Substituting in second term, + +Rearranging, + +Using the ideal gas law and assuming a constant molar quantity (as often happens in practical cases), + +By the continuous formula, + +or + +Substituting into the previous expression for , + +Substituting this expression and (c1) in (c3) gives + +Simplifying, + +Graphing adiabats + +An adiabat is a curve of constant entropy in a diagram. Some properties of adiabats on a P–V diagram are indicated. These properties may be read from the classical behaviour of ideal gases, except in the region where PV becomes small (low temperature), where quantum effects become important. + + Every adiabat asymptotically approaches both the V axis and the P axis (just like isotherms). + Each adiabat intersects each isotherm exactly once. + An adiabat looks similar to an isotherm, except that during an expansion, an adiabat loses more pressure than an isotherm, so it has a steeper inclination (more vertical). + If isotherms are concave towards the north-east direction (45°), then adiabats are concave towards the east north-east (31°). + If adiabats and isotherms are graphed at regular intervals of entropy and temperature, respectively (like altitude on a contour map), then as the eye moves towards the axes (towards the south-west), it sees the density of isotherms stay constant, but it sees the density of adiabats grow. The exception is very near absolute zero, where the density of adiabats drops sharply and they become rare (see Nernst's theorem). + +The right diagram is a P–V diagram with a superposition of adiabats and isotherms: + +The isotherms are the red curves and the adiabats are the black curves. + +The adiabats are isentropic. + +Volume is the horizontal axis and pressure is the vertical axis. + +Etymology +The term adiabatic () is an anglicization of the Greek term ἀδιάβατος "impassable" (used by Xenophon of rivers). It is used in the thermodynamic sense by Rankine (1866), and adopted by Maxwell in 1871 (explicitly attributing the term to Rankine). +The etymological origin corresponds here to an impossibility of transfer of energy as heat and of transfer of matter across the wall. + +The Greek word ἀδιάβατος is formed from privative ἀ- ("not") and διαβατός, "passable", in turn deriving from διά ("through"), and βαῖνειν ("to walk, go, come"). + +Conceptual significance in thermodynamic theory + +The adiabatic process has been important for thermodynamics since its early days. It was important in the work of Joule because it provided a way of nearly directly relating quantities of heat and work. + +Energy can enter or leave a thermodynamic system enclosed by walls that prevent mass transfer only as heat or work. Therefore, a quantity of work in such a system can be related almost directly to an equivalent quantity of heat in a cycle of two limbs. The first limb is an isochoric adiabatic work process increasing the system's internal energy; the second, an isochoric and workless heat transfer returning the system to its original state. Accordingly, Rankine measured quantity of heat in units of work, rather than as a calorimetric quantity. In 1854, Rankine used a quantity that he called "the thermodynamic function" that later was called entropy, and at that time he wrote also of the "curve of no transmission of heat", which he later called an adiabatic curve. Besides its two isothermal limbs, Carnot's cycle has two adiabatic limbs. + +For the foundations of thermodynamics, the conceptual importance of this was emphasized by Bryan, by Carathéodory, and by Born. The reason is that calorimetry presupposes a type of temperature as already defined before the statement of the first law of thermodynamics, such as one based on empirical scales. Such a presupposition involves making the distinction between empirical temperature and absolute temperature. Rather, the definition of absolute thermodynamic temperature is best left till the second law is available as a conceptual basis. + +In the eighteenth century, the law of conservation of energy was not yet fully formulated or established, and the nature of heat was debated. One approach to these problems was to regard heat, measured by calorimetry, as a primary substance that is conserved in quantity. By the middle of the nineteenth century, it was recognized as a form of energy, and the law of conservation of energy was thereby also recognized. The view that eventually established itself, and is currently regarded as right, is that the law of conservation of energy is a primary axiom, and that heat is to be analyzed as consequential. In this light, heat cannot be a component of the total energy of a single body because it is not a state variable but, rather, a variable that describes a transfer between two bodies. The adiabatic process is important because it is a logical ingredient of this current view. + +Divergent usages of the word adiabatic +This present article is written from the viewpoint of macroscopic thermodynamics, and the word adiabatic is used in this article in the traditional way of thermodynamics, introduced by Rankine. It is pointed out in the present article that, for example, if a compression of a gas is rapid, then there is little time for heat transfer to occur, even when the gas is not adiabatically isolated by a definite wall. In this sense, a rapid compression of a gas is sometimes approximately or loosely said to be adiabatic, though often far from isentropic, even when the gas is not adiabatically isolated by a definite wall. + +Quantum mechanics and quantum statistical mechanics, however, use the word adiabatic in a very different sense, one that can at times seem almost opposite to the classical thermodynamic sense. In quantum theory, the word adiabatic can mean something perhaps near isentropic, or perhaps near quasi-static, but the usage of the word is very different between the two disciplines. + +On the one hand, in quantum theory, if a perturbative element of compressive work is done almost infinitely slowly (that is to say quasi-statically), it is said to have been done adiabatically. The idea is that the shapes of the eigenfunctions change slowly and continuously, so that no quantum jump is triggered, and the change is virtually reversible. While the occupation numbers are unchanged, nevertheless there is change in the energy levels of one-to-one corresponding, pre- and post-compression, eigenstates. Thus a perturbative element of work has been done without heat transfer and without introduction of random change within the system. For example, Max Born writes "Actually, it is usually the 'adiabatic' case with which we have to do: i.e. the limiting case where the external force (or the reaction of the parts of the system on each other) acts very slowly. In this case, to a very high approximation + +that is, there is no probability for a transition, and the system is in the initial state after cessation of the perturbation. Such a slow perturbation is therefore reversible, as it is classically." + +On the other hand, in quantum theory, if a perturbative element of compressive work is done rapidly, it changes the occupation numbers and energies of the eigenstates in proportion to the transition moment integral and in accordance with time-dependent perturbation theory, as well as perturbing the functional form of the eigenstates themselves. In that theory, such a rapid change is said not to be adiabatic, and the contrary word diabatic is applied to it. + +Recent research suggests that the power absorbed from the perturbation corresponds to the rate of these non-adiabatic transitions. This corresponds to the classical process of energy transfer in the form of heat, but with the relative time scales reversed in the quantum case. Quantum adiabatic processes occur over relatively long time scales, while classical adiabatic processes occur over relatively short time scales. It should also be noted that the concept of 'heat' (in reference to the quantity of thermal energy transferred) breaks down at the quantum level, and the specific form of energy (typically electromagnetic) must be considered instead. The small or negligible absorption of energy from the perturbation in a quantum adiabatic process provides a good justification for identifying it as the quantum analogue of adiabatic processes in classical thermodynamics, and for the reuse of the term. + +Furthermore, in atmospheric thermodynamics, a diabatic process is one in which heat is exchanged. + +In classical thermodynamics, such a rapid change would still be called adiabatic because the system is adiabatically isolated, and there is no transfer of energy as heat. The strong irreversibility of the change, due to viscosity or other entropy production, does not impinge on this classical usage. + +Thus for a mass of gas, in macroscopic thermodynamics, words are so used that a compression is sometimes loosely or approximately said to be adiabatic if it is rapid enough to avoid significant heat transfer, even if the system is not adiabatically isolated. But in quantum statistical theory, a compression is not called adiabatic if it is rapid, even if the system is adiabatically isolated in the classical thermodynamic sense of the term. The words are used differently in the two disciplines, as stated just above. + +See also + Fire piston + Heat burst + Related physics topics + First law of thermodynamics + Entropy (classical thermodynamics) + Adiabatic conductivity + Adiabatic lapse rate + Total air temperature + Magnetic refrigeration + Berry phase + Related thermodynamic processes + Cyclic process + Isobaric process + Isenthalpic process + Isentropic process + Isochoric process + Isothermal process + Polytropic process + Quasistatic process + +References + +General + + Nave, Carl Rod. "Adiabatic Processes". HyperPhysics. + Thorngren, Dr. Jane R.. "Adiabatic Processes". Daphne – A Palomar College Web Server., 21 July 1995.. + +External links + +Article in HyperPhysics Encyclopaedia + +Thermodynamic processes +Atmospheric thermodynamics +Entropy +In organic chemistry, an amide, also known as an organic amide or a carboxamide, is a compound with the general formula , where R, R', and R″ represent any group, typically organyl groups or hydrogen atoms. The amide group is called a peptide bond when it is part of the main chain of a protein, and an isopeptide bond when it occurs in a side chain, such as in the amino acids asparagine and glutamine. It can be viewed as a derivative of a carboxylic acid () with the hydroxyl group () replaced by an amine group (); or, equivalently, an acyl (alkanoyl) group () joined to an amine group. + +Common of amides are formamide (), acetamide (), benzamide (), and dimethylformamide (). Some uncommon examples of amides are N-chloroacetamide () and chloroformamide (). + +Amides are qualified as primary, secondary, and tertiary according to whether the amine subgroup has the form , , or , where R and R' are groups other than hydrogen. + +Nomenclature + +The core of amides is called the amide group (specifically, carboxamide group). + +In the usual nomenclature, one adds the term "amide" to the stem of the parent acid's name. For instance, the amide derived from acetic acid is named acetamide (CH3CONH2). IUPAC recommends ethanamide, but this and related formal names are rarely encountered. When the amide is derived from a primary or secondary amine, the substituents on nitrogen are indicated first in the name. Thus, the amide formed from dimethylamine and acetic acid is N,N-dimethylacetamide (CH3CONMe2, where Me = CH3). Usually even this name is simplified to dimethylacetamide. Cyclic amides are called lactams; they are necessarily secondary or tertiary amides. + +Applications + +Amides are pervasive in nature and technology. Proteins and important plastics like Nylons, Aramid, Twaron, and Kevlar are polymers whose units are connected by amide groups (polyamides); these linkages are easily formed, confer structural rigidity, and resist hydrolysis. Amides include many other important biological compounds, as well as many drugs like paracetamol, penicillin and LSD. Low-molecular-weight amides, such as dimethylformamide, are common solvents. + +Structure and bonding + +The lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom is delocalized into the carbonyl group, thus forming a partial double bond between nitrogen and carbon. In fact the O, C and N atoms have molecular orbitals occupied by delocalized electrons, forming a conjugated system. Consequently, the three bonds of the nitrogen in amides is not pyramidal (as in the amines) but planar. This planar restriction prevents rotations about the N linkage and thus has important consequences for the mechanical properties of bulk material of such molecules, and also for the configurational properties of macromolecules built by such bonds. The inability to rotate distinguishes amide groups from ester groups which allow rotation and thus create more flexible bulk material. + +The C-C(O)NR2 core of amides is planar. The C=O distance is shorter than the C-N distance by almost 10%. The structure of an amide can be described also as a resonance between two alternative structures: neutral (A) and zwitterionic (B). + +It is estimated that for acetamide, structure A makes a 62% contribution to the structure, while structure B makes a 28% contribution. (These figures do not sum to 100% because there are additional less-important resonance forms that are not depicted above). There is also a hydrogen bond present between the active groups hydrogen and nitrogen atoms. Resonance is largely prevented in the very strained quinuclidone. + +In their IR spectra, amides exhibit a moderately intense νCO band near 1650 cm−1. The energy of this band is about 60 cm-1 lower than for the νCO of esters and ketones. This difference reflects the contribution of the zwitterionic resonance structure. + +Basicity +Compared to amines, amides are very weak bases. While the conjugate acid of an amine has a pKa of about 9.5, the conjugate acid of an amide has a pKa around −0.5. Therefore, amides do not have as clearly noticeable acid–base properties in water. This relative lack of basicity is explained by the withdrawing of electrons from the amine by the carbonyl. On the other hand, amides are much stronger bases than carboxylic acids, esters, aldehydes, and ketones (their conjugate acids' pKas are between −6 and −10). + +The proton of a primary or secondary amide does not dissociate readily; its pKa is usually well above 15. Conversely, under extremely acidic conditions, the carbonyl oxygen can become protonated with a pKa of roughly −1. It is not only because of the positive charge on the nitrogen, but also because of the negative charge on the oxygen gained through resonance. + +Hydrogen bonding and solubility +Because of the greater electronegativity of oxygen, the carbonyl (C=O) is a stronger dipole than the N–C dipole. The presence of a C=O dipole and, to a lesser extent a N–C dipole, allows amides to act as H-bond acceptors. In primary and secondary amides, the presence of N–H dipoles allows amides to function as H-bond donors as well. Thus amides can participate in hydrogen bonding with water and other protic solvents; the oxygen atom can accept hydrogen bonds from water and the N–H hydrogen atoms can donate H-bonds. As a result of interactions such as these, the water solubility of amides is greater than that of corresponding hydrocarbons. These hydrogen bonds are also have an important role in the secondary structure of proteins. + +The solubilities of amides and esters are roughly comparable. Typically amides are less soluble than comparable amines and carboxylic acids since these compounds can both donate and accept hydrogen bonds. Tertiary amides, with the important exception of N,N-dimethylformamide, exhibit low solubility in water. + +Reactions + +Amides undergo many chemical reactions, although they are less reactive than esters. Amides hydrolyse in hot alkali as well as in strong acidic conditions. Acidic conditions yield the carboxylic acid and the ammonium ion while basic hydrolysis yield the carboxylate ion and ammonia. The protonation of the initially generated amine under acidic conditions and the deprotonation of the initially generated carboxylic acid under basic conditions render these processes non-catalytic and irreversible. Amides are also versatile precursors to many other functional groups. Electrophiles react with the carbonyl oxygen. This step often precedes hydrolysis, which is catalyzed by both Brønsted acids and Lewis acids. Enzymes, e.g. peptidases and artificial catalysts, are known to accelerate the hydrolysis reactions. + +Synthesis + +From carboxylic acids and related compounds +Amides are usually prepared by coupling carboxylic acid with an amine. The direct reaction generally requires high temperatures to drive off the water: + +A set of common methods involve "activating" the carboxylic acid by converting it to a better electrophile. Thus, esters, acid chlorides (Schotten-Baumann reaction), or anhydrides (Lumière–Barbier method) all react with amines to give amides: + +Peptide synthesis use coupling agents such as HATU, HOBt, or PyBOP. + +From nitriles +The hydrolysis of nitriles is conducted on an industrial scale to produce fatty amines. Laboratory procedures are also available. + +Specialty routes +Many specialized methods also yield amides. A variety of reagents, e.g. tris(2,2,2-trifluoroethyl) borate have been developed for specialized applications. + +See also + Amidogen + Amino radical + Amidicity + Imidic acid + Metal amides + +References + +External links + +IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology + + +Functional groups +Animism (from Latin: meaning 'breath, spirit, life') is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence. Animism perceives all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, human handiwork, and in some cases words—as animated and alive. Animism is used in anthropology of religion as a term for the belief system of many Indigenous peoples in contrast to the relatively more recent development of organized religions. Animism focuses on the metaphysical universe; specifically, on the concept of the immaterial soul. + +Although each culture has its own mythologies and rituals, animism is said to describe the most common, foundational thread of indigenous peoples' "spiritual" or "supernatural" perspectives. The animistic perspective is so widely held and inherent to most indigenous peoples that they often do not even have a word in their languages that corresponds to "animism" (or even "religion"). The term "animism" is an anthropological construct. + +Largely due to such ethnolinguistic and cultural discrepancies, opinions differ on whether animism refers to an ancestral mode of experience common to indigenous peoples around the world or to a full-fledged religion in its own right. The currently accepted definition of animism was only developed in the late 19th century (1871) by Edward Tylor. It is "one of anthropology's earliest concepts, if not the first." + +Animism encompasses beliefs that all material phenomena have agency, that there exists no categorical distinction between the spiritual and physical world, and that soul, spirit, or sentience exists not only in humans but also in other animals, plants, rocks, geographic features (such as mountains and rivers), and other entities of the natural environment. Examples include water sprites, vegetation deities, and tree spirits, among others. Animism may further attribute a life force to abstract concepts such as words, true names, or metaphors in mythology. Some members of the non-tribal world also consider themselves animists, such as author Daniel Quinn, sculptor Lawson Oyekan, and many contemporary Pagans. + +Etymology +English anthropologist Sir Edward Tylor initially wanted to describe the phenomenon as spiritualism, but he realized that it would cause confusion with the modern religion of spiritualism, which was then prevalent across Western nations. He adopted the term animism from the writings of German scientist Georg Ernst Stahl, who had developed the term in 1708 as a biological theory that souls formed the vital principle, and that the normal phenomena of life and the abnormal phenomena of disease could be traced to spiritual causes. + +The origin of the word comes from the Latin word anima, which means life or soul. + +The first known usage in English appeared in 1819. + +"Old animism" definitions +Earlier anthropological perspectives, which have since been termed the old animism, were concerned with knowledge on what is alive and what factors make something alive. The old animism assumed that animists were individuals who were unable to understand the difference between persons and things. Critics of the old animism have accused it of preserving "colonialist and dualistic worldviews and rhetoric." + +Edward Tylor's definition + +The idea of animism was developed by anthropologist Sir Edward Tylor through his 1871 book Primitive Culture, in which he defined it as "the general doctrine of souls and other spiritual beings in general." According to Tylor, animism often includes "an idea of pervading life and will in nature;" a belief that natural objects other than humans have souls. This formulation was little different from that proposed by Auguste Comte as "fetishism", but the terms now have distinct meanings. + +For Tylor, animism represented the earliest form of religion, being situated within an evolutionary framework of religion that has developed in stages and which will ultimately lead to humanity rejecting religion altogether in favor of scientific rationality. Thus, for Tylor, animism was fundamentally seen as a mistake, a basic error from which all religions grew. He did not believe that animism was inherently illogical, but he suggested that it arose from early humans' dreams and visions and thus was a rational system. However, it was based on erroneous, unscientific observations about the nature of reality. Stringer notes that his reading of Primitive Culture led him to believe that Tylor was far more sympathetic in regard to "primitive" populations than many of his contemporaries and that Tylor expressed no belief that there was any difference between the intellectual capabilities of "savage" people and Westerners. + +The idea that there had once been "one universal form of primitive religion" (whether labelled animism, totemism, or shamanism) has been dismissed as "unsophisticated" and "erroneous" by archaeologist Timothy Insoll, who stated that "it removes complexity, a precondition of religion now, in all its variants." + +Social evolutionist conceptions +Tylor's definition of animism was part of a growing international debate on the nature of "primitive society" by lawyers, theologians, and philologists. The debate defined the field of research of a new science: anthropology. By the end of the 19th century, an orthodoxy on "primitive society" had emerged, but few anthropologists still would accept that definition. The "19th-century armchair anthropologists" argued that "primitive society" (an evolutionary category) was ordered by kinship and divided into exogamous descent groups related by a series of marriage exchanges. Their religion was animism, the belief that natural species and objects had souls. + +With the development of private property, the descent groups were displaced by the emergence of the territorial state. These rituals and beliefs eventually evolved over time into the vast array of "developed" religions. According to Tylor, as society became more scientifically advanced, fewer members of that society would believe in animism. However, any remnant ideologies of souls or spirits, to Tylor, represented "survivals" of the original animism of early humanity. + +Confounding animism with totemism +In 1869 (three years after Tylor proposed his definition of animism), Edinburgh lawyer John Ferguson McLennan, argued that the animistic thinking evident in fetishism gave rise to a religion he named totemism. Primitive people believed, he argued, that they were descended from the same species as their totemic animal. Subsequent debate by the "armchair anthropologists" (including J. J. Bachofen, Émile Durkheim, and Sigmund Freud) remained focused on totemism rather than animism, with few directly challenging Tylor's definition. Anthropologists "have commonly avoided the issue of animism and even the term itself, rather than revisit this prevalent notion in light of their new and rich ethnographies." + +According to anthropologist Tim Ingold, animism shares similarities with totemism but differs in its focus on individual spirit beings which help to perpetuate life, whereas totemism more typically holds that there is a primary source, such as the land itself or the ancestors, who provide the basis to life. Certain indigenous religious groups such as the Australian Aboriginals are more typically totemic in their worldview, whereas others like the Inuit are more typically animistic. + +From his studies into child development, Jean Piaget suggested that children were born with an innate animist worldview in which they anthropomorphized inanimate objects and that it was only later that they grew out of this belief. Conversely, from her ethnographic research, Margaret Mead argued the opposite, believing that children were not born with an animist worldview but that they became acculturated to such beliefs as they were educated by their society. + +Stewart Guthrie saw animism—or "attribution" as he preferred it—as an evolutionary strategy to aid survival. He argued that both humans and other animal species view inanimate objects as potentially alive as a means of being constantly on guard against potential threats. His suggested explanation, however, did not deal with the question of why such a belief became central to the religion. In 2000, Guthrie suggested that the "most widespread" concept of animism was that it was the "attribution of spirits to natural phenomena such as stones and trees." + +"New animism" non-archaic definitions +Many anthropologists ceased using the term animism, deeming it to be too close to early anthropological theory and religious polemic. However, the term had also been claimed by religious groups—namely, Indigenous communities and nature worshippers—who felt that it aptly described their own beliefs, and who in some cases actively identified as "animists." It was thus readopted by various scholars, who began using the term in a different way, placing the focus on knowing how to behave toward other beings, some of whom are not human. As religious studies scholar Graham Harvey stated, while the "old animist" definition had been problematic, the term animism was nevertheless "of considerable value as a critical, academic term for a style of religious and cultural relating to the world." + +Hallowell and the Ojibwe + +The new animism emerged largely from the publications of anthropologist Irving Hallowell, produced on the basis of his ethnographic research among the Ojibwe communities of Canada in the mid-20th century. For the Ojibwe encountered by Hallowell, personhood did not require human-likeness, but rather humans were perceived as being like other persons, who for instance included rock persons and bear persons. For the Ojibwe, these persons were each willful beings, who gained meaning and power through their interactions with others; through respectfully interacting with other persons, they themselves learned to "act as a person". + +Hallowell's approach to the understanding of Ojibwe personhood differed strongly from prior anthropological concepts of animism. He emphasized the need to challenge the modernist, Western perspectives of what a person is, by entering into a dialogue with different worldwide views. Hallowell's approach influenced the work of anthropologist Nurit Bird-David, who produced a scholarly article reassessing the idea of animism in 1999. Seven comments from other academics were provided in the journal, debating Bird-David's ideas. + +Postmodern anthropology +More recently, postmodern anthropologists are increasingly engaging with the concept of animism. Modernism is characterized by a Cartesian subject-object dualism that divides the subjective from the objective, and culture from nature. In the modernist view, animism is the inverse of scientism, and hence, is deemed inherently invalid by some anthropologists. Drawing on the work of Bruno Latour, some anthropologists question modernist assumptions and theorize that all societies continue to "animate" the world around them. In contrast to Tylor's reasoning, however, this "animism" is considered to be more than just a remnant of primitive thought. More specifically, the "animism" of modernity is characterized by humanity's "professional subcultures", as in the ability to treat the world as a detached entity within a delimited sphere of activity. + +Human beings continue to create personal relationships with elements of the aforementioned objective world, such as pets, cars, or teddy bears, which are recognized as subjects. As such, these entities are "approached as communicative subjects rather than the inert objects perceived by modernists." These approaches aim to avoid the modernist assumption that the environment consists of a physical world distinct from the world of humans, as well as the modernist conception of the person being composed dualistically of a body and a soul. + +Nurit Bird-David argues that: + +She explains that animism is a "relational epistemology" rather than a failure of primitive reasoning. That is, self-identity among animists is based on their relationships with others, rather than any distinctive features of the "self". Instead of focusing on the essentialized, modernist self (the "individual"), persons are viewed as bundles of social relationships ("dividuals"), some of which include "superpersons" (i.e. non-humans). + +Stewart Guthrie expressed criticism of Bird-David's attitude towards animism, believing that it promulgated the view that "the world is in large measure whatever our local imagination makes it." This, he felt, would result in anthropology abandoning "the scientific project." + +Like Bird-David, Tim Ingold argues that animists do not see themselves as separate from their environment: + +Rane Willerslev extends the argument by noting that animists reject this Cartesian dualism and that the animist self identifies with the world, "feeling at once within and apart from it so that the two glide ceaselessly in and out of each other in a sealed circuit". The animist hunter is thus aware of himself as a human hunter, but, through mimicry, is able to assume the viewpoint, senses, and sensibilities of his prey, to be one with it. Shamanism, in this view, is an everyday attempt to influence spirits of ancestors and animals, by mirroring their behaviors, as the hunter does its prey. + +Ethical and ecological understanding +Cultural ecologist and philosopher David Abram proposed an ethical and ecological understanding of animism, grounded in the phenomenology of sensory experience. In his books The Spell of the Sensuous and Becoming Animal, Abram suggests that material things are never entirely passive in our direct perceptual experience, holding rather that perceived things actively "solicit our attention" or "call our focus," coaxing the perceiving body into an ongoing participation with those things. + +In the absence of intervening technologies, he suggests that sensory experience is inherently animistic in that it discloses a material field that is animate and self-organizing from the beginning. David Abram used contemporary cognitive and natural science, as well as the perspectival worldviews of diverse indigenous oral cultures, Abram proposed a richly pluralist and story-based cosmology in which matter is alive. He suggested that such a relational ontology is in close accord with humanity's spontaneous perceptual experience by drawing attention to the senses, and to the primacy of sensuous terrain, enjoining a more respectful and ethical relation to the more-than-human community of animals, plants, soils, mountains, waters, and weather-patterns that materially sustains humanity. + +In contrast to a long-standing tendency in the Western social sciences, which commonly provide rational explanations of animistic experience, Abram develops an animistic account of reason itself. He holds that civilised reason is sustained only by intensely animistic participation between human beings and their own written signs. For instance, as soon as someone reads letters on a page or screen, they can "see what it says"—the letters speak as much as nature spoke to pre-literate peoples. Reading can usefully be understood as an intensely concentrated form of animism, one that effectively eclipses all of the other, older, more spontaneous forms of animistic participation in which humans were once engaged. + +Relation to the concept of 'I-thou' +Religious studies scholar Graham Harvey defined animism as the belief "that the world is full of persons, only some of whom are human, and that life is always lived in relationship with others." He added that it is therefore "concerned with learning how to be a good person in respectful relationships with other persons." + +In his Handbook of Contemporary Animism (2013), Harvey identifies the animist perspective in line with Martin Buber's "I-thou" as opposed to "I-it". In such, Harvey says, the animist takes an I-thou approach to relating to the world, whereby objects and animals are treated as a "thou", rather than as an "it". + +Religion + +There is ongoing disagreement (and no general consensus) as to whether animism is merely a singular, broadly encompassing religious belief or a worldview in and of itself, comprising many diverse mythologies found worldwide in many diverse cultures. This also raises a controversy regarding the ethical claims animism may or may not make: whether animism ignores questions of ethics altogether; or, by endowing various non-human elements of nature with spirituality or personhood, it in fact promotes a complex ecological ethics. + +Concepts + +Distinction from pantheism +Animism is not the same as pantheism, although the two are sometimes confused. Moreover, some religions are both pantheistic and animistic. One of the main differences is that while animists believe everything to be spiritual in nature, they do not necessarily see the spiritual nature of everything in existence as being united (monism) the way pantheists do. As a result, animism puts more emphasis on the uniqueness of each individual soul. In pantheism, everything shares the same spiritual essence, rather than having distinct spirits or souls. For example, Giordano Bruno equated the world soul with God and espoused a pantheistic animism. + +Fetishism / totemism + +In many animistic world views, the human being is often regarded as on a roughly equal footing with other animals, plants, and natural forces. + +African indigenous religions +Traditional African religions: most religious traditions of Sub-Saharan Africa are basically a complex form of animism with polytheistic and shamanistic elements and ancestor worship. + +In East Africa the Kerma culture display Animistic elements similar to other Traditional African religions. In contrast, the later polytheistic Napatan and Meroitic periods, with displays of animals in Amulets and the esteemed antiques of Lions, appear to be an Animistic culture rather than a polytheistic culture. The Kermans likely treated Jebel Barkal as a special sacred site, and passed it on to the Kushites and Egyptians who venerated the mesa. + +In North Africa, the traditional Berber religion includes the traditional polytheistic, animist, and in some rare cases, shamanistic, religions of the Berber people. + +Asian origin religions + +Indian-origin religions + +In the Indian-origin religions, namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, the animistic aspects of nature worship and ecological conservation are part of the core belief system. + +Matsya Purana, a Hindu text, has a Sanskrit language shloka (hymn), which explains the importance of reverence of ecology. It states, "A pond equals ten wells, a reservoir equals ten ponds, while a son equals ten reservoirs, and a tree equals ten sons." Indian religions worship trees such as the Bodhi Tree and numerous superlative banyan trees, conserve the sacred groves of India, revere the rivers as sacred, and worship the mountains and their ecology. + +Panchavati are the sacred trees in Indic religions, which are sacred groves containing five type of trees, usually chosen from among the Vata (Ficus benghalensis, Banyan), Ashvattha (Ficus religiosa, Peepal), Bilva (Aegle marmelos, Bengal Quince), Amalaki (Phyllanthus emblica, Indian Gooseberry, Amla), Ashoka (Saraca asoca, Ashok), Udumbara (Ficus racemosa, Cluster Fig, Gular), Nimba (Azadirachta indica, Neem) and Shami (Prosopis spicigera, Indian Mesquite). + +The banyan is considered holy in several religious traditions of India. The Ficus benghalensis is the national tree of India. Vat Purnima is a Hindu festival related to the banyan tree, and is observed by married women in North India and in the Western Indian states of Maharashtra, Goa, Gujarat. For three days of the month of Jyeshtha in the Hindu calendar (which falls in May–June in the Gregorian calendar) married women observe a fast, tie threads around a banyan tree, and pray for the well-being of their husbands. Thimmamma Marrimanu, sacred to Indian religions, has branches spread over five acres and was listed as the world's largest banyan tree in the Guinness World Records in 1989. + +In Hinduism, the leaf of the banyan tree is said to be the resting place for the god Krishna. In the Bhagavat Gita, Krishna said, "There is a banyan tree which has its roots upward and its branches down, and the Vedic hymns are its leaves. One who knows this tree is the knower of the Vedas." (Bg 15.1) + +In Buddhism's Pali canon, the banyan (Pali: nigrodha) is referenced numerous times. Typical metaphors allude to the banyan's epiphytic nature, likening the banyan's supplanting of a host tree as comparable to the way sensual desire (kāma) overcomes humans. + +Mun (also known as Munism or Bongthingism) is the traditional polytheistic, animist, shamanistic, and syncretic religion of the Lepcha people. + +Chinese religions +Shendao () is a term originated by Chinese folk religions influenced by, Mohist, Confucian and Taoist philosophy, referring to the divine order of nature or the Wuxing. + +Japan and Shinto + +Shinto is the traditional Japanese folk religion and has many animist aspects. The , a class of supernatural beings, are central to Shinto. All things, including natural forces and well-known geographical locations, are thought to be home to the kami. The kami are worshipped at kamidana household shrines, family shrines, and jinja public shrines. + +The Ryukyuan religion of the Ryukyu islands is distinct from Shinto, but shares similar characteristics. + +Kalash people + +Kalash people of Northern Pakistan follow an ancient animistic religion identified with an ancient form of Hinduism. + +Korea + +Muism, the native Korean belief, has many animist aspects. The various deities, called kwisin, are capable of interacting with humans and causing problems if they are not honoured appropriately. + +Philippines indigenous religions +In the indigenous Philippine folk religions, pre-colonial religions of Philippines and Philippine mythology, animism is part of their core beliefs as demonstrated by the belief in Anito and Bathala as well as their conservation and veneration of sacred Indigenous Philippine shrines, forests, mountains and sacred grounds. + +Anito (lit. '[ancestor] spirit') refers to the various indigenous shamanistic folk religions of the Philippines, led by female or feminized male shamans known as babaylan. It includes belief in a spirit world existing alongside and interacting with the material world, as well as the belief that everything has a spirit, from rocks and trees to animals and humans to natural phenomena. + +In indigenous Filipino belief, the Bathala is the omnipotent deity which was derived from Sanskrit word for the Hindu supreme deity bhattara, as one of the ten avatars of the Hindu god Vishnu. The omnipotent Bathala also presides over the spirits of ancestors called Anito. Anitos serve as intermediaries between mortals and the divine, such as Agni (Hindu) who holds the access to divine realms; for this reason they are invoked first and are the first to receive offerings, regardless of the deity the worshipper wants to pray to. + +Abrahamic religions +Animism also has influences in Abrahamic religions. + +The Old Testament and the Wisdom literature preach the omnipresence of God (Jeremiah 23:24; Proverbs 15:3; 1 Kings 8:27), and God is bodily present in the incarnation of his Son, Jesus Christ. (Gospel of John 1:14, Colossians 2:9). Animism is not peripheral to Christian identity but is its nurturing home ground, its axis mundi. In addition to the conceptual work the term animism performs, it provides insight into the relational character and common personhood of material existence. + +With rising awareness of ecological preservation, recently theologians like Mark I. Wallace argue for animistic Christianity with a biocentric approach that understands God being present in all earthly objects, such as animals, trees, and rocks. + +Pre-Islamic Arab religion + +Pre-Islamic Arab religion can refer to the traditional polytheistic, animist, and in some rare cases, shamanistic, religions of the peoples of the Arabian Peninsula. The belief in jinn, invisible entities akin to spirits in the Western sense dominant in the Arab religious systems, hardly fit the description of Animism in a strict sense. The jinn are considered to be analogous to the human soul by living lives like that of humans, but they are not exactly like human souls neither are they spirits of the dead. It is unclear if belief in jinn derived from nomadic or sedentary populations. + +Neopagan and New Age movements +Some Neopagan groups, including Eco-pagans, describe themselves as animists, meaning that they respect the diverse community of living beings and spirits with whom humans share the world and cosmos. + +The New Age movement commonly demonstrates animistic traits in asserting the existence of nature spirits. + +Shamanism + +A shaman is a person regarded as having access to, and influence in, the world of benevolent and malevolent spirits, who typically enters into a trance state during a ritual, and practices divination and healing. + +According to Mircea Eliade, shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the human world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments and illnesses by mending the soul. Alleviating traumas affecting the soul or spirit restores the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. The shaman also enters supernatural realms or dimensions to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community. Shamans may visit other worlds or dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements. The shaman operates primarily within the spiritual world, which in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance results in the elimination of the ailment. + +Abram, however, articulates a less supernatural and much more ecological understanding of the shaman's role than that propounded by Eliade. Drawing upon his own field research in Indonesia, Nepal, and the Americas, Abram suggests that in animistic cultures, the shaman functions primarily as an intermediary between the human community and the more-than-human community of active agencies—the local animals, plants, and landforms (mountains, rivers, forests, winds, and weather patterns, all of which are felt to have their own specific sentience). Hence, the shaman's ability to heal individual instances of dis-ease (or imbalance) within the human community is a byproduct of their more continual practice of balancing the reciprocity between the human community and the wider collective of animate beings in which that community is embedded. + +Animist life + +Non-human animals +Animism entails the belief that "all living things have a soul", and thus, a central concern of animist thought surrounds how animals can be eaten, or otherwise used for humans' subsistence needs. The actions of non-human animals are viewed as "intentional, planned and purposive", and they are understood to be persons, as they are both alive, and communicate with others. + +In animist worldviews, non-human animals are understood to participate in kinship systems and ceremonies with humans, as well as having their own kinship systems and ceremonies. Harvey cited an example of an animist understanding of animal behavior that occurred at a powwow held by the Conne River Mi'kmaq in 1996; an eagle flew over the proceedings, circling over the central drum group. The assembled participants called out ('eagle'), conveying welcome to the bird and expressing pleasure at its beauty, and they later articulated the view that the eagle's actions reflected its approval of the event, and the Mi'kmaq's return to traditional spiritual practices. + +In animism, rituals are performed to maintain relationships between humans and spirits. Indigenous peoples often perform these rituals to appease the spirits and request their assistance during activities such as hunting and healing. In the Arctic region, certain rituals are common before the hunt as a means to show respect for the spirits of animals. + +Flora +Some animists also view plant and fungi life as persons and interact with them accordingly. The most common encounter between humans and these plant and fungi persons is with the former's collection of the latter for food, and for animists, this interaction typically has to be carried out respectfully. Harvey cited the example of Māori communities in New Zealand, who often offer karakia invocations to sweet potatoes as they dig up the latter. While doing so, there is an awareness of a kinship relationship between the Māori and the sweet potatoes, with both understood as having arrived in Aotearoa together in the same canoes. + +In other instances, animists believe that interaction with plant and fungi persons can result in the communication of things unknown or even otherwise unknowable. Among some modern Pagans, for instance, relationships are cultivated with specific trees, who are understood to bestow knowledge or physical gifts, such as flowers, sap, or wood that can be used as firewood or to fashion into a wand; in return, these Pagans give offerings to the tree itself, which can come in the form of libations of mead or ale, a drop of blood from a finger, or a strand of wool. + +The elements +Various animistic cultures also comprehend stones as persons. Discussing ethnographic work conducted among the Ojibwe, Harvey noted that their society generally conceived of stones as being inanimate, but with two notable exceptions: the stones of the Bell Rocks and those stones which are situated beneath trees struck by lightning, which were understood to have become Thunderers themselves. The Ojibwe conceived of weather as being capable of having personhood, with storms being conceived of as persons known as 'Thunderers' whose sounds conveyed communications and who engaged in seasonal conflict over the lakes and forests, throwing lightning at lake monsters. Wind, similarly, can be conceived as a person in animistic thought. + +The importance of place is also a recurring element of animism, with some places being understood to be persons in their own right. + +Spirits +Animism can also entail relationships being established with non-corporeal spirit entities. + +Other usage + +Science +In the early 20th century, William McDougall defended a form of animism in his book Body and Mind: A History and Defence of Animism (1911). + +Physicist Nick Herbert has argued for "quantum animism" in which the mind permeates the world at every level: + +Werner Krieglstein wrote regarding his quantum Animism: + +In Error and Loss: A Licence to Enchantment, Ashley Curtis (2018) has argued that the Cartesian idea of an experiencing subject facing off with an inert physical world is incoherent at its very foundation and that this incoherence is consistent with rather than belied by Darwinism. Human reason (and its rigorous extension in the natural sciences) fits an evolutionary niche just as echolocation does for bats and infrared vision does for pit vipers, and is epistemologically on a par with, rather than superior to, such capabilities. The meaning or aliveness of the "objects" we encounter, rocks, trees, rivers, and other animals, thus depends for its validity not on a detached cognitive judgment, but purely on the quality of our experience. The animist experience, or the wolf's or raven's experience, thus become licensed as equally valid worldviews to the modern western scientific one; they are indeed more valid, since they are not plagued with the incoherence that inevitably arises when "objective existence" is separated from "subjective experience." + +Socio-political impact +Harvey opined that animism's views on personhood represented a radical challenge to the dominant perspectives of modernity, because it accords "intelligence, rationality, consciousness, volition, agency, intentionality, language, and desire" to non-humans. Similarly, it challenges the view of human uniqueness that is prevalent in both Abrahamic religions and Western rationalism. + +Art and literature +Animist beliefs can also be expressed through artwork. For instance, among the Māori communities of New Zealand, there is an acknowledgement that creating art through carving wood or stone entails violence against the wood or stone person and that the persons who are damaged therefore have to be placated and respected during the process; any excess or waste from the creation of the artwork is returned to the land, while the artwork itself is treated with particular respect. Harvey, therefore, argued that the creation of art among the Māori was not about creating an inanimate object for display, but rather a transformation of different persons within a relationship. + +Harvey expressed the view that animist worldviews were present in various works of literature, citing such examples as the writings of Alan Garner, Leslie Silko, Barbara Kingsolver, Alice Walker, Daniel Quinn, Linda Hogan, David Abram, Patricia Grace, Chinua Achebe, Ursula Le Guin, Louise Erdrich, and Marge Piercy. + +Animist worldviews have also been identified in the animated films of Hayao Miyazaki. + +See also + + Anecdotal cognitivism + Animatism + Anima mundi +Dayawism + Ecotheology + Hylozoism + Mana + Mauri (life force) + Kaitiaki + Panpsychism + Religion and environmentalism + Sacred trees + Shamanism + Wildlife totemization + +References + +Sources + +Further reading + Abram, David. 2010. Becoming Animal: An Earthly Cosmology (New York: Pantheon Books) + Badenberg, Robert. 2007. "How about 'Animism'? An Inquiry beyond Label and Legacy." In Mission als Kommunikation: Festschrift für Ursula Wiesemann zu ihrem 75, Geburtstag, edited by K. W. Müller. Nürnberg: VTR () and Bonn: VKW (). + Hallowell, Alfred Irving. 1960. "Ojibwa ontology, behavior, and world view." In Culture in History, edited by S. Diamond. (New York: Columbia University Press). + Reprint: 2002. Pp. 17–49 in Readings in Indigenous Religions, edited by G. Harvey. London: Continuum. + Harvey, Graham. 2005. Animism: Respecting the Living World. London: Hurst & Co. + Ingold, Tim. 2006. "Rethinking the animate, re-animating thought." Ethnos 71(1):9–20. + Käser, Lothar. 2004. Animismus. Eine Einführung in die begrifflichen Grundlagen des Welt- und Menschenbildes traditionaler (ethnischer) Gesellschaften für Entwicklungshelfer und kirchliche Mitarbeiter in Übersee. Bad Liebenzell: Liebenzeller Mission. . + mit dem verkürzten Untertitel Einführung in seine begrifflichen Grundlagen auch bei: Erlanger Verlag für Mission und Okumene, Neuendettelsau 2004, + Quinn, Daniel. [1996] 1997. The Story of B: An Adventure of the Mind and Spirit. New York: Bantam Books, and the essay "Our Religions: Are They the Religions of Humanity Itself?", usually available at Ishmael.org + + Wundt, Wilhelm. 1906. Mythus und Religion, Teil II. Leipzig 1906 (Völkerpsychologie II) + +External links + + Animism, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy + Animism, Rinri, Modernization; the Base of Japanese Robotics + Urban Legends Reference Pages: Weight of the Soul + Animist Network + + +Anthropology of religion +Metaphysical theories +Panentheism +Philosophy of religion +Polytheism +Schools of thought +Spiritism +Spiritualism +Spirituality +Transtheism +Antonio Lucio Vivaldi (4 March 1678 – 28 July 1741) was an Italian composer, virtuoso violinist and impresario of Baroque music. Along with Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frideric Handel, Vivaldi ranks amongst the greatest Baroque composers and his influence during his lifetime was widespread across Europe, giving origin to many imitators and admirers. He pioneered many developments in orchestration, violin technique and programmatic music. He consolidated the emerging concerto form into a widely accepted and followed idiom. + +Vivaldi composed many instrumental concertos, for the violin and a variety of other musical instruments, as well as sacred choral works and more than fifty operas. His best-known work is a series of violin concertos known as The Four Seasons. Many of his compositions were written for the all-female music ensemble of the Ospedale della Pietà, a home for abandoned children. Vivaldi began studying for the priesthood at the age of 15 and was ordained at 25, but was given dispensation to no longer say public Masses due to a health problem. Vivaldi also had some success with expensive stagings of his operas in Venice, Mantua and Vienna. After meeting the Emperor Charles VI, Vivaldi moved to Vienna, hoping for royal support. However, the Emperor died soon after Vivaldi's arrival, and Vivaldi himself died in poverty less than a year later. + +After almost two centuries of decline, Vivaldi's musical reputation underwent a revival in the early 20th century, with much scholarly research devoted to his work. Many of Vivaldi's compositions, once thought lost, have been rediscovered – some as recently as 2015. His music remains widely popular in the present day and is regularly played all over the world. + +Early life + +Birth and background + +Antonio Lucio Vivaldi was born on 4 March 1678 in Venice, then the capital of the Republic of Venice. He was son of Giovanni Battista Vivaldi and Camilla Calicchio, as recorded in the register of San Giovanni in Bragora. + +He was baptized immediately after his birth at his home by the midwife, the reason for which has led to speculation. Most likely it was done due either to his poor health or to an earthquake that supposedly struck the city that day. In the trauma of the earthquake, Vivaldi's mother may have dedicated him to the priesthood. However, there was no earthquake on the day Vivaldi was born, and this rumor may originate from an earthquake that struck Venice on April 17, 1688. The ceremonies which had been omitted were supplied two months later. + +Vivaldi had five known siblings: Bonaventura Tomaso, Margarita Gabriela, Cecilia Maria, Francesco Gaetano, and Zanetta Anna. Vivaldi's health was problematic. One of his symptoms, strettezza di petto ("tightness of the chest"), has been interpreted as a form of asthma. This did not prevent him from learning to play the violin, composing, or taking part in musical activities, although it did stop him from playing wind instruments. + +Youth +His father, Giovanni Battista, was a barber before becoming a professional violinist and was one of the founders of the Sovvegno dei musicisti di Santa Cecilia, an association of musicians. He taught Antonio to play the violin and then toured Venice, playing the violin with his young son. Antonio was probably taught at an early age, judging by the extensive musical knowledge he had acquired by the age of 24, when he started working at the Ospedale della Pietà. + +The president of the Sovvegno was Giovanni Legrenzi, an early Baroque composer and the maestro di cappella at St Mark's Basilica. It is possible that Legrenzi gave the young Antonio his first lessons in composition. Vivaldi's father may have been a composer himself: in 1689, an opera titled La Fedeltà sfortunata was composed by a Giovanni Battista Rossi—the name under which Vivaldi's father had joined the Sovvegno di Santa Cecilia. Vivaldi's early liturgical work Laetatus sum (RV Anh 31) was written in 1691 at the age of thirteen. + +In 1693, at the age of fifteen, he began studying to become a priest. He was ordained in 1703, aged 25, and was soon nicknamed il Prete Rosso, "The Red Priest" (Rosso is Italian for "red" and would have referred to the color of his hair, a family trait.). + +Career + +Ospedale della Pietà +While Vivaldi is most famous as a composer, he was regarded as an exceptional technical violinist as well. The German architect Johann Friedrich Armand von Uffenbach referred to Vivaldi as "the famous composer and violinist" and said that "Vivaldi played a solo accompaniment excellently, and at the conclusion he added a free fantasy [an improvised cadenza] which absolutely astounded me, for it is hardly possible that anyone has ever played, or ever will play, in such a fashion." In September 1703, Vivaldi (24) became maestro di violino (master of violin) at an orphanage called the Pio Ospedale della Pietà (Devout Hospital of Mercy) in Venice; although it was his talents as a violinist which probably secured him the job, he soon became a successful teacher of music there. + +Over the next thirty years he composed most of his major works while working at the Ospedale. There were four similar institutions in Venice; their purpose was to give shelter and education to children who were abandoned or orphaned, or whose families could not support them. They were financed by funds provided by the Republic. The boys learned a trade and had to leave when they reached the age of fifteen. The girls received a musical education, and the most talented among them stayed and became members of the Ospedale's renowned orchestra and choir. + +Shortly after Vivaldi's appointment, the orphans began to gain appreciation and esteem abroad, too. Vivaldi wrote concertos, cantatas and sacred vocal music for them. These sacred works, which number over 60, are varied: they included solo motets and large-scale choral works for soloists, double chorus, and orchestra. In 1704, the position of teacher of viola all'inglese was added to his duties as violin instructor. The position of maestro di coro, which was at one time filled by Vivaldi, required a lot of time and work. He had to compose an oratorio or concerto at every feast and teach the orphans both music theory and how to play certain instruments. + +His relationship with the board of directors of the Ospedale was often strained. The board had to vote every year on whether to keep a teacher. The vote on Vivaldi was seldom unanimous and went 7 to 6 against him in 1709. After a year as a freelance musician, he was recalled by the Ospedale with a unanimous vote in 1711; clearly during his year's absence the board had realized the importance of his role. He became responsible for all of the musical activity of the institution when he was promoted to maestro de' concerti (music director) in 1716 and responsible for composing two new concertos every month. + +In 1705, the first collection (Connor Cassara) of his works was published by Giuseppe Sala: his Opus 1 is a collection of 12 sonatas for two violins and basso continuo, in a conventional style. In 1709, a second collection of 12 sonatas for violin and basso continuo appeared—Opus 2. A real breakthrough as a composer came with his first collection of 12 concerti for one, two, and four violins with strings, L'estro armonico (Opus 3), which was published in Amsterdam in 1711 by Estienne Roger, dedicated to Grand Prince Ferdinand of Tuscany. The prince sponsored many musicians including Alessandro Scarlatti and George Frideric Handel. He was a musician himself, and Vivaldi probably met him in Venice. L'estro armonico was a resounding success all over Europe. It was followed in 1714 by La stravaganza (Opus 4), a collection of concerti for solo violin and strings, dedicated to an old violin student of Vivaldi's, the Venetian noble Vettor Dolfin. + +In February 1711, Vivaldi and his father traveled to Brescia, where his setting of the Stabat Mater (RV 621) was played as part of a religious festival. The work seems to have been written in haste: the string parts are simple, the music of the first three movements is repeated in the next three, and not all the text is set. Nevertheless, perhaps in part because of the forced essentiality of the music, the work is considered to be one of his early masterpieces. + +Despite his frequent travels from 1718, the Ospedale paid him 2 sequins to write two concerti a month for the orchestra and to rehearse with them at least five times when in Venice. The orphanage's records show that he was paid for 140 concerti between 1723 and 1733. + +Opera impresario + +In early 18th-century Venice, opera was the most popular musical entertainment. It proved most profitable for Vivaldi. There were several theaters competing for the public's attention. Vivaldi started his career as an opera composer as a sideline: his first opera, Ottone in villa (RV 729) was performed not in Venice, but at the Garzerie Theater in Vicenza in 1713. The following year, Vivaldi became the impresario of the Teatro San Angelo in Venice, where his opera Orlando finto pazzo (RV 727) was performed. The work was not to the public's taste, and it closed after a couple of weeks, being replaced with a repeat of a different work already given the previous year. + +In 1715, he presented Nerone fatto Cesare (RV 724, now lost), with music by seven different composers, of which he was the leader. The opera contained eleven arias and was a success. In the late season, Vivaldi planned to put on an opera entirely of his own creation, Arsilda, regina di Ponto (RV 700), but the state censor blocked the performance. The main character, Arsilda, falls in love with another woman, Lisea, who is pretending to be a man. Vivaldi got the censor to accept the opera the following year, and it was a resounding success. + +During this period, the Pietà commissioned several liturgical works. The most important were two oratorios. Moyses Deus Pharaonis, (RV 643) is now lost. The second, Juditha triumphans (RV 644), celebrates the victory of the Republic of Venice against the Turks and the recapture of the island of Corfu. Composed in 1716, it is one of his sacred masterpieces. All eleven singing parts were performed by girls of the orphanage, both the female and male roles. Many of the arias include parts for solo instruments—recorders, oboes, violas d'amore, and mandolins—that showcased the range of talents of the girls. + +Also in 1716, Vivaldi wrote and produced two more operas, L'incoronazione di Dario (RV 719) and La costanza trionfante degli amori e degli odi (RV 706). The latter was so popular that it was performed two years later, re-edited and retitled Artabano re dei Parti (RV 701, now lost). It was also performed in Prague in 1732. In the years that followed, Vivaldi wrote several operas that were performed all over Italy. + +His progressive operatic style caused him some trouble with more conservative musicians such as Benedetto Marcello, a magistrate and amateur musician who wrote a pamphlet denouncing Vivaldi and his operas. The pamphlet, Il teatro alla moda, attacks the composer even as it does not mention him directly. The cover drawing shows a boat (the Sant'Angelo), on the left end of which stands a little angel wearing a priest's hat and playing the violin. The Marcello family claimed ownership of the Teatro Sant'Angelo, and a long legal battle had been fought with the management for its restitution, without success. The obscure text under the engraving mentions non-existent places and names: for example, ALDIVIVA is an anagram of "A. Vivaldi". + +In a letter written by Vivaldi to his patron Marchese Bentivoglio in 1737, he makes reference to his "94 operas". Only around 50 operas by Vivaldi have been discovered, and no other documentation of the remaining operas exists. Although Vivaldi may have been exaggerating, it is plausible that, in his dual role of composer and impresario, he may have either written or been responsible for the production of as many as 94 operas—given that his career had by then spanned almost 25 years. While Vivaldi certainly composed many operas in his time, he never attained the prominence of other great composers such as Alessandro Scarlatti, Johann Adolph Hasse, Leonardo Leo, and Baldassare Galuppi, as evidenced by his inability to keep a production running for an extended period of time in any major opera house. + +Mantua and the Four Seasons + +In 1717 or 1718, Vivaldi was offered a prestigious new position as Maestro di Cappella of the court of prince Philip of Hesse-Darmstadt, governor of Mantua, in the northwest of Italy He moved there for three years and produced several operas, among them Tito Manlio (RV 738). In 1721, he was in Milan, where he presented the pastoral drama La Silvia (RV 734); nine arias from it survive. He visited Milan again the following year with the oratorio L'adorazione delli tre re magi al bambino Gesù (RV 645, now lost). In 1722 he moved to Rome, where he introduced his operas' new style. The new pope Benedict XIII invited Vivaldi to play for him. In 1725, Vivaldi returned to Venice, where he produced four operas in the same year. + +During this period Vivaldi wrote the Four Seasons, four violin concertos that give musical expression to the seasons of the year. The composition was probably one of his most famous. Though three of the concerti are wholly original, the first, "Spring", borrows motifs from a Sinfonia in the first act of Vivaldi's contemporaneous opera Il Giustino. The inspiration for the concertos was probably the countryside around Mantua. They were a revolution in musical conception: in them Vivaldi represented flowing creeks, singing birds (of different species, each specifically characterized), barking dogs, buzzing mosquitoes, crying shepherds, storms, drunken dancers, silent nights, hunting parties from both the hunters' and the prey's point of view, frozen landscapes, ice-skating children, and warming winter fires. Each concerto is associated with a sonnet, possibly by Vivaldi, describing the scenes depicted in the music. They were published as the first four concertos in a collection of twelve, Il cimento dell'armonia e dell'inventione, Opus 8, published in Amsterdam by Michel-Charles Le Cène in 1725. + +During his time in Mantua, Vivaldi became acquainted with an aspiring young singer Anna Tessieri Girò, who would become his student, protégée, and favorite prima donna. Anna, along with her older half-sister Paolina, moved in with Vivaldi and regularly accompanied him on his many travels. There was speculation as to the nature of Vivaldi's and Girò's relationship, but no evidence exists to indicate anything beyond friendship and professional collaboration. Vivaldi, in fact, adamantly denied any romantic relationship with Girò in a letter to his patron Bentivoglio dated 16 November 1737. + +Late period +At the height of his career, Vivaldi received commissions from European nobility and royalty, some of them are: + + The serenata (cantata) Gloria e Imeneo (RV 687), was commissioned in 1725 by the French ambassador to Venice in celebration of the marriage of Louis XV, when Vivaldi was 48 years old. + + The serenata, La Sena festeggiante (RV 694), was written in 1726 for and premiered at the French embassy as well, celebrating the birth of the French royal princesses, Henriette and Louise Élisabeth. + + Vivaldi's Opus 9, La cetra, was dedicated to Emperor Charles VI. In 1728, Vivaldi met the emperor while the emperor was visiting Trieste to oversee the construction of a new port. + +Charles VI admired the music of the Red Priest so much that he is said to have spoken more with the composer during their one meeting than he spoke to his ministers in over two years. He gave Vivaldi the title of knight, a gold medal and an invitation to Vienna. Vivaldi gave Charles a manuscript copy of La cetra, a set of concerti almost completely different from the set of the same title published as Opus 9. The printing was probably delayed, forcing Vivaldi to gather an improvised collection for the emperor. + + His opera Farnace (RV 711) was presented in 1730; it garnered six revivals. Some of his later operas were created in collaboration with two of Italy's major writers of the time. Vivaldi was accompanied by his father and traveled to Vienna and Prague in 1730. + + L'Olimpiade and Catone in Utica were written by Pietro Metastasio, the major representative of the Arcadian movement and court poet in Vienna. La Griselda was rewritten by the young Carlo Goldoni from an earlier libretto by Apostolo Zeno. + +Like many composers of the time, Vivaldi faced financial difficulties in his later years. His compositions were no longer held in such high esteem as they once had been in Venice; changing musical tastes quickly made them outmoded. In response, Vivaldi chose to sell off sizeable numbers of his manuscripts at paltry prices to finance his migration to Vienna. The reasons for Vivaldi's departure from Venice are unclear, but it seems likely that, after the success of his meeting with Emperor Charles VI, he wished to take up the position of a composer in the imperial court. On his way to Vienna, Vivaldi may have stopped in Graz to see Anna Girò. + +Death + +Vivaldi moved to Vienna probably to stage operas, especially as he took up residence near the Kärntnertortheater. Shortly after his arrival in Vienna, Charles VI died, which left the composer without any royal protection or a steady source of income. Soon afterwards, Vivaldi became impoverished and died during the night of 27/28 July 1741, aged 63, of "internal infection", in a house owned by the widow of a Viennese saddlemaker. + +On 28 July, Vivaldi was buried in a simple grave in a burial ground that was owned by the public hospital fund. His funeral took place at St. Stephen's Cathedral. Contrary to popular legend, the young Joseph Haydn who was in the cathedral choir at the time had nothing to do with his burial, since no music was performed on that occasion. His funeral was attended by six pall-bearers and six choir boys (Kuttenbuben), at a "mean" cost of 19 florins and 45 kreuzer. Only a Kleingeläut (small peal of bells), the lowest class, was provided, at a cost of 2ƒ 36. + +Vivaldi was buried next to the Karlskirche, a baroque church in an area which is now part of the site of the TU Wien university. The house where he lived in Vienna has since been destroyed; the Hotel Sacher is built on part of the site. Memorial plaques have been placed at both locations, as well as a Vivaldi "star" in the Viennese Musikmeile and a monument at the Rooseveltplatz. + +Only two, possibly three, original portraits of Vivaldi are known to survive: an engraving, an ink sketch and an oil painting. The engraving, which was the basis of several copies produced later by other artists, was made in 1725 by François Morellon de La Cave for the first edition of Il cimento dell'armonia e dell'inventione, and shows Vivaldi holding a sheet of music. The ink sketch, a caricature, was done by Ghezzi in 1723 and shows Vivaldi's head and shoulders in profile. It exists in two versions: a first jotting kept at the Vatican Library, and a much lesser-known, slightly more detailed copy recently discovered in Moscow. The oil painting, which can be seen in the International Museum and Library of Music of Bologna, is anonymous and is thought to depict Vivaldi due to its strong resemblance to the La Cave engraving. + +During his lifetime, Vivaldi was popular in many countries throughout Europe, including France, but after his death his popularity dwindled. After the end of the Baroque period, Vivaldi's published concerti became relatively unknown, and were largely ignored. Even his most famous work, The Four Seasons, was unknown in its original edition during the Classical and Romantic periods. Vivaldi's work was rediscovered in the 20th century. + +Works + +A composition by Vivaldi is identified by RV number, which refers to its place in the "Ryom-Verzeichnis" or "Répertoire des oeuvres d'Antonio Vivaldi", a catalog created in the 20th century by the musicologist Peter Ryom. + +Le quattro stagioni (The Four Seasons) of 1723 is his most famous work. Part of Il cimento dell'armonia e dell'inventione ("The Contest between Harmony and Invention"), it depicts moods and scenes from each of the four seasons. This work has been described as an outstanding instance of pre-19th-century program music. + +Vivaldi wrote more than 500 other concertos. About 350 of these are for solo instrument and strings, of which 230 are for violin, the others being for bassoon, cello, oboe, flute, viola d'amore, recorder, lute, or mandolin. About forty concertos are for two instruments and strings, and about thirty are for three or more instruments and strings. + +As well as about 46 operas, Vivaldi composed a large body of sacred choral music, such as the Magnificat RV 610. Other works include sinfonias, about 90 sonatas and chamber music. + +Some sonatas for flute, published as Il Pastor Fido, have been erroneously attributed to Vivaldi, but were composed by Nicolas Chédeville. + +Catalogues of Vivaldi works + +Vivaldi's works attracted cataloging efforts befitting a major composer. Scholarly work intended to increase the accuracy and variety of Vivaldi performances also supported new discoveries which made old catalogs incomplete. Works still in circulation today may be numbered under several different systems (some earlier catalogs are mentioned here). + +Because the simply consecutive Complete Edition (CE) numbers did not reflect the individual works (Opus numbers) into which compositions were grouped, numbers assigned by Antonio Fanna were often used in conjunction with CE numbers. Combined Complete Edition (CE)/Fanna numbering was especially common in the work of Italian groups driving the mid-20th-century revival of Vivaldi, such as Gli Accademici di Milano under Piero Santi. For example, the Bassoon Concerto in B major, "La Notte" RV 501, became CE 12, F. VIII,1 + +Despite the awkwardness of having to overlay Fanna numbers onto the Complete Edition number for meaningful grouping of Vivaldi's oeuvre, these numbers displaced the older Pincherle numbers as the (re-)discovery of more manuscripts had rendered older catalogs obsolete. + +This cataloging work was led by the Istituto Italiano Antonio Vivaldi, where Gian Francesco Malipiero was both the director and the editor of the published scores (Edizioni G. Ricordi). His work built on that of Antonio Fanna, a Venetian businessman and the Institute's founder, and thus formed a bridge to the scholarly catalog dominant today. + +Compositions by Vivaldi are identified today by RV number, the number assigned by Danish musicologist Peter Ryom in works published mostly in the 1970s, such as the "Ryom-Verzeichnis" or "Répertoire des oeuvres d'Antonio Vivaldi". Like the Complete Edition before it, the RV does not typically assign its single, consecutive numbers to "adjacent" works that occupy one of the composer's single opus numbers. Its goal as a modern catalog is to index the manuscripts and sources that establish the existence and nature of all known works. + +Style and influence +Vivaldi's music was innovative. He brightened the formal and rhythmic structure of the concerto, in which he looked for harmonic contrasts and innovative melodies and themes. + +The German scholar Walter Kolneder has discerned the influence of Legrenzi's style in Vivaldi's early liturgical work Laetatus sum (RV Anh 31), written in 1691 at the age of thirteen. + +Johann Sebastian Bach was deeply influenced by Vivaldi's concertos and arias (recalled in his St John Passion, St Matthew Passion, and cantatas). Bach transcribed six of Vivaldi's concerti for solo keyboard, three for organ, and one for four harpsichords, strings, and basso continuo (BWV 1065) based upon the concerto for four violins, two violas, cello, and basso continuo (RV 580). + +Legacy + +In the early 20th century, Fritz Kreisler's Concerto in C, in the Style of Vivaldi (which he passed off as an original Vivaldi work) helped revive Vivaldi's reputation. Kreisler's concerto in C spurred the French scholar Marc Pincherle to begin an academic study of Vivaldi's oeuvre. Many Vivaldi manuscripts were rediscovered, which were acquired by the Turin National University Library as a result of the generous sponsorship of Turinese businessmen Roberto Foa and Filippo Giordano, in memory of their sons. This led to a renewed interest in Vivaldi by, among others, Mario Rinaldi, Alfredo Casella, Ezra Pound, Olga Rudge, Desmond Chute, Arturo Toscanini, Arnold Schering and Louis Kaufman, all of whom were instrumental in the revival of Vivaldi throughout the 20th century. + +In 1926, in a monastery in Piedmont, researchers discovered fourteen bound volumes of Vivaldi's work but later on discovered to be fifteen that were previously thought to have been lost during the Napoleonic Wars. Some missing tomes in the numbered set were discovered in the collections of the descendants of the Grand Duke Durazzo, who had acquired the monastery complex in the 18th century. The volumes contained 300 concertos, 19 operas and over 100 vocal-instrumental works. + +The resurrection of Vivaldi's unpublished works in the 20th century greatly benefited from the noted efforts of Alfredo Casella, who in 1939 organized the historic Vivaldi Week, in which the rediscovered Gloria (RV 589) and l'Olimpiade were revived. Since World War II, Vivaldi's compositions have enjoyed wide success. Historically informed performances, often on "original instruments", have increased Vivaldi's fame still further. + +Recent rediscoveries of works by Vivaldi include two psalm settings: Psalm 127, Nisi Dominus (RV 803 in eight movements); and Psalm 110, Dixit Dominus (RV 807 in eleven movements). These were identified in 2003 and 2005, respectively, by the Australian scholar Janice Stockigt. The Vivaldi scholar Michael Talbot described RV 807 as "arguably the best nonoperatic work from Vivaldi's pen to come to light since […] the 1920s". Vivaldi's 1730 opera Argippo (RV 697), which had been considered lost, was rediscovered in 2006 by the harpsichordist and conductor Ondřej Macek, whose Hofmusici orchestra performed the work at Prague Castle on 3 May 2008—its first performance since 1730. + +Modern depictions of Vivaldi's life include a 2005 radio play, commissioned by the ABC Radio National and written by Sean Riley. Entitled The Angel and the Red Priest, the play was later adapted for the stage and was performed at the Adelaide Festival of the Arts. Films about Vivaldi include (1989), an Italian-French co-production under the direction of Étienne Périer, (2006), an Italian-French co-production under the direction of , and Vivaldi, the Red Priest (2009), loosely based on Antonio's life as both priest and composer. + +References + +Notes + +Citations + +Sources + +Further reading + Romijn, André. Hidden Harmonies: The Secret Life of Antonio Vivaldi, 2007 + Selfridge-Field, Eleanor (1994). Venetian Instrumental Music, from Gabrieli to Vivaldi. New York, Dover Publications. . + +External links + + + + + + + +1678 births +1741 deaths +18th-century male musicians +18th-century Italian Roman Catholic priests +Catholic liturgical composers +Classical composers of church music +Composers for cello +Composers for violin +Italian Baroque composers +Italian classical violinists +Italian expatriates in Austria +Italian male classical composers +Italian opera composers +Republic of Venice clergy +Male classical violinists +Male opera composers +Oratorio composers +Musicians from Venice +18th-century Italian composers +Impresarios +Adrian is a form of the Latin given name Adrianus or Hadrianus. Its ultimate origin is most likely via the former river Adria from the Venetic and Illyrian word adur, meaning "sea" or "water". + +The Adria was until the 8th century BC the main channel of the Po River into the Adriatic Sea but ceased to exist before the 1st century BC. Hecataeus of Miletus (c.550 – c.476 BC) asserted that both the Etruscan harbor city of Adria and the Adriatic Sea had been named after it. Emperor Hadrian's family was named after the city or region of Adria/Hadria, now Atri, in Picenum, which most likely started as an Etruscan or Greek colony of the older harbor city of the same name. + +Several saints and six popes have borne this name, including the only English pope, Adrian IV, and the only Dutch pope, Adrian VI. As an English name, it has been in use since the Middle Ages. + +Religion +Pope Adrian I (c. 700–795) +Pope Adrian II (792–872) +Pope Adrian III (died 885) +Pope Adrian IV (c. 1100–1159), English pope +Pope Adrian V (c. 1205–1276) +Adrian of Batanea (died 308), Christian martyr and saint +Adrian of Canterbury (died 710), scholar and Abbot of St Augustine's Abbey in Canterbury +Adrian of Castello (1460–1521), Italian cardinal and writer +Adrian of May (died 875), Scottish saint from the Isle of May, martyred by Vikings +Adrian of Moscow (1627–1700), last pre-revolutionary Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia +Adrian of Nicomedia (died 306), martyr and Herculian Guard of the Roman Emperor Galerius Maximian +Adrian of Ondrusov (died 1549), Russian Orthodox saint and wonder-worker +Adrian of Poshekhonye (died 1550), Russian Orthodox saint, hegumen of Dormition monastery in Yaroslavl region +Adrian of Transylvania (fl. 1183–1201), Hungarian bishop and chancellor +Adrian Fortescue (martyr) (1476–1539), English courtier at Henry VIII's court, beatified as a Roman Catholic martyr +Adrian Gouffier de Boissy (1479–1523), French Roman Catholic bishop and cardinal +Adrian Kivumbi Ddungu (1923–2009), Ugandan Roman Catholic bishop +Adrian Leo Doyle (born 1936), Australian prelate of the Roman Catholic Church + +Government and politics +Adrian Amstutz (born 1953), Swiss politician +Adrian Arnold (1932–2018), American politician +Adrian Bailey (born 1945), British politician +Adrian Baillie (1898–1947), British politician +Adrian A. 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Smith (born 1970), American politician +Adrian Sanders (born 1959), British politician +Adrian Severin (born 1954), Romanian politician and Member of the European Parliament +Adrian Smith (politician) (born 1970), American politician +Adrian Stokes (courtier) (1519–1586), English politician +Adrian Stoughton (1556–1614), English politician + +Academia +Adrian Albert (1905–1972), American mathematician +Adrian Baddeley (born 1955), Australian scientist +Adrian Bailey (academic), American scholar +Adrian Bejan (born 1948), Romanian-born professor of mechanical engineering at Duke University +Adrian Beverland (1650–1716), Dutch philosopher and jurist who settled in England +Adrian Bird (born 1947), British geneticist +Adrian Bowyer (born 1952), engineer, creator of the RepRap project +Adrian John Brown (1852–1919), British professor and pioneer +Adrian David Cheok (born 1971/1972), Australian electrical engineer and professor +Adrian Curaj (born 1958), Romanian engineer +Adrian Darby (born 1937), British conservationist and academic +Adrian Goldsworthy (born 1969), British historian and author who writes mostly about ancient Roman history +Adrian Hardy Haworth (1767–1833), English entomologist, botanist and carcinologist +Adrian Ioana (born 1981), Romanian mathematician +Adrian Mihai Ionescu, Romanian professor +Adrian Ioviță (born 1954), Romanian-Canadian mathematician +Adrian Jacobsen (1853–1947), Norwegian ethnologist and explorer +Adrian Kaehler, American scientist, engineer, entrepreneur, inventor, and author +Adrian Liston (born 1980), British immunologist and author +Adrian Paterson, South African scientist and engineer +Adrián Recinos (1886–1962), Guatemalan historian, Mayanist and diplomat +Adrian Smith (born 1946), British statistician +Adrian Stephens (1795–1876), English engineer, inventor of the steam whistle +Adrian V. Stokes (1945–2020), British computer scientist +Adrian Webb (born 1943), British academic and public administrator +Adrian Zenz (born 1974), German anthropologist + +Military +Adrian Becher (1897–1957), British Army officer and cricketer +Adrian von Bubenberg (1434–1479), Bernese knight, military commander and mayor +Adrian Carton de Wiart (1880–1963), Belgian-born British Army lieutenant-general awarded the Victoria Cross +Adrian Cole (RAAF officer) (1895–1966), Australian World War I flying ace +Adrian Johns (born 1951), English governor of Gibraltar and former Royal Navy vice-admiral +Adrian Dietrich Lothar von Trotha (1848–1920), German military commander in Africa +Adrian Marks (1917–1998), United States Navy pilot +Adrian Consett Stephen (1894–1918), Australian artillery officer and playwright +Adrian Warburton (1918–1944), British Second World War pilot +Adrián Woll (1795–1875), French Mexican general during the Texas Revolution and the Mexican–American War + +Sports + +American football + Adrian Amos (born 1993), American football player + Adrian Arrington (born 1985), American football player + Adrian Awasom (born 1983), Cameroon-born American football player + Adrian Baird (born 1979), Canadian football player + Adrian Baril (1898–1961), American football player + Adrian Battles (born 1987), American football player + Adrian Breen (quarterback) (born 1965), American football player + Adrian Burk (1927–2003), American football player + Adrian Clarke (born 1991), Canadian football player + Adrian Clayborn (born 1988), American football player + Adrian Colbert (born 1993), American football player + Adrian Cooper (born 1968), American football player + Adrian Davis (Canadian football) (born 1981), Canadian football player + A. J. Davis (cornerback, born 1983), American football player known as A.J. Davis + Adrian Dingle (American football) (born 1977), American football player + Adrian Ealy (born 1999), American football player + Adrian Ford (1904–1977), American football player + Adrian Grady (born 1985), American football player + Adrian Hamilton (born 1987), American football player + Adrian Hardy (born 1970), American football player + Adrian Hubbard (born 1992), American football player + Adrian Jones (American football) (born 1981), American football player + Adrian Killins (born 1998), American football player + Adrian Klemm (born 1977), American football player and coach + Adrian Madise (born 1980), American football player + Adrian Magee (born 1996), American football player + Adrian Martinez (American football) (born 2000), American football player + Adrian Mayes (born 1980), American football player + Adrian Moten (born 1988), American football player + Adrian Murrell (born 1970), American football player + Adrian Peterson (American football, born 1979), American football player + Adrian Peterson (born 1985), American football player + Adrian Phillips (born 1992), American football player + Adrian Robinson (1989–2015), American football player + Adrian Ross (born 1975), American football player + Adrian Tracy (born 1988), American football player + Adrian White (American football) (born 1964), American football player + Adrian Wilson (American football) (born 1979), American football player + Adrian Young (American football) (born 1949), American football player + +Association football + Adrián Aldrete (born 1988), Mexican footballer + Adrian Aliaj (born 1976), Albanian footballer + Adrian Allenspach (born 1969), Swiss footballer + Adrian Alston (born 1949), English footballer + Adrián Álvarez (born 1968), Argentine footballer + Adrian Anca (born 1976), Romanian footballer + Adrian Antunović (born 1989), Croatian footballer + Adrián Argachá (born 1986), Uruguayan footballer + Adrian García Arias (born 1975), Mexican footballer + Adrián Arregui (born 1992), Argentine footballer + Adrián Ascues (born 2002), Peruvian footballer + Adrian Ávalos (born 1974), Argentine footballer + Adrian Avrămia (born 1992), Romanian footballer + Adrian Bajrami (born 2002), Swiss footballer + Adrian Bakalli (born 1976), Belgian footballer + Adrian Bălan (born 1990), Romanian footballer + Adrián Balboa (born 1994), Uruguayan footballer + Adrian Baldovin (born 1971), Romanian footballer + Adrian Barbullushi (born 1968), Albanian footballer + Adrian Bartkowiak (born 1987), Polish footballer + Adrian Basta (born 1988), Polish footballer + Adrián Bastía (born 1978), Argentine footballer + Adrian Beck (born 1997), German footballer + Adrian Benedyczak (born 2000), Polish footballer + Adrián Berbia (born 1977), Uruguayan goalkeeper + Adrián Bernabé (born 2001), Spanish footballer + Adrian Bevington (born c. 1971), Club England Managing Director + Adrian Bielawski (born 1996), Polish footballer + Adrian Billhardt (born 1997), German footballer + Adrian Bird (born 1969), English footballer + Adrian Błąd (born 1991), Polish footballer + Adrian Blake (born 2005), English footballer + Adrian Bogoi (born 1973), Romanian footballer + Adrián Bone (born 1988), Ecuadorian footballer + Adrian Boothroyd (born 1971), English footballer and manager + Adrian Borza (born 1985), Romanian footballer + Adrian Budka (born 1980), Polish footballer + Adrian Bumbescu (born 1960), Romanian footballer + Adrian Bumbut (born 1984), Romanian footballer + Adrian Butters (born 1988), Canadian soccer player + Adrián Butzke (born 1999), Spanish footballer + Adrian Caceres (born 1982), Argentine footballer + Adrián Calello (born 1987), Argentine footballer + Adrián Cañas (born 1992), Spanish footballer + Adrian Cann (born 1980), Canadian soccer player + Adrian Cașcaval (born 1987), Moldovan footballer + Adrián Centurión (born 1993), Argentine footballer + Adrián Čermák (born 1993), Slovak footballer + Adrian Chama (born 1989), Zambian footballer + Adrián Chávez (born 1962), Mexican footballer + Adrian Chomiuk (born 1988), Polish footballer + Adrián Chovan (born 1995), Slovak footballer + Adrian Cieślewicz (born 1990), Polish footballer + Adrian Clarke (footballer) (born 1974), English footballer + Adrian Clifton (born 1988), English footballer + Adrián Colombino (born 1993), Uruguayan footballer + Adrián Colunga (born 1984), Spanish footballer + Adrian Coote (born 1978), English footballer + Adrián Cortés (born 1983), Mexican footballer + Adrian Cristea (born 1983), Romanian footballer + Adrián Cruz (born 1987), Spanish footballer + Adrián Cuadra (born 1997), Chilean footballer + Adrian Cuciula (born 1986), Romanian footballer + Adrian Cucovei (born 1982), Moldovan footballer + Adrian Dabasse (born 1993), French footballer + Adrián Dalmau (born 1994), Spanish footballer + Adrian Danek (born 1994), Polish footballer + Adrián Diéguez (born 1996), Spanish footballer + Adrian Drida (born 1982), Romanian footballer + Adrian Dubois (born 1987), American footballer + Adrian Dulcea (born 1978), Romanian footballer and manager + Adrian Durrer (born 2001), Swiss footballer + Adrian Edqvist (born 1999), Swedish footballer + Adrián El Charani (born 2000), Venezuelan footballer + Adrian Elrick (born 1949), New Zealand footballer + Adrián Escudero (1927–2011), Spanish footballer + Adrián Faúndez (born 1989), Chilean footballer + Adrian Fein (born 1999), German footballer + Adrián Fernández (footballer, born 1980), Argentine footballer + Adrián Fernández (footballer, born 1992), Paraguayan footballer + Adrian Foncette (born 1988), Trinidadian footballer + Adrian Forbes (born 1979), English footballer + Adrian Foster (footballer) (born 1971), English footballer and manager + Adrián Fuentes (born 1996), Spanish footballer + Adrián Gabbarini (born 1985), Argentine footballer + Adrian Dan Găman (born 1978), Romanian footballer + Adrian Gheorghiu (born 1981), Romanian footballer + Adrian Gîdea (born 2000), Romanian footballer + Adrián González (footballer, born 1976), Argentine footballer + Adrián González (footballer, born 1988), Spanish footballer + Adrián González (footballer, born 1995), Argentine footballer + Adrián González (footballer, born 2003), Mexican footballer + Adrián Hernán González (born 1976), Argentine footballer + Adrián Goransch (born 1999), Mexican footballer + Adrian Grbić (born 1996), Austrian footballer + Adrian Grigoruță (born 1983), Romanian footballer + Adrian Gryszkiewicz (born 1999), Polish footballer + Adrián Gunino (born 1989), Uruguayan footballer + Adrian Hajdari (born 2000), Macedonian footballer + Adrian Aleksander Hansen (born 2001), Norwegian footballer + Adrian Heath (born 1961), English footballer and manager + Adrian Henger (born 1996), Polish footballer + Adrián José Hernández (born 1983), Spanish footballer, known as Pollo + Adrián Horváth (born 1987), Hungarian footballer + Adrian Iencsi (born 1975), Romanian footballer and manager + Adrian Ilie (born 1974), Romanian footballer + Adrian Ilie (footballer, born 1981), Romanian footballer + Adrian Ionescu (footballer, born 1958), Romanian footballer + Adrian Ionescu (footballer, born 1985), Romanian footballer + Adrian Ioniță (born 2000), Romanian footballer + Adrian Iordache (born 1980), Romanian footballer + Adrian Dragoș Iordache (born 1981), Romanian footballer + Adrian Jevrić (born 1986), German footballer + Adrián Jusino (born 1992), Bolivian footballer + Adrian Kappenberger (born 1996), Danish footballer + Adrian Kasztelan (born 1986), Polish footballer + Adrian Klepczyński (born 1981), Polish footballer + Adrian Klimczak (born 1997), Polish footballer + Adrian Knup (born 1968), Swiss footballer + Adrián Kocsis (born 1991), Hungarian footballer + Adrian Kunz (born 1967), Swiss footballer + Adrián Lapeña (born 1996), Spanish footballer + Adrián Torres Lázaro (born 1998), Spanish footballer commonly known as Lele + Adrian Leijer (born 1986), Australian footballer + Adrián Leites (born 1992), Uruguayan footballer + Adrian LeRoy (born 1987), Canadian soccer player + Adrián Leško (born 1995), Slovak footballer + Adrian Liber (born 2001), Croatian footballer + Adrian Lis (born 1992), Polish footballer + Adrian Littlejohn (born 1970), English footballer + Adrián Lois (born 1989), Spanish footballer + Adrián López (footballer, born 1987), Spanish footballer + Adrián López (born 1988), Spanish footballer + Adrián Lozano (born 1999), Mexican footballer + Adrian Lucaci (1966–2020), Romanian footballer + Adrián Lucero (born 1985), Argentine footballer + Adrián Marín Lugo (born 1994), Mexican footballer + Adrián Luna (born 1992), Uruguayan footballer + Adrian Łyszczarz (born 1999), Polish footballer + Adrian Madaschi (born 1982), Australian footballer + Adrian Małachowski (born 1998), Polish footballer + Adrian Marek (born 1987), Polish footballer + Adrian Mariappa (born 1986), English footballer + Adrián Marín (footballer, born 1994), Mexican footballer + Adrián Marín (footballer, born 1997), Spanish footballer + Adrian Mărkuș (born 1992), Romanian footballer + Adrián Martín (footballer) (born 1982), Spanish footballer + Adrián Martínez (Mexican footballer) (born 1970) + Adrián Martínez (Venezuelan footballer) (born 1993) + Adrián Emmanuel Martínez (born 1992), Argentine footballer + Adrián Nahuel Martínez (born 1992), Argentine footballer + Adrian Matei (footballer) (born 1968), Romanian footballer + Adrian Mierzejewski (born 1986), Polish footballer + Adrian Mihalcea (born 1976), Romanian footballer + Adrian Moescu (born 2001), Romanian footballer + Adrián Mouriño (born 1988), Spanish footballer + Adrian Mrowiec (born 1983), Polish footballer + Adrian Mutu (born 1979), Romanian footballer + Adrian Nalați (born 1983), Romanian footballer + Adrian Napierała (born 1982), Polish footballer + Adrian Neaga (born 1979), Romanian footballer + Adrian Negrău (born 1968), Romanian footballer + Adrian Neniță (born 1996), Romanian footballer + Adrian Nikçi (born 1989), Swiss footballer + Adrian Romeo Niță (born 2003), Romania footballer + Adrian Olah (born 1981), Romania footballer + Adrian Olegov (born 1985), Bulgarian footballer + Adrian Olszewski (born 1993), Polish footballer + Adrián Ortolá (born 1993), Spanish footballer + Adrian Paluchowski (born 1987), Polish footballer + Adrian Pătraș (born 1984), Moldovan footballer + Adrian Pătulea (born 1984), Romanian footballer + Adrián Paz (born 1966), Uruguayan footballer + Adrian Pelka (born 1981), German footballer + Adrian Pennock (born 1971), English footballer + Adrián Peralta (born 1982), Argentine footballer + Adrian Pereira (born 1999), Norwegian footballer + Adrian Petre (born 1998), Romanian footballer + Adrian Pettigrew (born 1986), English footballer + Adrian Pigulea (born 1968), Romanian footballer + Adrian Piț (born 1983), Romanian footballer + Adrian Pitu (born 1975), Romanian footballer + Adrian Popa (footballer, born 1988), Romanian footballer + Adrian Popa (footballer, born 1990), Romanian footballer + Adrian Poparadu (born 1987), Romanian footballer + Adrian Popescu (born 1960), Romanian footballer + Adrian Popescu (footballer, born 1975), Romanian footballer + Adrian Pukanych (born 1981), Ukrainian footballer + Adrian Pulis (born 1979), Maltan footballer + Adrian Purzycki (born 1997), Polish footballer + Adrian Rakowski (born 1990), Polish footballer + Adrián Ramos (born 1986), Colombian footballer + Adrián Ricchiuti (born 1978), Argentine footballer + Adrián Riera (born 1996), Spanish footballer + Adrián Ripa (born 1985), Spanish footballer + Adrian Rochet (born 1987), Israel footballer + Adrián Rojas (born 1977), Chilean footballer + Adrian Rolko (born 1978), Czech footballer + Adrián Romero (Argentine footballer) (born 1975) + Adrián Romero (Uruguayan footballer) (born 1977) + Adrian Ropotan (born 1986), Romanian footballer + Adrián Ruelas (born 1991), American soccer player + Adrian Rus (born 1996), Romanian footballer + Adrian Rusu (born 1984), Romanian footballer + Adrián Sahibeddine (born 1994), French footballer + Adrian Sălăgeanu (born 1983), Romanian footballer + Adrián Sánchez (born 1999), Argentine footballer + Adrián San Miguel del Castillo (born 1987), Spanish football goalkeeper known as simply Adrián + Adrián Sardinero (born 1990), Spanish footballer + Adrian Sarkissian (born 1979), Uruguayan footballer + Adrian Scarlatache (born 1986), Romanian footballer + Adrian Schlagbauer (born 2002), German footballer + Adrián Scifo (born 1987), Argentine footballer + Adrian Šemper (born 1998), Croatian footballer + Adrian Senin (born 1979), Romanian footballer + Adrian Serioux (born 1979), Canadian soccer player + Adrian Sikora (born 1980), Polish footballer + Adrian Sosnovschi (born 1977), Moldovan footballer and manager + Adrián Spörle (born 1995), Argentine footballer + Adrian Spyrka (born 1967), German footballer + Adrian Stanilewicz (born 2000), German footballer + Adrian Șter (born 1998), Romanian footballer + Adrian Stoian (born 1991), Romanian footballer + Adrian Stoicov (1967–2017), Romanian footballer + Adrian Șut (born 1999), Romanian footballer + Adrian Świątek (born 1986), Polish footballer + Adrián Szekeres (born 1989), Hungarian footballer + Adrián Szőke (born 1998), Serbian footballer + Adrian Toma (born 1976), Romanian footballer + Adrián Torres (born 1989), Argentine footballer + Adrian Trinidad (born 1982), Argentine footballer + Adrián Turmo (born 2001), Spanish footballer + Adrián Ugarriza (born 1997), Peruvian footballer + Adrian Ursea (born 1967), Romanian footballer and manager + Adrian Valentić (born 1987), Croatian footballer + Adrian Vera (born 1997), American footballer + Adrian Viciu (born 1991), Romanian footballer + Adrian Viveash (born 1969), English footballer, better known as Adi Viveash + Adrian Vlas (born 1982), Romanian footballer + Adrian Ionuț Voicu (born 1992), Romanian footballer + Adrian Voiculeț (born 1985), Romanian footballer + Adrian Webster (footballer, born 1951), English footballer + Adrian Webster (footballer, born 1980), New Zealand footballer + Adrian Whitbread (born 1971), English footballer and manager + Adrian Williams, better known as Ady Williams (born 1971), English footballer and manager + Adrian Winter (born 1986), Swiss footballer + Adrian Woźniczka (born 1982), Polish footballer + Adrian Zahra (born 1990), Australian footballer + Adrian Zaluschi (born 1989), Romanian footballer + Adrián Zambrano (born 2000), Venezuelan footballer + Adrián Zela (born 1989), Peruvian footballer + Adrian Zendejas (born 1995), American footballer + Adrián Zermeño (born 1979), Mexican footballer + +Baseball + + Adrian Constantine Anson better known as Cap Anson (1852–1922), American baseball player + Adrián Beltré (born 1979), Dominican Republic baseball player + Adrian Brown (baseball) (born 1974), American baseball player + Adrian Burnside (born 1977), Australian baseball player + Adrian Cárdenas (born 1987), American baseball player + Adrian Devine (1951–2020), American baseball player + Adrian Garrett (1943–2021), American baseball player and coach + Adrián González (born 1982), American-Mexican baseball player + Adrian Houser (born 1993), American baseball player + Addie Joss (1880–1911), American baseball pitcher + Adrian Lynch (1897–1934), American baseball player + Adrián Morejón (born 1999), Cuban baseball player + Adrián Nieto (born 1989), Cuban baseball player + Adrian Sampson (born 1991), American baseball player + Adrián Sánchez (born 1990), Colombian-Venezuelan baseball player + Adrián Zabala (1916–2002), Cuban baseball player + +Basketball + Adrian Autry (born 1972), American basketball player + Adrian Banks (born 1986), American basketball player + Adrian Bauk (born 1985), Australian basketball player + Adrian Branch (born 1963), American basketball player + Adrian Caldwell (born 1966), American basketball player + Adrian Celada, Filipino basketball player + Adrian Dantley (born 1956), American basketball player + Adrian Griffin (born 1974), American basketball player + Adrian Pledger (born 1976), American basketball player + Adrian Smith (basketball) (born 1936), American basketball player + Adrian Tudor (born 1985), Romanian basketball player + Adrian Williams-Strong (born 1977), American basketball player + +Boxing + Adrian Blair (born 1943), Australian boxer + Adrian Clark (boxer) (born 1986), American boxer + Adrian Diaconu (born 1978), Romanian boxer + Adrián Hernández (boxer) (born 1986), Mexican boxer + Adrian Mora (born 1978), American boxer + +Cricket + Adrian Aymes (born 1964), British cricketer + Adrian Barath (born 1990), West Indian cricketer + Adrian Birrell (born 1960), South African cricketer and coach + Adrian Brown (cricketer) (born 1962), English cricketer + Adrian Jones (cricketer) (born 1961), English cricketer + Adrian Rollins (born 1972), English cricketer + +Ice hockey + Adrian Aucoin (born 1973), Canadian ice hockey player + Adrian Foster (ice hockey) (born 1982), Canadian ice hockey player + Adrian Kempe (born 1996), Swedish ice hockey player + Adrian Wichser (born 1980), Swiss ice hockey player + +Racing + Adrian Adgar (born 1965), English cyclist + Adrian Archibald (born 1969), British motorcycle racer + Adrian Banaszek (born 1993), Polish cyclist + Adrián Campos (1960-2021), Spanish racing driver + Adrián Campos Jr. (born 1988), Spanish racing driver + Adrian Carrio (born 1989), American racing driver + Adrian "Wildman" Cenni, American off-road racing driver + Adrián Fernández (born 1965), Mexican racing driver and team owner + Adrián Fernández (motorcyclist) (born 2004), Spanish motorcycle racer + Adrián González (cyclist) (born 1992), Spanish cyclist + Adrian Kurek (born 1988), Polish road bicycle racer + Adrián Martín (motorcyclist) (born 1992), Spanish motorcycle racer + Adrian Newey (born 1958), British race car engineer and designer + Adrian Quaife-Hobbs (born 1991), British racing driver + Adrian Aas Stien (born 1992), Norwegian cyclist + Adrian Sutil (born 1983), German racing driver + Adrián Vallés (born 1986), Spanish race car driver + Adrian Zaugg (born 1986), South African racing driver + +Rugby + Adrian Apostol (born 1990), Romanian rugby player + Adrian Barich (born 1963), Australian rules footballer and television and radio presenter + Adrian Barone (born 1987), New Zealand rugby union footballer + Adrian Bassett (born 1967), Australian rules footballer + Adrian Battiston (born 1963), Australian rules footballer + Adrian Beer (born 1943), Australian rules footballer + Adrian Clarke (rugby union) (born 1938), New Zealand rugby player + Adrian Davies (born 1969), English rugby player + Adrian Davis (rugby league) (born 1990), Australian rugby player + Adrian Garvey (born 1968), Zimbabwean-born South African rugby union player + Adrian Lungu (born 1960), Romanian rugby player + Adrian Morley (born 1977), English rugby player + Adrian Pllotschi (born 1959), Romanian rugby player and coach + Adrian Stoop (1883–1957), English rugby union player + Adrian Young (footballer) (1943–2020), Australian rugby player + +Swimming + Adrian Andermatt (born 1969), Swiss swimmer + Adrian Moorhouse (born 1964), English swimmer + Adrian O'Connor (born 1972), Irish backstroke swimmer + Adrian Radley (born 1976), Australian swimmer + Adrian Robinson (swimmer) (born 2000), Botswanan swimmer + Adrian Romero (swimmer) (born 1972), Guamanian swimmer + Adrian Turner (born 1977), British Olympic swimmer + +Tennis + Adrian Andreev (born 2001), Bulgarian tennis player + Adrian Bey (1938 – 2019), Rhodesian-born American professional tennis player + Adrian Bodmer (born 1995), Swiss tennis player + Adrian Bohane (born 1981), Irish-American former professional tennis player + Adrian Cruciat (born 1983), Romanian tennis player + Adrian Gavrilă (born 1984), Romanian tennis player + Adrian Mannarino (born 1988), French tennis player + Adrian Marcu (born 1961), professional tennis player from Romania + Adrián Menéndez Maceiras (born 1985), Spanish tennis player + Adrian Quist (1913–1991), Australian tennis player + Adrian Ungur (born 1985), Romanian tennis player + Adrian Voinea (born 1974), Romanian tennis player + +Other + Adrian Adonis (1954–1988), American professional wrestler + Adrian Alvarado (figure skater) (born 1983), Mexican figure skater + Adrian Ang (born 1988), Malaysian bowler + Adrián Annus (born 1973), Hungarian hammer thrower + Adrian Bachmann (born 1976), Swiss sprint canoer + Adrian Ballinger (born 1976), British-American climber, skier, and mountain guide + Adrián Ben (born 1998) Spanish middle-distance runner + Adrian Berce (born 1958), Australian field hockey player + Adrian Blincoe (born 1979), New Zealand runner + Adrian Błocki (born 1990), Polish racewalker + Adrian Breen (hurler) (born 1992), Irish hurler + Adrian Cosma (1950–1996), Romanian handball player + Adrian Crișan (born 1980), Romanian table tennis player + Adrián Gavira (born 1987), Spanish beach volleyball player + Adrian Gomes (born 1990), Brazilian gymnast + Adrian Gray (born 1981), English darts player + Adrian Gunnell (born 1972), English snooker player + Adrian Hansen (born 1971), South African squash player + Adrian Lewis (born 1985), English darts player + Adrian Matei (born 1985), Romanian figure skater + Adrian Metcalfe (1942–2021), British runner and sports broadcaster + Adrian Neville (born 1986), English professional wrestler, known professionally as Pac + Adrian Parker (born 1951), British modern pentathlete and Olympic champion + Adrian Patrick (born 1973), English former sprinter + Adrián Alonso Pereira (born 1988), Spanish futsal player + Adrián Popa (born 1971), Hungarian weightlifter + Adrian Rollinson (born 1965), British strongman + Adrian Schultheiss (born 1988), Swedish figure skater + Adrian Smith (strongman) (born 1964), British strongman + Adrian Street (born 1940), Welsh wrestler and author + Adrian Strzałkowski (born 1990), Polish long jumper + Adrián Paz Velázquez (born 1964), Mexican Paralympic athlete + Adrian Watt (born 1947), American ski jumper + Adrian White (equestrian) (born 1933), New Zealand equestrian + Adrian Alejandro Wittwer (born 1986), Swiss extreme athlete and ice swimmer + Adrian Zieliński (born 1989), Polish weightlifter + +Arts and entertainment +Adrian Adlam (born 1963), British violinist and conductor +Adrian Aeschbacher (1912–2002), Swiss classical pianist +Adrian Alandy (born 1980), Filipino actor and model +Adrian Allinson (1890–1959), British painter, potter and engraver +Adrián Alonso (born 1994), Mexican actor +Adrian Alphona, Canadian comic book artist +Adrian Alvarado (actor) (born 1976), American actor +Adrian Anantawan (born 1986), Canadian violinist +Adrian Augier, St. Lucian poet and producer +Adrian Bică Bădan (born 1988), Romanian footballer +Adrian Baker (born 1951), English singer, songwriter, and record producer +Adrian Bărar (1960–2021), Romanian guitarist and composer +Adrian Barber (1938–2020), English musician and producer +Adrian Batten (1591–1637), English organist +Adrian Bawtree (born 1968), English composer and organist +Adrian Beaumont (born 1937), British composer, conductor, and professor +Adrian Beers (1916–2004), British double bass player and teacher +Adrian Belew (born 1949), American guitarist, singer, songwriter, multi-instrumentalist and record producer +Adrian Benjamin (born 1942), actor and prebendary emeritus +Adrian Biddle (1952–2005), English cinematographer +Adrian Blevins (born 1964), American poet +Adrian Borland (1957–1999), English singer, songwriter, guitarist and record producer +Adrian Boult (1889–1983), English conductor +Adrian Brown (1929–2019), British director and poet +Adrian Brown (born 1949), British conductor +Adrian Brunel (1892–1958), English film director and screenwriter +Adrian Bustamante (born 1981), American actor +Adrián Caetano (born 1969), Uruguayan-Argentine film director, producer and screenplay writer +Adrian Carmack (born 1969), American video game artist +Adrián Carrio (born 1986), Spanish pianist +Adrian Chiles (born 1967), British television and radio presenter +Adrian Clarke (photographer), English photographer +Adrian Clarke (poet), British poet +Adrian Conan Doyle (1910–1970), English race-car driver, big-game hunter, explorer, and writer +Adrian Dingle (artist) (1911–1974), Welsh-Canadian painter and comic book artist +Adrian Dunbar (born 1958), Northern Ireland actor +Adrian Edmondson better known as Ade Edmondson (born 1957), English actor, comedian, director, writer and musician +Adrian Enescu (1948–2016), Romanian composer +Adrian Erlandsson (born 1970), Swedish heavy metal drummer +Adrian Fisher (musician) (1952-2000), former guitarist for Sparks (band) +Adrian Gaxha (born 1984), Macedonian singer-songwriter and producer +Adrian Ghenie (born 1977), Romanian painter +Adrian Gonzales (1937-1998), Filipino comic book artist +Adrián Luis González (born 1939), Mexican potter +Adrian Gray (born 1961), British artist +Adrian Adolph Greenburg (1903–1959), costume designer for over 250 films known as simply Adrian +Adrian Grenier (born 1976), American actor, producer, director, musician and environmentalist +Adrian Griffin (drummer), Australian drummer +Adrian Gurvitz (born 1949), English singer, musician and songwriter +Adrian Hall (actor) (born 1959), British actor and co-director +Adrian Hall (artist) (born 1943), British artist +Adrian Hall (director) (1927–2023), American theatre director +Adrian Hates (born 1973), German dark wave musician +Adrian Heath (1920–1992), British painter +Adrian Heathfield, British writer and curator +Adrian Hoven (1922–1981), Austrian actor, producer and film director +Adrian A. Husain (born 1945), Pakistani poet +Adrian Ivaniţchi (born 1947), Romanian folk musician and guitarist +Adrian Jones (sculptor) (1845–1938), English sculptor and painter who specialized in animals, particularly horses +Adrian Jones (born 1978), Swedish musician, member of Gjallarhorn +Adrian Karsten (1960–2005), American sports reporter +Adrian Kowanek (born 1977), Polish musician +Adrian Le Roy (1520–1598), French string player, composer, music publisher and educator +Adrian Leaper (born 1953), English conductor +Adrian Legg (born 1948), English guitar player +Adrian Lester (born 1968), British actor +Adrian Lucas (born 1962), English organist, tutor, and composer +Adrian Lulgjuraj (born 1980), Albanian rock singer +Adrian Lukis (born 1957), British actor +Adrian Lux (born 1986), Swedish disc jockey and music producer +Adrian Lyne (born 1941), English filmmaker and producer +Adrian Martin (born 1959), Australian film and arts critic +Adrian Martinez (actor) (born 1972), American actor and comedian +Adrian McKinty (writer) (born 1968), Northern Irish writer of crime and mystery novels +Adrian Minune (born 1974), Romani-Romanian manele singer +Adrian Mitchell (1932–2008), English poet, novelist and playwright +Adrian William Moore (born 1956), British philosopher and broadcaster +Adrián Navarro (born 1969), Argentine actor +Adrian Noble (born 1950), English theatre director +Adrian Pasdar (born 1965), American actor and film director +Adrian Paul (born 1959), English actor +Adrian Pecknold (1920–1999), Canadian mime, director, and author +Adrian Petriw (born 1987), Canadian actor +Adrian Picardi (born 1987), American filmmaker +Adrian Pintea (1954–2007), Romanian actor +Adrian Piotrovsky (1898–1937), Russian dramaturge +Adrian Piper (born 1948), American conceptual artist and philosophy professor +Adrian Pisarello (born 1970), Gibraltarian musician and songwriter +Adrian R'Mante (born 1978), American television actor +Adrian Rawlins (born 1958), English actor +Adrian Ludwig Richter (1803–1884), German painter and etcher +Adrian Rodriguez (DJ), German DJ +Adrián Rodríguez (born 1988), Spanish actor and singer from Catalonia +Adrian Rodriguez, American bass guitarist for The Airborne Toxic Event +Adrian Rollini (1903–1956), American multi-instrumentalist best known for his jazz music +Adrian Ross (1859–1933), British lyricist +Adrián Rubio, Mexican actor and model +Adrian Scarborough (born 1968), English character actor +Adrian Scott (1912–1972), American screenwriter and film producer +Adrian Shaposhnikov (1888–1967), Russian classical composer +Adrian Sherwood (born 1958), English record producer +Adrian Sînă (born 1977), Romanian singer-songwriter and record producer +Adrian D. Smith (born 1944), American architect +Adrian Smith (born 1957), English musician and one of three guitarists/songwriters in the English band Iron Maiden +Adrian Smith (illustrator), British illustrator +Adrian Steirn, photographer and filmmaker +Adrian Consett Stephen (1894–1918), Australian artillery officer and playwright +Adrian Stokes (critic) (1902–1972), British art critic +Adrian Scott Stokes (1854–1935), English landscape painter +Adrian Stroe (born 1959), Romanian serial killer +Adrian Sturges (born 1976), British film producer +Adrián Suar (born 1968), Argentine actor and media producer +Adrian Tanner, English writer and director +Adrian Taylor (producer) (1954–2014), American television news producer +Adrian Tchaikovsky (born 1972), British fantasy and science fiction author +Adrián Terrazas-González (born 1975), Mexican jazz composer and wind player +Adrian Thaws (born 1968), English musician and actor +Adrian Tomine (born 1974), American cartoonist +Adrian Truss (born 1953), British-Canadian actor +Adrian Utley (born 1957), English musician best known as a member of the band Portishead +Adrian Vandenberg (born 1954), Dutch rock guitarist +Adrian Wells (born 1989), British-American clinical psychologist, singer and songwriter +Adrian White (musician), Canadian drummer +Adrian White (author), Anglo-Irish writer +Adrian Willaert (c. 1490–1562), Flemish composer of the Renaissance and founder of the Venetian School +Adrian Wilson (actor) (born 1969), South African model and actor +Adrian Wilson (artist) (born 1964), British artist and photographer +Adrian Wong (born 1990), Hong Kong actress +Adrian Wright (1947–2015), English-Australian actor +Adrian Young (born 1969), American drummer for the rock band No Doubt +Adrian Younge (born 1978), American composer, arranger, and music producer +Adrian Zagoritis (born 1968), British songwriter and record producer +Adrian Zingg (1734–1816), Swiss painter +Adrian Zmed (born 1954), American television personality and film actor + +Other +Adrian Arendt (born 1952), Romanian sailor +Adrian Bancker (1703–1772), American silversmith +Adrian Beecroft (born 1947), British venture capitalist +Adrian Bell (1901–1980), English ruralist journalist, crossword compiler, and farmer +Adrian Bellamy (born 1941/1942), British businessman +Adrian Block (1567–1627), Dutch explorer of the American East Coast +Adrian Brown (archivist) (born 1969), British archivist +Adrian Brown (journalist), Australian journalist +Adrian Cheng (born 1979), Hong Kong entrepreneur and business executive +Adrian Cioroianu (born 1967), Romanian historian, politician, journalist, and essayist +Adrian Cronauer (1938–2018), American former lawyer and radio speaker +Adrian Diel (1756–1839), German physician +Adrian Finighan (born 1964), British journalist +Adrian Frutiger (1928–2015), Swiss typeface designer +Adrian Fulford (born 1953), British judge +Adrian Geiges (born 1960), German writer and journalist +Adrian Anthony Gill (1954–2016), British writer and critic +Adrian Gonzalez (kidnapper) (born 2000), American kidnapper +Adrián Gómez González, Mexican drug lord +Adrián Arroyo Gutiérrez (born 1976), Costa Rican serial killer and rapist, known as The Southern Psychopath +Adrian Hanauer (born 1966), American businessman and minority owner and general manager of the Seattle Sounders FC +Adrian Hayes (adventurer) (born 1959), British explorer +Adrian Holovaty (born 1981), American web developer, journalist and entrepreneur +Adrian van Hooydonk (born 1964), Dutch automobile designer +Adrian Albert Jurgens (1886–1953), South African philatelist +Adrian Kantrowitz (1918–2008), American cardiac surgeon +Adrian Kashchenko (1858–1921), Ukrainian writer, historian of the Zaporozhian Cossacks +Adrian Knox (1863–1932), Australian judge +Adrian Künzi (born 1973), Swiss banker +Adrian Lamo (born 1981), Colombian-American threat analyst and "grey hat" hacker +Adrian Lim (1942–1988), Singaporean serial killer +Adrian Long, British civil engineer + Adrian Mikhalchishin (born 1954), Ukrainian chess grandmaster +Adrian von Mynsicht (1603–1638), German alchemist +Adrian Parr (born 1967), Australian philosopher and cultural critic +Adrian Păunescu (1943–2010), Romanian poet, journalist, and politician +Adrian Plass (born 1948), English author and speaker +Adrian Rogers (1931–2005), American pastor, conservative and author +Adrian Andrei Rusu (born 1951), Romanian medieval archaeologist +Adrian Anthony Spears (1910–1991), American judge +Adrián Steckel, Mexican businessman +Adrian Stephen (1883–1948), British author and psychoanalyst, brother of Virginia Woolf and Vanessa Bell +Adrian Stroe (born 1959), Romanian serial killer + Adrian Swire (1932 – 2018), billionaire British heir and businessman +Adrian Ursu (born 1968), Romanian journalist +Adrian Weale (born 1964), English writer, journalist, illustrator and photographer +Adrian Wewer (1836–1914), German-born American architect and Franciscan friar +Adrian White (businessman) (born 1942), British businessman, founder of Biwater +Adrian Zecha (born 1933), Indonesian hotelier +Adrian Yeboah Otoo (born 1985) Pharmacist and Entrepreneur Ghanaian + +Fictional characters +Adrien Agreste, a superhero and male protagonist of Miraculous: Tales of Ladybug & Cat Noir +Adrian Andrews, Ace Attorney character from Justice for All +Adrian Chase, DC Comics superhero +Adrian Corbo, alias Flex, a Marvel Comics superhero +Adrian "Fletch" Fletcher, character on the British medical dramas Casualty and Holby City +Adrian Hall, character on the soap opera Home and Away +Adrian Ivashkov, character in Richelle Mead's Vampire Academy and protagonist in Bloodlines +Adrian Leverkühn, protagonist of Thomas Mann's Doctor Faustus +Adrian Mole, protagonist of The Secret Diary of Adrian Mole +Adrian Monk, protagonist of the television series Monk +Adrian Pennino, wife of Rocky Balboa +Adrian Seidelman, character from the Cybersix comic and television series +Adrian Shephard, protagonist of the Half-Life expansion "Half-Life: Opposing Force" +Adrian Fahrenheit Ţepeş, alias Alucard, character in the Castlevania video games +Adrian Toomes, alias Vulture, a Marvel Comics villain +Adrian Veidt, alias Ozymandias, character in the Watchmen graphic novel series +Adrian Woodhouse, spawn of Satan in the film Rosemary's Baby + Adrian, a character in Shakespeare's Coriolanus, is a Volscian who is oddly friendly with a Roman named Nicanor, and acts as a spy for the state. + Adrian, a mental woman in The Crush (1993 film) +Adrian, a son of Satan in Little Nicky + +See also +Adreian +Hadrien + +References + +Sources + +English masculine given names +Masculine given names +German masculine given names +Dutch masculine given names +Norwegian masculine given names +Swedish masculine given names +Danish masculine given names +Icelandic masculine given names +Romanian masculine given names +Spanish masculine given names +The Aare () or Aar () is a tributary of the High Rhine and the longest river that both rises and ends entirely within Switzerland. + +Its total length from its source to its junction with the Rhine comprises about , during which distance it descends , draining an area of , almost entirely within Switzerland, and accounting for close to half the area of the country, including all of Central Switzerland. + +There are more than 40 hydroelectric plants along the course of the Aare. + +The river's name dates to at least the La Tène period, and it is attested as Nantaror "Aare valley" in the Berne zinc tablet. + +The name was Latinized as Arula/Arola/Araris. + +Course + +The Aare rises in the great Aargletschers (Aare Glaciers) of the Bernese Alps, in the canton of Bern and west of the Grimsel Pass. The Finsteraargletscher and Lauteraargletscher come together to form the Unteraargletscher (Lower Aar Glacier), which is the main source of water for the Grimselsee (Lake of Grimsel). The Oberaargletscher (Upper Aar Glacier) feeds the Oberaarsee, which also flows into the Grimselsee. The Aare leaves the Grimselsee just to the east to the Grimsel Hospiz, below the Grimsel Pass, and then flows northwest through the Haslital, forming on the way the magnificent Handegg Waterfall, , past Guttannen. + +Right after Innertkirchen it is joined by its first major tributary, the Gamderwasser. Less than later the river carves through a limestone ridge in the Aare Gorge (). It is here that the Aare proves itself to be more than just a river, as it attracts thousands of tourists annually to the causeways through the gorge. A little past Meiringen, near Brienz, the river expands into Lake Brienz. Near the west end of the lake it indirectly receives its first important tributary, the Lütschine, by the Lake of Brienz. It then runs across the swampy plain of the Bödeli (Swiss German diminutive for ground) between Interlaken and Unterseen before flowing into Lake Thun. + +Near the west end of Lake Thun, the river indirectly receives the waters of the Kander, which has just been joined by the Simme, by the Lake of Thun. Lake Thun marks the head of navigation. On flowing out of the lake it passes through Thun, and then flows through the city of Bern, passing beneath eighteen bridges and around the steeply-flanked peninsula on which the Old City is located. To the south of the Old City peninsula is the , a weir which provides water for the small Matte hydroelectric power plant. River swimming in the Aare is popular in Bern, and the river is sometimes full of bathers on summer days. The river soon changes its northwesterly flow for a due westerly direction, but after receiving the Saane or La Sarine it turns north until it nears Aarberg. There, in one of the major Swiss engineering feats of the 19th century, the Jura water correction, the river, which had previously rendered the countryside north of Bern a swampland through frequent flooding, was diverted by the Aare-Hagneck Canal into the Lac de Bienne. From the upper end of the lake, at Nidau, the river issues through the Nidau-Büren Canal, also called the Aare Canal, and then runs east to Büren. The lake absorbs huge amounts of eroded gravel and snowmelt that the river brings from the Alps, and the former swamps have become fruitful plains: they are known as the "vegetable garden of Switzerland". + +From here the Aare flows northeast for a long distance, past the ambassador town Solothurn (below which the Grosse Emme flows in on the right), Aarburg (where it is joined by the Wigger), Olten, Aarau, near which is the junction with the Suhre, and Wildegg, where the Seetal Aabach falls in on the right. A short distance further, below Brugg, it receives first the Reuss, its major tributary, and shortly afterwards the Limmat, its second strongest tributary. It now turns due north, and soon becomes itself a tributary of the Rhine, which it even surpasses in volume when the two rivers unite downstream from Koblenz (Switzerland), opposite Waldshut in Germany. The Rhine, in turn, empties into the North Sea after crossing into the Netherlands. + +Tributaries + +Limmat (after and northeast of Brugg, and northwest of Baden) +Reppisch +Sihl +Alp +Minster +Lake Zurich +Linthkanal +Lake Walen +Linth +Löntsch +Sernf +Flätschbach +Seez +Reuss (after and northeast of Brugg, and northwest of Baden) +Lorze +Kleine Emme +Lake Lucerne +Sarner Aa +Engelberger Aa +Muota +Schächen +Chärstelenbach +Göschener Reuss +Aabach (coming from Seetal, in Wildegg) +Bünz +Suhre (after and north of Aarau) +Wyna +Aabach (from the left in Aarau) +Stegbach +Dünnern (in Olten) +Wigger (right before Aarburg) +Murg (before, west of Murgenthal) +Rot (Roggwil) +Langete (Langenthal) +Ursenbach (Kleindietwil) +Rotbach (Huttwil) +(Grosse) Emme (after, east of Solothurn) +Lake of Bienne +La Suze (in Biel/Bienne, right next to the outflow) +Zihlkanal +Lake of Neuchatel +La Broye (flows through Lake Morat) +Zihl/La Thielle +L'Orbe +Le Talent +Saane/La Sarine (after, west of Wohlensee) +Sense +Gürbe (in Muri bei Bern) +Zulg (west of Steffisburg) +Lake Thun +Kander (west of Spiez) +Simme +Entschlige +Lake Brienz +Lütschine (at the end of Lake Brienz, right next to the outflow) +Gadmerwasser (right after, northwest of Innertkirchen) + +Reservoirs + Lake Grimsel, + Lake Brienz, + Lake Thun, + Lake Wohlen, + Niederriedsee, + Lake Biel, + Klingnauer Stausee, + +Notes + +Footnotes + +References + +External links + + The Aare Gorge (Aareschlucht) + + +Rivers of Switzerland + +Rivers of the canton of Bern +Rivers of Aargau +Water transport in Switzerland +Rivers of the Alps +Abbotsford is a historic country house in the Scottish Borders, near Galashiels, on the south bank of the River Tweed. Now open to the public, it was built as the residence of historical novelist and poet Sir Walter Scott between 1817 and 1825. It is a Category A Listed Building and the estate is listed in the Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes in Scotland. + +Description + +The nucleus of the estate was a farm of , called Cartleyhole, nicknamed Clarty (i.e., muddy) Hole, and was bought by Scott on the lapse of his lease (1811) of the neighbouring house of Ashestiel. Scott renamed it "Abbotsford" after a neighbouring ford used by the monks of Melrose Abbey. + +Following a modest enlargement of the original farmhouse in 1811–1812, massive expansions took place in 1816–1819 and 1822–1824. In this mansion Scott gathered a large library, a collection of ancient furniture, arms and armour, and other relics and curiosities especially connected with Scottish history, notably the Celtic Torrs Pony-cap and Horns and the Woodwrae Stone, all now in the Museum of Scotland. Scott described the resulting building as "a sort of romance in Architecture" and "a kind of Conundrum Castle to be sure". + +The last and principal acquisition was that of Toftfield (afterwards named Huntlyburn), purchased in 1817. The new house was then begun and completed in 1824. + +The general ground-plan is a parallelogram, with irregular outlines, one side overlooking the Tweed; and the style is mainly the Scottish Baronial. With his architects William Atkinson and Edward Blore Scott was a pioneer of the Scottish Baronial style of architecture: the house is recognized as a highly influential creation with themes from Abbotsford being reflected across many buildings in the Scottish Borders and beyond. + +The manor as a whole appears as a "castle-in-miniature", with small towers and imitation battlements decorating the house and garden walls. Into various parts of the fabric were built relics and curiosities from historical structures, such as the doorway of the old Tolbooth in Edinburgh. + +Scott collected many of these curiosities to be built into the walls of the South Garden, which previously hosted a colonnade of gothic arches along the garden walls. Along the path of the former colonnade sits the remains of Edinburgh's 15th century Mercat Cross and several examples of classical sculpture. + +The estate and its neo-Medieval features nod towards Scott's desire for a historical feel, but the writer ensured that the house would provide all the comforts of modern living. As a result, Scott used the space as a proving-ground for new technologies. The house was outfitted with early gas lighting and pneumatic bells connecting residents with servants elsewhere in the house. + +Scott had only enjoyed his residence one year when (1825) he met with that reverse of fortune which involved the estate in debt. In 1830, the library and museum were presented to him as a free gift by the creditors. The property was wholly disencumbered in 1847 by Robert Cadell, the publisher, who cancelled the bond upon it in exchange for the family's share in the copyright of Sir Walter's works. + +Scott's only son Walter did not live to enjoy the property, having died on his way from India in 1847. Among subsequent possessors were Scott's grandson Walter Scott Lockhart (later Walter Lockhart Scott, 1826–1853), his younger sister Charlotte Harriet Jane Hope-Scott (née Lockhart) 1828–1858, J. R. Hope Scott, QC, and his daughter (Scott's great-granddaughter), the Hon. Mrs Maxwell Scott. + +The house was opened to the public in 1833, but continued to be occupied by Scott's descendants until 2004. The last of his direct descendants to hold the Lairdship of Abbotsford was his great-great-great-granddaughter Dame Jean Maxwell-Scott (8 June 1923 – 5 May 2004). She inherited it from her elder sister Patricia Maxwell-Scott in 1998. The sisters turned the house into one of Scotland's premier tourist attractions, after they had to rely on paying visitors to afford the upkeep of the house. It had electricity installed only in 1962. + +Dame Jean was at one time a lady-in-waiting to Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester, patron of the Dandie Dinmont Club, a breed of dog named after one of Sir Walter Scott's characters; and a horse trainer, one of whose horses, Sir Wattie, ridden by Ian Stark, won two silver medals at the 1988 Summer Olympics. + +On Dame Jean's death the Abbotsford Trust was established to safeguard the estate. + +In 2005, Scottish Borders Council considered an application by a property developer to build a housing estate on the opposite bank of the River Tweed from Abbotsford, to which Historic Scotland and the National Trust for Scotland objected. There have been modifications to the proposed development, but it is still being opposed in 2020. + +Sir Walter Scott rescued the "jougs" from Threave Castle in Dumfries and Galloway and attached them to the castellated gateway he built at Abbotsford. + +Tweedbank railway station is located near to Abbotsford. + +Miscellaneous + +Abbotsford gave its name to the Abbotsford Club, founded by William Barclay Turnbull in 1833 or 1834 in Scott's honour, and a successor to the Bannatyne and Maitland Clubs. It was a text publication society, which existed to print and publish historical works connected with Scott's writings. Its publications extended from 1835 to 1864. + +In August 2012, a new Visitor Centre opened at Abbotsford which houses a small exhibition, gift shop and Ochiltree's café with views over the house and grounds. The house re-opened to the public after extensive renovations in July 2013. + +In 2014 it won the European Union Prize for Cultural Heritage / Europa Nostra Award for its then recent conservation project. + +See also +List of places in the Scottish Borders + +Notes + +References + +Attribution + +External links + +Abbotsford – The Home of Sir Walter Scott – official site +RCAHMS / CANMORE site record for Abbotsford +Edinburgh University Library +Abbotsford (by W S Crockett – 1904 illustrated book pub. A & C Black) +Abbotsford and Newstead Abbey by Washington Irving, from Project Gutenberg + +Category A listed buildings in the Scottish Borders +Category A listed houses in Scotland +Scottish baronial architecture +Walter Scott +Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes +Gardens in the Scottish Borders +Literary museums in Scotland +Historic house museums in the Scottish Borders +Country houses in the Scottish Borders +Houses completed in 1824 +Galashiels +Abraham (originally Abram) is the common Hebrew patriarch of the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Judaism, he is the founding father of the special relationship between the Jews and God; in Christianity, he is the spiritual progenitor of all believers, whether Jewish or non-Jewish; and in Islam, he is a link in the chain of Islamic prophets that begins with Adam and culminates in Muhammad. + +The story of the life of Abraham as told in the narrative of the Book of Genesis revolves around the themes of posterity and land. He is said to have been called by God to leave the house of his father Terah and settle in the land of Canaan, which God now promises to Abraham and his progeny. This promise is subsequently inherited by Isaac, Abraham's son, by his wife Sarah, while Isaac's half-brother Ishmael is also promised that he will be the founder of a great nation. Abraham purchases a tomb (the Cave of the Patriarchs) at Hebron to be Sarah's grave, thus establishing his right to the land; and, in the second generation, his heir Isaac is married to a woman from his own kin, thus ruling the Canaanites out of any inheritance. Abraham later marries Keturah and has six more sons; but, on his death, when he is buried beside Sarah, it is Isaac who receives "all Abraham's goods" while the other sons receive only "gifts". + +Most scholars view the patriarchal age, along with the Exodus and the period of the biblical judges, as a late literary construct that does not relate to any particular historical era, and after a century of exhaustive archaeological investigation, no evidence has been found for a historical Abraham. It is largely concluded that the Torah, the series of books that includes Genesis, was composed during the early Persian period, , as a result of tensions between Jewish landowners who had stayed in Judah during the Babylonian captivity and traced their right to the land through their "father Abraham", and the returning exiles who based their counterclaim on Moses and the Exodus tradition of the Israelites. + +The Abraham cycle + +Structure and narrative programs +The Abraham cycle is not structured by a unified plot centered on a conflict and its resolution or a problem and its solution. The episodes are often only loosely linked, and the sequence is not always logical, but it is unified by the presence of Abraham himself, as either actor or witness, and by the themes of posterity and land. These themes form "narrative programs" set out in Genesis 11:27–31 concerning the sterility of Sarah and 12:1–3 in which Abraham is ordered to leave the land of his birth for the land YHWH will show him. + +Origins and calling +Terah, the ninth in descent from Noah, was the father of Abram, Nahor, and Haran ( Hārān). Haran was the father of Lot, who was Abram's nephew; the entire family lived in Ur of the Chaldees. Haran died in his native city, Ur of the Chaldees. Abram married Sarah (Sarai), who was barren. Terah, Abram, Sarai, and Lot departed for Canaan, but settled in a place named Haran ( Ḥārān), where Terah died at the age of 205. God had told Abram to leave his country and kindred and go to a land that he would show him, and promised to make of him a great nation, bless him, make his name great, bless them that bless him, and curse them who may curse him. Abram was 75 years old when he left Haran with his wife Sarai, his nephew Lot, and the substance and souls that they had acquired, and traveled to Shechem in Canaan. +Then he pitched his tent in the east of Bethel, and built an altar which was between Bethel and Ai. + +Sarai +There was a severe famine in the land of Canaan, so that Abram and Lot and their households traveled to Egypt. On the way Abram told Sarai to say that she was his sister, so that the Egyptians would not kill him. When they entered Egypt, the Pharaoh's officials praised Sarai's beauty to Pharaoh, and they took her into the palace and gave Abram goods in exchange. God afflicted Pharaoh and his household with plagues, which led Pharaoh to try to find out what was wrong. Upon discovering that Sarai was a married woman, Pharaoh demanded that Abram and Sarai leave. + +Abram and Lot separate + +When they lived for a while in the Negev after being banished from Egypt and came back to the Bethel and Ai area, Abram's and Lot's sizable herds occupied the same pastures. This became a problem for the herdsmen, who were assigned to each family's cattle. The conflicts between herdsmen had become so troublesome that Abram suggested that Lot choose a separate area, either on the left hand or on the right hand, that there be no conflict amongst brethren. Lot decided to go eastward to the plain of Jordan, where the land was well watered everywhere as far as Zoar, and he dwelled in the cities of the plain toward Sodom. Abram went south to Hebron and settled in the plain of Mamre, where he built another altar to worship God. + +Chedorlaomer + +During the rebellion of the Jordan River cities, Sodom and Gomorrah, against Elam, Abram's nephew, Lot, was taken prisoner along with his entire household by the invading Elamite forces. The Elamite army came to collect the spoils of war, after having just defeated the king of Sodom's armies. Lot and his family, at the time, were settled on the outskirts of the Kingdom of Sodom which made them a visible target. + +One person who escaped capture came and told Abram what happened. Once Abram received this news, he immediately assembled 318 trained servants. Abram's force headed north in pursuit of the Elamite army, who were already worn down from the Battle of Siddim. When they caught up with them at Dan, Abram devised a battle plan by splitting his group into more than one unit, and launched a night raid. Not only were they able to free the captives, Abram's unit chased and slaughtered the Elamite King Chedorlaomer at Hobah, just north of Damascus. They freed Lot, as well as his household and possessions, and recovered all of the goods from Sodom that had been taken. + +Upon Abram's return, Sodom's king came out to meet with him in the Valley of Shaveh, the "king's dale". Also, Melchizedek king of Salem (Jerusalem), a priest of El Elyon, brought out bread and wine and blessed Abram and God. Abram then gave Melchizedek a tenth of everything. The king of Sodom then offered to let Abram keep all the possessions if he would merely return his people. Abram refused any deal from the king of Sodom, other than the share to which his allies were entitled. + +Covenant of the pieces + +The voice of the Lord came to Abram in a vision and repeated the promise of the land and descendants as numerous as the stars. Abram and God made a covenant ceremony, and God told of the future bondage of Israel in Egypt. God described to Abram the land that his offspring would claim: the land of the Kenites, Kenizzites, Kadmonites, Hittites, Perizzites, Rephaims, Amorites, Canaanites, Girgashites, and Jebusites. + +Hagar + +Abram and Sarai tried to make sense of how he would become a progenitor of nations, because after 10 years of living in Canaan, no child had been born. Sarai then offered her Egyptian slave, Hagar, to Abram with the intention that she would bear him a son. + +After Hagar found she was pregnant, she began to despise her mistress, Sarai. Sarai responded by mistreating Hagar, and Hagar fled into the wilderness. An angel spoke with Hagar at the fountain on the way to Shur. He instructed her to return to Abram's camp and that her son would be "a wild ass of a man; his hand shall be against every man, and every man's hand against him; and he shall dwell in the face of all his brethren." She was told to call her son Ishmael. Hagar then called God who spoke to her "El-roi", ("Thou God seest me:" KJV). From that day onward, the well was called Beer-lahai-roi, ("The well of him that liveth and seeth me." KJV margin), located between Kadesh and Bered. She then did as she was instructed by returning to her mistress in order to have her child. Abram was 86 years of age when Ishmael was born. + +Sarah +Thirteen years later, when Abram was 99 years of age, God declared Abram's new name: "Abraham" – "a father of many nations". Abraham then received the instructions for the covenant of the pieces, of which circumcision was to be the sign. + +God declared Sarai's new name: "Sarah", blessed her, and told Abraham, "I will give thee a son also of her". Abraham laughed, and "said in his heart, 'Shall a child be born unto him that is a hundred years old? and shall Sarah, that is ninety years old, bear [a child]?'" Immediately after Abraham's encounter with God, he had his entire household of men, including himself (age 99) and Ishmael (age 13), circumcised. + +Three visitors + +Not long afterward, during the heat of the day, Abraham had been sitting at the entrance of his tent by the terebinths of Mamre. He looked up and saw three men in the presence of God. Then he ran and bowed to the ground to welcome them. Abraham then offered to wash their feet and fetch them a morsel of bread, to which they assented. Abraham rushed to Sarah's tent to order ash cakes made from choice flour, then he ordered a servant-boy to prepare a choice calf. When all was prepared, he set curds, milk and the calf before them, waiting on them, under a tree, as they ate. + +One of the visitors told Abraham that upon his return next year, Sarah would have a son. While at the tent entrance, Sarah overheard what was said and she laughed to herself about the prospect of having a child at their ages. The visitor inquired of Abraham why Sarah laughed at bearing a child at her age, as nothing is too hard for God. Frightened, Sarah denied laughing. + +Abraham's plea + +After eating, Abraham and the three visitors got up. They walked over to the peak that overlooked the 'cities of the plain' to discuss the fate of Sodom and Gomorrah for their detestable sins that were so great, it moved God to action. Because Abraham's nephew was living in Sodom, God revealed plans to confirm and judge these cities. At this point, the two other visitors left for Sodom. Then Abraham turned to God and pleaded decrementally with Him (from fifty persons to less) that "if there were at least ten righteous men found in the city, would not God spare the city?" For the sake of ten righteous people, God declared that he would not destroy the city. + +When the two visitors arrived in Sodom to conduct their report, they planned on staying in the city square. However, Abraham's nephew, Lot, met with them and strongly insisted that these two "men" stay at his house for the night. A rally of men stood outside of Lot's home and demanded that Lot bring out his guests so that they may "know" ( 5) them. However, Lot objected and offered his virgin daughters who had not "known" (v. 8) man to the rally of men instead. They rejected that notion and sought to break down Lot's door to get to his male guests, thus confirming the wickedness of the city and portending their imminent destruction. + +Early the next morning, Abraham went to the place where he stood before God. He "looked out toward Sodom and Gomorrah" and saw what became of the cities of the plain, where not even "ten righteous" (v. 18:32) had been found, as "the smoke of the land went up as the smoke of a furnace." + +Abimelech + +Abraham settled between Kadesh and Shur in what the Bible anachronistically calls "the land of the Philistines". While he was living in Gerar, Abraham openly claimed that Sarah was his sister. Upon discovering this news, King Abimelech had her brought to him. God then came to Abimelech in a dream and declared that taking her would result in death because she was a man's wife. Abimelech had not laid hands on her, so he inquired if he would also slay a righteous nation, especially since Abraham had claimed that he and Sarah were siblings. In response, God told Abimelech that he did indeed have a blameless heart and that is why he continued to exist. However, should he not return the wife of Abraham back to him, God would surely destroy Abimelech and his entire household. Abimelech was informed that Abraham was a prophet who would pray for him. + +Early next morning, Abimelech informed his servants of his dream and approached Abraham inquiring as to why he had brought such great guilt upon his kingdom. Abraham stated that he thought there was no fear of God in that place, and that they might kill him for his wife. Then Abraham defended what he had said as not being a lie at all: "And yet indeed she is my sister; she is the daughter of my father, but not the daughter of my mother; and she became my wife." Abimelech returned Sarah to Abraham, and gave him gifts of sheep, oxen, and servants; and invited him to settle wherever he pleased in Abimelech's lands. Further, Abimelech gave Abraham a thousand pieces of silver to serve as Sarah's vindication before all. Abraham then prayed for Abimelech and his household, since God had stricken the women with infertility because of the taking of Sarah. + +After living for some time in the land of the Philistines, Abimelech and Phicol, the chief of his troops, approached Abraham because of a dispute that resulted in a violent confrontation at a well. Abraham then reproached Abimelech due to his Philistine servant's aggressive attacks and the seizing of Abraham's well. Abimelech claimed ignorance of the incident. Then Abraham offered a pact by providing sheep and oxen to Abimelech. Further, to attest that Abraham was the one who dug the well, he also gave Abimelech seven ewes for proof. Because of this sworn oath, they called the place of this well: Beersheba. After Abimelech and Phicol headed back to Philistia, Abraham planted a tamarisk grove in Beersheba and called upon "the name of the , the everlasting God." + +Isaac +As had been prophesied in Mamre the previous year, Sarah became pregnant and bore a son to Abraham, on the first anniversary of the covenant of circumcision. Abraham was "an hundred years old", when his son whom he named Isaac was born; and he circumcised him when he was eight days old. For Sarah, the thought of giving birth and nursing a child, at such an old age, also brought her much laughter, as she declared, "God hath made me to laugh, so that all who hear will laugh with me." Isaac continued to grow and on the day he was weaned, Abraham held a great feast to honor the occasion. During the celebration, however, Sarah found Ishmael mocking; an observation that would begin to clarify the birthright of Isaac. + +Ishmael + +Ishmael was fourteen years old when Abraham's son Isaac was born to Sarah. When she found Ishmael teasing Isaac, Sarah told Abraham to send both Ishmael and Hagar away. She declared that Ishmael would not share in Isaac's inheritance. Abraham was greatly distressed by his wife's words and sought the advice of his God. God told Abraham not to be distressed but to do as his wife commanded. God reassured Abraham that "in Isaac shall seed be called to thee." He also said that Ishmael would make a nation, "because he is thy seed". + +Early the next morning, Abraham brought Hagar and Ishmael out together. He gave her bread and water and sent them away. The two wandered in the wilderness of Beersheba until her bottle of water was completely consumed. In a moment of despair, she burst into tears. After God heard the boy's voice, an angel of the Lord confirmed to Hagar that he would become a great nation, and will be "living on his sword". A well of water then appeared so that it saved their lives. As the boy grew, he became a skilled archer living in the wilderness of Paran. Eventually his mother found a wife for Ishmael from her home country, the land of Egypt. + +Binding of Isaac + +At some point in Isaac's youth, Abraham was commanded by God to offer his son up as a sacrifice in the land of Moriah. The patriarch traveled three days until he came to the mount that God told him of. He then commanded the servants to remain while he and Isaac proceeded alone into the mount. Isaac carried the wood upon which he would be sacrificed. Along the way, Isaac asked his father where the animal for the burnt offering was, to which Abraham replied "God will provide himself a lamb for a burnt offering". Just as Abraham was about to sacrifice his son, he was interrupted by the angel of the Lord, and he saw behind him a "ram caught in a thicket by his horns", which he sacrificed instead of his son. The place was later named as Jehovah-jireh. For his obedience he received another promise of numerous descendants and abundant prosperity. After this event, Abraham went to Beersheba. + +Later years + +Sarah died, and Abraham buried her in the Cave of the Patriarchs (the "cave of Machpelah"), near Hebron which he had purchased along with the adjoining field from Ephron the Hittite. After the death of Sarah, Abraham took another wife, a concubine named Keturah, by whom he had six sons: Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah. According to the Bible, reflecting the change of his name to "Abraham" meaning "a father of many nations", Abraham is considered to be the progenitor of many nations mentioned in the Bible, among others the Israelites, Ishmaelites, Edomites, Amalekites, Kenizzites, Midianites and Assyrians, and through his nephew Lot he was also related to the Moabites and Ammonites. Abraham lived to see his son marry Rebekah, and to see the birth of his twin grandsons Jacob and Esau. He died at age 175, and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his sons Isaac and Ishmael. + +Historicity and origins of the narrative + +Historicity + +In the early and middle 20th century, leading archaeologists such as William F. Albright and G. Ernest Wright and biblical scholars such as Albrecht Alt and John Bright believed that the patriarchs and matriarchs were either real individuals or believable composites of people who lived in the "patriarchal age", the 2nd millennium BCE. But, in the 1970s, new arguments concerning Israel's past and the biblical texts challenged these views; these arguments can be found in Thomas L. Thompson's The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives (1974), and John Van Seters' Abraham in History and Tradition (1975). Thompson, a literary scholar, based his argument on archaeology and ancient texts. His thesis centered on the lack of compelling evidence that the patriarchs lived in the 2nd millennium BCE, and noted how certain biblical texts reflected first millennium conditions and concerns. Van Seters examined the patriarchal stories and argued that their names, social milieu, and messages strongly suggested that they were Iron Age creations. Van Seter and Thompson's works were a paradigm shift in biblical scholarship and archaeology, which gradually led scholars to no longer consider the patriarchal narratives as historical. Some conservative scholars attempted to defend the Patriarchal narratives in the following years, but this has not found acceptance among scholars. By the beginning of the 21st century, archaeologists had given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac or Jacob credible historical figures. + +Origins of the narrative + +Abraham's story, like those of the other patriarchs, most likely had a substantial oral prehistory (he is mentioned in the Book of Ezekiel and the Book of Isaiah). As with Moses, Abraham's name is apparently very ancient, as the tradition found in the Book of Genesis no longer understands its original meaning (probably "Father is exalted" – the meaning offered in Genesis 17:5, "Father of a multitude", is a false etymology). At some stage the oral traditions became part of the written tradition of the Pentateuch; a majority of scholars believe this stage belongs to the Persian period, roughly 520–320 BCE. The mechanisms by which this came about remain unknown, but there are currently at least two hypotheses. The first, called Persian Imperial authorisation, is that the post-Exilic community devised the Torah as a legal basis on which to function within the Persian Imperial system; the second is that the Pentateuch was written to provide the criteria for determining who would belong to the post-Exilic Jewish community and to establish the power structures and relative positions of its various groups, notably the priesthood and the lay "elders". + +The completion of the Torah and its elevation to the centre of post-Exilic Judaism was as much or more about combining older texts as writing new ones – the final Pentateuch was based on existing traditions. In the Book of Ezekiel, written during the Exile (i.e., in the first half of the 6th century BCE), Ezekiel, an exile in Babylon, tells how those who remained in Judah are claiming ownership of the land based on inheritance from Abraham; but the prophet tells them they have no claim because they do not observe Torah. The Book of Isaiah similarly testifies of tension between the people of Judah and the returning post-Exilic Jews (the "gôlâ"), stating that God is the father of Israel and that Israel's history begins with the Exodus and not with Abraham. The conclusion to be inferred from this and similar evidence (e.g., Ezra–Nehemiah), is that the figure of Abraham must have been preeminent among the great landowners of Judah at the time of the Exile and after, serving to support their claims to the land in opposition to those of the returning exiles. + +Religious traditions + +Abraham is given a high position of respect in three major world faiths, Judaism, Christianity and Islam. In Judaism, he is the founding father of the covenant, the special relationship between the Jewish people and God – leading to the belief that the Jews are the chosen people of God. In Christianity, Paul the Apostle taught that Abraham's faith in God – preceding the Mosaic law – made him the prototype of all believers, Jewish or gentile; and in Islam he is seen as a link in the chain of prophets that begins with Adam and culminates in Muhammad. + +Judaism +In Jewish tradition, Abraham is called Avraham Avinu (אברהם אבינו), "our father Abraham," signifying that he is both the biological progenitor of the Jews and the father of Judaism, the first Jew. His story is read in the weekly Torah reading portions, predominantly in the parashot: Lech-Lecha (לֶךְ-לְךָ), Vayeira (וַיֵּרָא), Chayei Sarah (חַיֵּי שָׂרָה), and Toledot (תּוֹלְדֹת). + +Hanan bar Rava taught in Abba Arikha's name that Abraham's mother was named ʾĂmatlaʾy bat Karnebo. Hiyya bar Abba taught that Abraham worked in Teraḥ's idol shop in his youth. + +In Legends of the Jews, God created heaven and earth for the sake of the merits of Abraham. After the biblical flood, Abraham was the only one among the pious who solemnly swore never to forsake God, studied in the house of Noah and Shem to learn about the "Ways of God," continued the line of High Priest from Noah and Shem, and assigning the office to Levi and his seed forever. Before leaving his father's land, Abraham was miraculously saved from the fiery furnace of Nimrod following his brave action of breaking the idols of the Chaldeans into pieces. During his sojourning in Canaan, Abraham was accustomed to extend hospitality to travelers and strangers and taught how to praise God also knowledge of God to those who had received his kindness. + +Along with Isaac and Jacob, he is the one whose name would appear united with God, as God in Judaism was called Elohei Abraham, Elohei Yitzchaq ve Elohei Ya'aqob ("God of Abraham, God of Isaac, and God of Jacob") and never the God of anyone else. He was also mentioned as the father of thirty nations. + +Abraham is generally credited as the author of the Sefer Yetzirah, one of the earliest extant books on Jewish mysticism. + +According to Pirkei Avot, Abraham underwent ten tests at God's command. The Binding of Isaac is specified in the Bible as a test; the other nine are not specified, but later rabbinical sources give various enumerations. + +Christianity + +In Christianity, Abraham is revered as the prophet to whom God chose to reveal himself and with whom God initiated a covenant (cf. Covenant Theology). Paul the Apostle declared that all who believe in Jesus (Christians) are "included in the seed of Abraham and are inheritors of the promise made to Abraham." In Romans 4, Abraham is praised for his "unwavering faith" in God, which is tied into the concept of partakers of the covenant of grace being those "who demonstrate faith in the saving power of Christ". + +Throughout history, church leaders, following Paul, have emphasized Abraham as the spiritual father of all Christians. Augustine of Hippo declared that Christians are "children (or "seed") of Abraham by faith", Ambrose stated that "by means of their faith Christians possess the promises made to Abraham", and Martin Luther recalled Abraham as "a paradigm of the man of faith." + +The Roman Catholic Church, the largest Christian denomination, calls Abraham "our father in Faith" in the Eucharistic prayer of the Roman Canon, recited during the Mass. He is also commemorated in the calendars of saints of several denominations: on 20 August by the Maronite Church, 28 August in the Coptic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East (with the full office for the latter), and on 9 October by the Roman Catholic Church and the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod. In the introduction to his 15th-century translation of the Golden Legend's account of Abraham, William Caxton noted that this patriarch's life was read in church on Quinquagesima Sunday. +He is the patron saint of those in the hospitality industry. The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates him as the "Righteous Forefather Abraham", with two feast days in its liturgical calendar. The first time is on 9 October (for those churches which follow the traditional Julian Calendar, 9 October falls on 22 October of the modern Gregorian Calendar), where he is commemorated together with his nephew "Righteous Lot". The other is on the "Sunday of the Forefathers" (two Sundays before Christmas), when he is commemorated together with other ancestors of Jesus. Abraham is also mentioned in the Divine Liturgy of Basil the Great, just before the Anaphora, and Abraham and Sarah are invoked in the prayers said by the priest over a newly married couple. + +Some Christian theologians equate the "three visitors" with the Holy Trinity, seeing in their apparition a theophany experienced by Abraham (see also the articles on the Constantinian basilica at Mamre and the church at the so-called "Oak of Mamre"). + +Islam + +Islam regards Abraham as a link in the chain of prophets that begins with Adam and culminates in Muhammad. +Ibrāhīm is mentioned in 35 chapters of the Quran, more often than any other biblical personage apart from Moses. He is called both a hanif (monotheist) and muslim (one who submits), and Muslims regard him as a prophet and patriarch, the archetype of the perfect Muslim, and the revered reformer of the Kaaba in Mecca. Islamic traditions consider Ibrāhīm the first Pioneer of Islam (which is also called millat Ibrahim, the "religion of Abraham"), and that his purpose and mission throughout his life was to proclaim the Oneness of God. In Islam, Abraham holds an exalted position among the major prophets and he is referred to as "Ibrahim Khalilullah", meaning "Abraham the Beloved of God". + +Besides Ishaq and Yaqub, Ibrahim is among the most honorable and the most excellent men in sight of God. Ibrahim was also mentioned in Quran as "Father of Muslims" and the role model for the community. + +Druze +The Druze regard Abraham as the third spokesman (natiq) after Adam and Noah, who helped transmit the foundational teachings of monotheism (tawhid) intended for the larger audience. He is also among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history according to the Druze faith. + +Mandaeism +In Mandaeism, Abraham () is mentioned in Book 18 of the Right Ginza as the patriarch of the Jewish people. Mandaeans consider Abraham to have been originally a Mandaean priest, however they differ with Abraham and Jews regarding circumcision which they consider to be bodily mutilation and therefore forbidden. + +In the arts + +Painting and sculpture + +Paintings on the life of Abraham tend to focus on only a few incidents: the sacrifice of Isaac; meeting Melchizedek; entertaining the three angels; Hagar in the desert; and a few others. Additionally, Martin O'Kane, a professor of Biblical Studies, writes that the parable of Lazarus resting in the "Bosom of Abraham", as described in the Gospel of Luke, became an iconic image in Christian works. According to O'Kane, artists often chose to divert from the common literary portrayal of Lazarus sitting next to Abraham at a banquet in Heaven and instead focus on the "somewhat incongruous notion of Abraham, the most venerated of patriarchs, holding a naked and vulnerable child in his bosom". Several artists have been inspired by the life of Abraham, including Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528), Caravaggio (1573–1610), Donatello, Raphael, Philip van Dyck (Dutch painter, 1680–1753), and Claude Lorrain (French painter, 1600–1682). Rembrandt (Dutch, 1606–1669) created at least seven works on Abraham, Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640) did several, Marc Chagall did at least five on Abraham, Gustave Doré (French illustrator, 1832–1883) did six, and James Tissot (French painter and illustrator, 1836–1902) did over twenty works on the subject. + +The Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus depicts a set of biblical stories, including Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac. These sculpted scenes are on the outside of a marble Early Christian sarcophagus used for the burial of Junius Bassus. He died in 359. This sarcophagus has been described as "probably the single most famous piece of early Christian relief sculpture." The sarcophagus was originally placed in or under Old St. Peter's Basilica, was rediscovered in 1597, and is now below the modern basilica in the Museo Storico del Tesoro della Basilica di San Pietro (Museum of St. Peter's Basilica) in the Vatican. The base is approximately . The Old Testament scenes depicted were chosen as precursors of Christ's sacrifice in the New Testament, in an early form of typology. Just to the right of the middle is Daniel in the lion's den and on the left is Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac. + +George Segal created figural sculptures by molding plastered gauze strips over live models in his 1987 work Abraham's Farewell to Ishmael. The human condition was central to his concerns, and Segal used the Old Testament as a source for his imagery. This sculpture depicts the dilemma faced by Abraham when Sarah demanded that he expel Hagar and Ishmael. In the sculpture, the father's tenderness, Sarah's rage, and Hagar's resigned acceptance portray a range of human emotions. The sculpture was donated to the Miami Art Museum after the artist's death in 2000. + +Christian iconography + +Usually Abraham can be identified by the context of the image the meeting with Melchizedek, the three visitors, or the sacrifice of Isaac. In solo portraits a sword or knife may be used as his attribute, as in this statue by Gian Maria Morlaiter or this painting by Lorenzo Monaco. He always wears a gray or white beard. + +As early as the beginning of the 3rd century, Christian art followed Christian typology in making the sacrifice of Isaac a foreshadowing of Christ's sacrifice on the cross and its memorial in the sacrifice of the Mass. See for example this 11th-century Christian altar engraved with Abraham's and other sacrifices taken to prefigure that of Christ in the Eucharist. + +Some early Christian writers interpreted the three visitors as the triune God. Thus in Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome, a 5th-century mosaic portrays only the visitors against a gold ground and puts semitransparent copies of them in the "heavenly" space above the scene. In Eastern Orthodox art, the visit is the chief means by which the Trinity is pictured (example). Some images do not include Abraham and Sarah, like Andrei Rublev's Trinity, which shows only the three visitors as beardless youths at a table. + +Literature +Fear and Trembling (original Danish title: Frygt og Bæven) is an influential philosophical work by Søren Kierkegaard, published in 1843 under the pseudonym Johannes de silentio (John the Silent). Kierkegaard wanted to understand the anxiety that must have been present in Abraham when God asked him to sacrifice his son. W. G. Hardy's novel Father Abraham (1935) tells the fictionalized life story of Abraham. In her short story collection Sarah and After, Lynne Reid Banks tells the story of Abraham and Sarah, with an emphasis on Sarah's view of events. + +Music +In 1681, Marc-Antoine Charpentier released a Dramatic motet (Oratorio), Sacrificim Abrahae H.402 – 402 a – 402 b, for soloists, chorus, doubling instruments and continuo. Sébastien de Brossard released a cantate Abraham (date unknown). + +In 1994, Steve Reich released an opera named The Cave. The title refers to the Cave of the Patriarchs. The narrative of the opera is based on the story of Abraham and his immediate family as it is recounted in the various religious texts, and as it is understood by individual people from different cultures and religious traditions. + +Bob Dylan's "Highway 61 Revisited" is the title track for his 1965 album Highway 61 Revisited. In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine ranked the song as number 364 in their 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. The song has five stanzas. In each stanza, someone describes an unusual problem that is ultimately resolved on Highway 61. In Stanza 1, God tells Abraham to "kill me a son". God wants the killing done on Highway 61. Abram, the original name of the biblical Abraham, is also the name of Dylan's own father. + +See also + +Notes + +References + +Bibliography + +External links + + Abraham smashes the idols (accessed 24 March 2011). + "Journey and Life of the Patriarch Abraham", a map dating back to 1590. + Kitáb-i-Íqán + +21st-century BC people + +Angelic visionaries +Biblical patriarchs +Book of Genesis people +Christian saints from the Old Testament +Founders of religions +Lech-Lecha +Legendary progenitors +People whose existence is disputed +Prophets in the Druze faith +Ur of the Chaldees +Vayeira +People from Harran +Slave owners +Converts to Judaism from paganism +Abraxas (, variant form romanized: ) is a word of mystic meaning in the system of the Gnostic Basilides, being there applied to the "Great Archon" (), the princeps of the 365 spheres (). The word is found in Gnostic texts such as the Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit, and also appears in the Greek Magical Papyri. It was engraved on certain antique gemstones, called on that account Abraxas stones, which were used as amulets or charms. As the initial spelling on stones was (), the spelling of seen today probably originates in the confusion made between the Greek letters sigma (Σ) and xi (Ξ) in the Latin transliteration. + +The seven letters spelling its name may represent each of the seven classic planets. The word may be related to Abracadabra, although other explanations exist. + +There are similarities and differences between such figures in reports about Basilides's teaching, ancient Gnostic texts, the larger Greco-Roman magical traditions, and modern magical and esoteric writings. Speculations have proliferated on Abraxas in recent centuries, who has been claimed to be both an Egyptian god and a demon. + +Etymology +Gaius Julius Hyginus (Fab. 183) gives Abrax Aslo Therbeeo as names of horses of the sun mentioned by 'Homerus'. The passage is miserably corrupt: but it may not be accidental that the first three syllables make Abraxas. + +The proper form of the name is evidently Abrasax, as with the Greek writers, Hippolytus, Epiphanius, Didymus (De Trin. iii. 42), and Theodoret; also Augustine and Praedestinatus; and in nearly all the legends on gems. By a probably euphonic inversion the translator of Irenaeus and the other Latin authors have Abraxas, which is found in the magical papyri, and even, though most sparingly, on engraved stones. + +The attempts to discover a derivation for the name, Greek, Hebrew, Coptic, or other, have not been entirely successful: + +Egyptian + Claudius Salmasius (1588-1653) thought it Egyptian, but never gave the proofs which he promised. +J. J. Bellermann thinks it is a compound of the Egyptian words and , meaning "the honorable and hallowed word", or "the word is adorable". + Samuel Sharpe finds in it an Egyptian invocation to the Godhead, meaning "hurt me not". + +Hebrew + Abraham Geiger sees in it a Grecized form of , "the blessing", a meaning which Charles William King declares philologically untenable. +J. B. Passerius derives it from , "father", , "to create", and negative—"the uncreated Father". +Giuseppe Barzilai goes back for explanation to the first verse of the prayer attributed to Nehunya ben HaKanah, the literal rendering of which is "O [God], with thy mighty right hand deliver the unhappy [people]", forming from the initial and final letters of the words the word Abrakd (pronounced Abrakad), with the meaning "the host of the winged ones", i.e., angels. While this theory can explain the mystic word Abracadabra, the association of this phrase with Abrasax is uncertain. + +Greek + Wendelin discovers a compound of the initial letters, amounting to 365 in numerical value, of four Hebrew and three Greek words, all written with Greek characters: ("Father, Son, Spirit, holy; salvation from the cross"). +According to a note of Isaac de Beausobre's, Jean Hardouin accepted the first three of these, taking the four others for the initials of the Greek , "saving mankind by the holy cross". + Isaac de Beausobre derives Abraxas from the Greek and , "the beautiful, the glorious Savior". + +Perhaps the word may be included among those mysterious expressions discussed by Adolf von Harnack, "which belong to no known speech, and by their singular collocation of vowels and consonants give evidence that they belong to some mystic dialect, or take their origin from some supposed divine inspiration". + +The Egyptian author of the book De Mysteriis in reply to Porphyry (vii. 4) admits a preference of 'barbarous' to vernacular names in sacred things, urging a peculiar sanctity in the languages of certain nations, as the Egyptians and Assyrians; and Origen (Contra Cels. i. 24) refers to the 'potent names' used by Egyptian sages, Persian Magi, and Indian Brahmins, signifying deities in the several languages. + +Sources +It is uncertain what the actual role and function of Abraxas was in the Basilidian system, as our authorities (see below) often show no direct acquaintance with the doctrines of Basilides himself. + +As an archon + +In the system described by Irenaeus, "the Unbegotten Father" is the progenitor of Nous, and Nous produced Logos, Logos produced Phronesis, Phronesis produced Sophia and Dynamis, Sophia and Dynamis produced principalities, powers, and angels, the last of whom create "the first heaven". They in turn originate a second series, who create a second heaven. The process continues in like manner until 365 heavens are in existence, the angels of the last or visible heaven being the authors of our world. "The ruler" [principem, i.e., probably ton archonta] of the 365 heavens "is Abraxas, and for this reason he contains within himself 365 numbers". + +The name occurs in the Refutation of all Heresies (vii. 26) by Hippolytus, who appears in these chapters to have followed the Exegetica of Basilides. After describing the manifestation of the Gospel in the Ogdoad and Hebdomad, he adds that the Basilidians have a long account of the innumerable creations and powers in the several 'stages' of the upper world (diastemata), in which they speak of 365 heavens and say that "their great archon" is Abrasax, because his name contains the number 365, the number of the days in the year; i.e. the sum of the numbers denoted by the Greek letters in ΑΒΡΑΣΑΞ according to the rules of isopsephy is 365: + +As a god +Epiphanius (Haer. 69, 73 f.) appears to follow partly Irenaeus, partly the lost Compendium of Hippolytus. He designates Abraxas more distinctly as "the power above all, and First Principle", "the cause and first archetype" of all things; and mentions that the Basilidians referred to 365 as the number of parts (mele) in the human body, as well as of days in the year. + +The author of the appendix to Tertullian De Praescr. Haer. (c. 4), who likewise follows Hippolytus's Compendium, adds some further particulars; that 'Abraxas' gave birth to Mind (nous), the first in the series of primary powers enumerated likewise by Irenaeus and Epiphanius; that the world, as well as the 365 heavens, was created in honour of 'Abraxas'; and that Christ was sent not by the Maker of the world but by 'Abraxas'. + +Nothing can be built on the vague allusions of Jerome, according to whom 'Abraxas' meant for Basilides "the greatest God" (De vir. ill. 21), "the highest God" (Dial. adv. Lucif. 23), "the Almighty God" (Comm. in Amos iii. 9), and "the Lord the Creator" (Comm. in Nah. i. 11). The notices in Theodoret (Haer. fab. i. 4), Augustine (Haer. 4), and 'Praedestinatus' (i. 3), have no independent value. + +It is evident from these particulars that Abrasax was the name of the first of the 365 Archons, and accordingly stood below Sophia and Dynamis and their progenitors; but his position is not expressly stated, so that the writer of the supplement to Tertullian had some excuse for confusing him with "the Supreme God". + +As an aeon +With the availability of primary sources, such as those in the Nag Hammadi library, the identity of Abrasax remains unclear. The Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit, for instance, refers to Abrasax as an Aeon dwelling with Sophia and other Aeons of the Pleroma in the light of the luminary Eleleth. In several texts, the luminary Eleleth is the last of the luminaries (Spiritual Lights) that come forward, and it is the Aeon Sophia, associated with Eleleth, who encounters darkness and becomes involved in the chain of events that leads to the Demiurge's rule of this world, and the salvage effort that ensues. As such, the role of Aeons of Eleleth, including Abraxas, Sophia, and others, pertains to this outer border of the Pleroma that encounters the ignorance of the world of Lack and interacts to rectify the error of ignorance in the world of materiality. + +As a demon +The Catholic church later deemed Abraxas a pagan god, and ultimately branded him a demon as documented in J. Collin de Plancy's Infernal Dictionary, Abraxas (or Abracax) is labeled the "supreme God" of the Basilidians, whom he describes as "heretics of the second century". He further indicated the Basilidians attributed to Abraxas the rule over "365 skies" and "365 virtues". In a final statement on Basilidians, de Plancy states that their view was that Jesus Christ was merely a "benevolent ghost sent on Earth by Abraxas". + +Abraxas stones +A vast number of engraved stones are in existence, to which the name "Abraxas-stones" has long been given. One particularly fine example was included as part of the Thetford treasure from fourth century Norfolk, England. The subjects are mythological, and chiefly grotesque, with various inscriptions, in which ΑΒΡΑΣΑΞ often occurs, alone or with other words. Sometimes the whole space is taken up with the inscription. In certain obscure magical writings of Egyptian origin ἀβραξάς or ἀβρασάξ is found associated with other names which frequently accompany it on gems; it is also found on the Greek metal tesseræ among other mystic words. The meaning of the legends is seldom intelligible: but some of the gems are amulets; and the same may be the case with nearly all. + +The Abrasax-image alone, without external Iconisms, and either without, or but a simple, inscription. The Abrasax-imago proper is usually found with a shield, a sphere or wreath and whip, a sword or sceptre, a cock's head, the body clad with armor, and a serpent's tail. There are, however, innumerable modifications of these figures: Lions', hawks', and eagles' skins, with or without mottos, with or without a trident and star, and with or without reverses. +Abrasax combined with other Gnostic Powers. If, in a single instance, this supreme being was represented in connection with powers of subordinate rank, nothing could have been more natural than to represent it also in combination with its emanations, the seven superior spirits, the thirty Aeons, and the three hundred and sixty-five cosmical Genii; and yet this occurs upon none of the relics as yet discovered, whilst those with Powers not belonging to the Gnostic system are frequently met with. +Abrasax with Jewish symbols. This combination predominates, not indeed with symbolical figures, but in the form of inscriptions, such as: Iao, Eloai, Adonai, Sabaoth, Michael, Gabriel, Uriel, Onoel, Ananoel, Raphael, Japlael, and many others. The name ΙΑΩ, to which ΣΑΒΑΩΘ is sometimes added, is found with this figure even more frequently than ΑΒΡΑΣΑΞ, and they are often combined. Beside an Abrasax figure the following, for instance, is found: ΙΑΩ ΑΒΡΑΣΑΞ ΑΔΩΝ ΑΤΑ, "Iao Abrasax, thou art the Lord". With the Abrasax-shield are also found the divine names Sabaoth Iao, Iao Abrasax, Adonai Abrasax, etc. +Abrasax with Persian deities. Chiefly, perhaps exclusively, in combination with Mithras, and possibly a few specimens with the mystical gradations of mithriaca, upon Gnostic relics. +Abrasax with Egyptian deities. It is represented as a figure, with the sun-god Phre leading his chariot, or standing upon a lion borne by a crocodile; also as a name, in connection with Isis, Phtha, Neith, Athor, Thot, Anubis, Horus, and Harpocrates in a Lotus-leaf; also with a representation of the Nile, the symbol of prolificacy, with Agathodaemon (Chnuphis), or with scarabs, the symbols of the revivifying energies of nature. +Abrasax with Grecian deities, sometimes as a figure, and again with the simple name, in connection with the planets, especially Venus, Hecate, and Zeus, richly engraved. +Simple or ornamental representations of the journey of departed spirits through the starry world to Amenti, borrowed, as those above-named, from the Egyptian religion. The spirit wafted from the earth, either with or without the corpse, and transformed at times into Osiris or Helios, is depicted as riding upon the back of a crocodile, or lion, guided in some instances by Anubis, and other genii, and surrounded by stars; and thus attended hastening to judgment and a higher life. +Representations of the judgment, which, like the preceding, are either ornamental or plain, and imitations of Egyptian art, with slight modifications and prominent symbols, as the vessel in which Anubis weighs the human heart, as comprehending the entire life of man, with all its errors. +Worship and consecrating services were, according to the testimony of Origen in his description of the ophitic diagram, conducted with figurative representations in the secret assemblies of the Gnostics unless indeed the statement on which this opinion rests designates, as it readily may, a statue of glyptic workmanship. It is uncertain if any of the discovered specimens actually represent the Gnostic cultus and religious ceremonies, although upon some may be seen an Abrasax-figure laying its hand upon a person kneeling, as though for baptism or benediction. +Astrological groups. The Gnostics referred everything to astrology. Even the Bardesenists located the inferior powers, the seven, twelve and thirty-six, among the planets, in the zodiac and starry region, as rulers of the celestial phenomena which influence the earth and its inhabitants. Birth and health, wealth and allotment, are considered to be mainly under their control. Other sects betray still stronger partiality for astrological conceits. Many of these specimens also are improperly ascribed to Gnosticism, but the Gnostic origin of others is too manifest to allow of contradiction. +Inscriptions, of which there are three kinds: +Those destitute of symbols or iconisms, engraved upon stone, iron, lead and silver plates, in Greek, Latin, Coptic or other languages, of amuletic import, and in the form of prayers for health and protection. +Those with some symbol, as a serpent in an oval form. +Those with iconisms, at times very small, but often made the prominent object, so that the legend is limited to a single word or name. Sometimes the legends are as important as the images. It is remarkable, however, that thus far none of the plates or medals found seem to have any of the forms or prayers reported by Origen. It is necessary to distinguish those specimens that belong to the proper Gnostic period from such as are indisputably of later origin, especially since there is a strong temptation to place those of more recent date among the older class. + +Gallery + +Anguipede + +In a great majority of instances the name Abrasax is associated with a singular composite figure, having a Chimera-like appearance somewhat resembling a basilisk or the Greek primordial god Chronos (not to be confused with the Greek titan Cronus). According to E. A. Wallis Budge, "as a Pantheus, i.e. All-God, he appears on the amulets with the head of a cock (Phœbus) or of a lion (Ra or Mithras), the body of a man, and his legs are serpents which terminate in scorpions, types of the Agathodaimon. In his right hand he grasps a club, or a flail, and in his left is a round or oval shield." This form was also referred to as the Anguipede. Budge surmised that Abrasax was "a form of the Adam Kadmon of the Kabbalists and the Primal Man whom God made in His own image". + +Some parts at least of the figure mentioned above are solar symbols, and the Basilidian Abrasax is manifestly connected with the sun. J. J. Bellermann has speculated that "the whole represents the Supreme Being, with his Five great Emanations, each one pointed out by means of an expressive emblem. Thus, from the human body, the usual form assigned to the Deity, forasmuch as it is written that God created man in his own image, issue the two supporters, Nous and Logos, symbols of the inner sense and the quickening understanding, as typified by the serpents, for the same reason that had induced the old Greeks to assign this reptile for an attribute to Pallas. His head—a cock's—represents Phronesis, the fowl being emblematical of foresight and vigilance. His two hands bear the badges of Sophia and Dynamis, the shield of Wisdom, and the scourge of Power." + +Origin +In the absence of other evidence to show the origin of these curious relics of antiquity the occurrence of a name known as Basilidian on patristic authority has not unnaturally been taken as a sufficient mark of origin, and the early collectors and critics assumed this whole group to be the work of Gnostics. During the last three centuries attempts have been made to sift away successively those gems that had no claim to be considered in any sense Gnostic, or specially Basilidian, or connected with Abrasax. The subject is one which has exercised the ingenuity of many savants, but it may be said that all the engraved stones fall into three classes: + Abrasax, or stones of Basilidian origin + Abrasaxtes, or stones originating in ancient forms of worship and adapted by the Gnostics + Abraxoïdes, or stones absolutely unconnected with the doctrine of Basilides + +While it would be rash to assert positively that no existing gems were the work of Gnostics, there is no valid reason for attributing all of them to such an origin. The fact that the name occurs on these gems in connection with representations of figures with the head of a cock, a lion, or an ass, and the tail of a serpent was formerly taken in the light of what Irenaeus says about the followers of Basilides: + +Incantations by mystic names were characteristic of the hybrid Gnosticism planted in Spain and southern Gaul at the end of the fourth century and at the beginning of the fifth, which Jerome connects with Basilides and which (according to his Epist., lxxv.) used the name Abrasax. + +It is therefore not unlikely that some Gnostics used amulets, though the confident assertions of modern writers to this effect rest on no authority. Isaac de Beausobre properly calls attention to the significant silence of Clement in the two passages in which he instructs the Christians of Alexandria on the right use of rings and gems, and the figures which may legitimately be engraved on them (Paed. 241 ff.; 287 ff.). But no attempt to identify the figures on existing gems with the personages of Gnostic mythology has had any success, and Abrasax is the only Gnostic term found in the accompanying legends that is not known to belong to other religions or mythologies. The present state of the evidence therefore suggests that their engravers and the Basilidians received the mystic name from a common source now unknown. + +Magical papyri +Having due regard to the magic papyri, in which many of the unintelligible names of the Abrasax-stones reappear, besides directions for making and using gems with similar figures and formulas for magical purposes, it can scarcely be doubted that many of these stones are pagan amulets and instruments of magic. + +The magic papyri reflect the same ideas as the Abrasax-gems and often bear Hebraic names of God. The following example is illustrative: "I conjure you by Iaō Sabaōth Adōnai Abrasax, and by the great god, Iaeō". The patriarchs are sometimes addressed as deities; for which fact many instances may be adduced. In the group "Iakoubia, Iaōsabaōth Adōnai Abrasax", the first name seems to be composed of Jacob and Ya. Similarly, entities considered angels in Judaism are invoked as gods alongside Abrasax: thus "I conjure you ... by the god Michaēl, by the god Souriēl, by the god Gabriēl, by the god Raphaēl, by the god Abrasax Ablathanalba Akrammachari ...". + +In text PGM V. 96-172, Abrasax is identified as part of the "true name which has been transmitted to the prophets of Israel" of the "Headless One, who created heaven and earth, who created night and day ... Osoronnophris whom none has ever seen ... awesome and invisible god with an empty spirit"; the name also includes Iaō and Adōnai. "Osoronnophris" represents Egyptian Wsir Wn-nfr, "Osiris the Perfect Being". Another identification with Osiris is made in PGM VII. 643-51: "you are not wine, but the guts of Osiris, the guts of ... Ablanathanalba Akrammachamarei Eee, who has been stationed over necessity, Iakoub Ia Iaō Sabaōth Adōnai Abrasax." PGM VIII. 1-63, on the other hand, identifies Abrasax as a name of "Hermes" (i.e. Thoth). Here the numerological properties of the name are invoked, with its seven letters corresponding to the seven planets and its isopsephic value of 365 corresponding to the days of the year. Thoth is also identified with Abrasax in PGM LXXIX. 1-7: "I am the soul of darkness, Abrasax, the eternal one, Michaēl, but my true name is Thōouth, Thōouth." + +One papyrus titled the "Monad" or the "Eighth Book of Moses" (PGM XIII. 1–343) contains an invocation to a supreme creator God; Abrasax is given as being the name of this God in the language of the baboons. The papyrus goes on to describe a cosmogonic myth about Abrasax, describing how he created the Ogdoad by laughing. His first laughter created light; his second divided the primordial waters; his third created the mind; his fourth created fertility and procreation; his fifth created fate; his sixth created time (as the sun and moon); and his seventh and final laughter created the soul. Then, from various sounds made by Abrasax, there arose the serpent Python who "foreknew all things", the first man (or Fear), and the god Iaō, "who is lord of all". The man fought with Iaō, and Abrasax declared that Iaō's power would derive from both of the others, and that Iaō would take precedence over all the other gods. This text also describes Helios as an archangel of God/Abrasax. + +The Leyden Papyrus recommends that this invocation be pronounced to the moon: + +The magic word "Ablanathanalba", which reads in Greek the same backward as forward, also occurs in the Abrasax-stones as well as in the magic papyri. This word is usually conceded to be derived from the Hebrew (Aramaic), meaning "Thou art our father" (אב לן את), and also occurs in connection with Abrasax; the following inscription is found upon a metal plate in the Karlsruhe Museum: + +In literature + +In popular culture + +In the 2022 folk horror video game The Excavation of Hob's Barrow, published by Wadjet Eye Games, Abraxas features as a long-dormant god/demon inspired by the original Gnostic Mythology. +In Marvel comics, the character Abraxas embodies the destruction of the multiverse (first appearance: 2001). +"Mt. Abraxas" is the title of the first track of occult rock band Uncle Acid & the Deadbeats's third studio album Mind Control (2013). +Abraxas appears as a demon in Charmed season 2 (1999–2000). +Abraxas appears as a demon in Supernatural season 14 (2018–2019). +In the 2008 visual novel 11eyes: Tsumi to Batsu to Aganai no Shōjo, Kukuri can summon her soul in the form of a chained guardian angel named Abraxas. When released from his chains, he becomes a godlike entity named Demiurge. +The 2018 video game Darksiders III features a demon named Abraxis. +South Korean band BTS's videos frequently mention Abraxas and much of their storyline is based around the deity. +In 1970, the second studio album of Latin rock band Santana was named Abraxas, derived from a passage in the Hermann Hesse novel Demian. +In 1987 The Abraxas Foundation was founded by Boyd Rice as a Social Darwinist think tank. +In the 2018 thriller Mandy, the "horn of Abraxas" is a sort of stone flute with magical properties. Brother Swan uses it to summon the Black Skulls, a demonic biker gang. +In the 2019 role-playing game Fire Emblem: Three Houses, Abraxas is the name of a damage-dealing Faith spell. +On their 2004 album Lemuria, symphonic metal band Therion has a track titled Abraxas, with lyrics delving into the Gnostic mythologies of the word. +In the 2010 song "Lead Poisoning" by Alkaline Trio, Matt Skiba sings the line "Now I pray to Abraxas my soul to keep". +In season 1, episode 2 of Netflix's 2020 animated show The Midnight Gospel the main character, Clancy Gilroy, purchases an avatar named Braxis, which he then uses to explore alternate universes. Braxis looks like the traditional images of Abraxas where the creature has a human body and the head of a rooster. Like the traditional images, Braxis has serpents for legs and his arms are also like those in traditional representations. +In the 2018 video game Assassin's Creed Odyssey, Abraxas is the name of the legendary fiery horse the player acquires if they reach the Tier 1 level in the hierarchy of mercenaries. +In J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter series (1997–2007), Abraxas is the name of Lucius Malfoy's father, as well as the name of a race of winged horses in the same fictional world. +In the 2015 sci-fi/action movie Jupiter Ascending, the most powerful family in the Cosmos known as the House of Abrasax. +Abraxas, in the Gnostic role of Great Archon, is the antagonist of the 2021 video game Cruelty Squad. +In the 2021 TV-adaptation of Isaac Asimov's Foundation series, the Abraxas Conjecture is the name of the mathematical proof that Gaal Dornick solves using Kalle's Ninth Proof of Folding. +In Sarah J. Maas' Throne of Glass series (2014–2018), the similarly-named Abraxos is the wyvern mount of Manon Blackbeak. +In the 1992 Discworld novel Small Gods by Terry Pratchett, Abraxas was an Ephebian philosopher who wrote about the nature of gods in his scroll On Religion, theorising that gods died if belief in them is diverted towards a rigid, hierarchical church structure, as had nearly happened with the Great God Om due to fear of the Omnian Quisition. Having survived being struck by lightning fifteen times as a result, he earned the nickname 'Charcoal'. +In the Shin Megami Tensei video game franchise (first release: 1987), Abraxas is a demon. +In the 1997 animated series Revolutionary Girl Utena by animation studio Be-Papas, Abraxas is referenced in the series soundtrack. The title being; "The God's Name Is Abraxas". +In the 1999 movie Adolescence of Utena by animation studio Be-Papas, Abraxas is referenced in the film's soundtrack. The title of the song being; "Abraxas ~ Sunny Garden". +In 2019, electronic music producers Seven Lions and Dimibo formed a psytrance trio called “Abraxis.” The project consists of a back story in which Reginald Abraxis formed the Abraxis Institute, in order to help people explore their full potential and achieve self-actualization. +In the 2022 song 'Nihilistic Violence' by American Technical Death Metal band Revocation, third track on the album 'Netherheaven', the lyric "Hear the bellowing horn of Abraxas, it calls to the beast that lives in the heart of every man" appears at 1:10. This is most likely a reference to the Horn of Abraxas that features in the movie Mandy. + +In architecture + Les Espaces d'Abraxas is a high-density housing complex in Noisy-le-Grand near Paris, France designed by Spanish architect Ricardo Bofill and opened in 1983. + +See also + Arimanius + Chronos + Sator Square + +References + +Citations + +Works cited + +General references + +Wendelin, in a letter in + + + + + +Idem, Abraxas in Herzog, RE, 2d ed., 1877. + + + +Idem, Appendice alla dissertazione sugli Abraxas, ib. 1874. + + +Harnack, Geschichte, i. 161. The older material is listed by Matter, ut sup., and Wessely, Ephesia grammata, vol. ii., Vienna, 1886. + Eng. transl., 10 vols., London, 1721–2725. + +Attribution + +Further reading + +External links + The complete texts of Carl Jung's "The Seven Sermons To The Dead" + Abraxas article from The Mystica + +Gnostic deities +Magic words +Mythological hybrids +Names of God in Gnosticism +Theophoric names +Absalom ( ʾAḇšālōm, "father of peace") was the third son of David, King of Israel with Maacah, daughter of Talmai, King of Geshur. + +2 Samuel 14:25 describes him as the handsomest man in the kingdom. Absalom eventually rebelled against his father and was killed during the Battle of Ephraim's Wood. + +Biblical account + +Background + +Absalom, David's third son, by Maacah, was born in Hebron. At an early age, he moved, along with the transfer of the capital, to Jerusalem, where he spent most of his life. He was a great favorite of his father and of the people. His charming manners, personal beauty, insinuating ways, love of pomp, and royal pretensions captivated the hearts of the people from the beginning. He lived in great style, drove in a magnificent chariot, and had fifty men run before him. + +Little is known of Absalom's family life, but the biblical narrative states that he had three sons and one daughter, Tamar, who is described as a beautiful woman. From the language of 2 Samuel 18:18, Absalom states, "I have no son to keep my name in remembrance". It may be that his sons died before his statement, or, as Matthew Henry suggests, Absalom's three sons may have been born after his statement. + +Aside from his daughter Tamar, Absalom had another daughter or granddaughter named Maacah, who later became the favorite wife of Rehoboam. Maacah was the mother of Abijah of Judah and the grandmother of Asa of Judah. She served as queen mother for Asa until he deposed her for idolatry. + +Murder of Amnon + +Absalom also had a sister named Tamar, who was raped by her half-brother Amnon, David's eldest son. After the rape, Absalom waited two years and then avenged Tamar by sending his servants to murder a drunken Amnon at a feast to which Absalom had invited all of King David's sons. + +After this murder Absalom fled to Talmai, who was the king of Geshur and Absalom's maternal grandfather. Not until three years later was Absalom fully reinstated in David's favour and finally returned to Jerusalem. + +The revolt at Hebron +While at Jerusalem, Absalom built support for himself by speaking to those who came to King David for justice, saying, "See, your claims are good and right; but there is no one deputed by the king to hear you", perhaps reflecting flaws in the judicial system of the united monarchy. "If only I were the judge of the land! Then all who had a suit or cause might come to me, and I would give them justice." He made gestures of flattery by kissing those who bowed before him instead of accepting supplication. He "stole the hearts of the people of Israel". + +After four years he declared himself king, raised a revolt at Hebron, the former capital, and had sexual relations with his father's concubines. All Israel and Judah flocked to him, and David, attended only by the Cherethites and Pelethites and his former bodyguard, which had followed him from Gath, found it expedient to flee. The priests Zadok and Abiathar remained in Jerusalem, and their sons Jonathan and Ahimaaz served as David's spies. Absalom reached the capital and consulted with the renowned Ahithophel (sometimes spelled Achitophel). (Although Absalom did avenge his sister's defilement, ironically he himself showed himself not to be very much different from Amnon; examples of Lifnei iver as Amnon had sought the advice of Jonadab in order to rape his half sister Tamar, Absalom had sought the advice of Ahitophel who advised Absalom to have incestuous relations with his father's concubines in order to show all Israel how odious he was to his father [2 Samuel 16:20]. In regard to Ahitophel's motives: "..and great as was his wisdom, it was equalled by his scholarship. Therefore David did not hesitate to submit himself to his instruction, even though Ahithophel was a very young man, at the time of his death not more than thirty-three years old. The one thing lacking in him was sincere piety, and this it was that proved his undoing in the end, for it induced him to take part in Absalom's rebellion against David. Thus he forfeited even his share in the world to come. +To this dire course of action he was misled by astrologic and other signs, which he interpreted as prophecies of his own kingship, when in reality they pointed to the royal destiny of his granddaughter Bath-sheba. Possessed by his erroneous belief, he cunningly urged Absalom to commit an unheard-of crime. Thus Absalom would profit nothing by his rebellion, for, though he accomplished his father's ruin, he would yet be held to account and condemned to death for his violation of family purity, and the way to the throne would be clear for Ahithophel, the great sage in Israel.") + +David took refuge from Absalom's forces beyond the Jordan River. However, he took the precaution of instructing a servant, Hushai, to infiltrate Absalom's court and subvert it. Once in place, Hushai convinced Absalom to ignore Ahithophel's advice to attack his father while he was on the run, and instead to prepare his forces for a major attack. This gave David critical time to prepare his own troops for the battle. When Ahithophel saw that his advice was not followed, he committed suicide by hanging himself. + +Battle of Ephraim's Wood +A fateful battle was fought in the Wood of Ephraim (the name suggests a locality west of the Jordan) and Absalom's army was completely routed. When Absalom fled from David's army, his head was caught in the boughs of an oak tree as the mule he was riding ran beneath it. He was discovered there still alive by one of David's men, who reported this to Joab, the king's commander. Joab, accustomed to avenging himself, took this opportunity to even the score with Absalom. Absalom had once set Joab's field of barley on fire and then made Amasa Captain of the Host instead of Joab. Killing Absalom was against David's explicit command, "Beware that none touch the young man Absalom". Joab injured Absalom with three darts through the heart and Absalom was subsequently killed by ten of Joab's armor-bearers. + +When David heard that Absalom was killed, although not how he was killed, he greatly sorrowed. + +David withdrew to the city of Mahanaim in mourning, until Joab roused him from "the extravagance of his grief" and called on him to fulfill his duty to his people. + +Memorial + +Absalom had erected a monument near Jerusalem to perpetuate his name: + +An ancient monument in the Kidron Valley near the Old City of Jerusalem, known as the Tomb of Absalom or Absalom's Pillar and traditionally identified as the monument of the biblical narrative, is now dated by modern archeologists to the first century AD. The Jewish Encyclopedia reports: "A tomb twenty feet high and twenty-four feet square, which late tradition points out as the resting-place of Absalom. It is situated in the eastern part of the valley of Kidron, to the east of Jerusalem. In all probability it is the tomb of Alexander Jannæus (Conder, in Hastings' Dict. Bible, article "Jerusalem", p. 597). It existed in the days of Josephus. However, archaeologists have now dated the tomb to the 1st century AD. In a 2013 conference, Professor Gabriel Barkay suggested that it could be the tomb of Herod Agrippa, the grandson of Herod the Great, based in part on the similarity to Herod's newly discovered tomb at Herodium. For centuries, it was the custom among passers-by—Jews, Christians and Muslims—to throw stones at the monument. Residents of Jerusalem would bring their unruly children to the site to teach them what became of a rebellious son. + +Rabbinic literature +The life and death of Absalom offered to the rabbis a welcome theme wherewith to warn the people against false ambition, vainglory, and unfilial conduct. The vanity with which he displayed his beautiful hair, the rabbis say, became his snare and his stumbling-block. "By his long hair the Nazirite entangled the people to rebel against his father, and by it he himself became entangled, to fall a victim to his pursuers". And again, elsewhere: "By his vile stratagem he deceived and stole three hearts, that of his father, of the elders, and finally of the whole nation of Israel, and for this reason three darts were thrust into his heart to end his treacherous life". More striking is the following: "Did one ever hear of an oak-tree having a heart? And yet in the oak-tree in whose branches Absalom was caught, we read that upon its heart he was held up still alive while the darts were thrust through him. This is to show that when a man becomes so heartless as to make war against his own father, nature itself takes on a heart to avenge the deed." + +"The knowledge that a part of Absalom's following sided with him in secret,--that, though he was pursued by his son, his friends remained true to him,--somewhat consoled David in his distress. He thought that in these circumstances, if the worst came to the worst, Absalom would at least feel pity for him. At first, however, the despair of David knew no bounds. He was on the point of worshipping an idol, when his friend Hushai the Archite approached him, saying: "The people will wonder that such a king should serve idols." David replied: "Should a king such as I am be +killed by his own son? It is better for me to serve idols than that God should be held responsible for my misfortune, and His Name thus be desecrated." Hushai reproached him: "Why didst thou marry a captive?" "There is no wrong in that," replied David, "it is permitted according to the law." Thereupon Hushai: "But thou didst disregard the connection between the passage permitting it and the one that follows almost immediately after it in the Scriptures, dealing with the disobedient and rebellious son, the natural issue of such a marriage." Absalom's end was beset with terrors. When he was caught in the +branches of the oak-tree, he was about to sever his hair with a sword stroke, but suddenly he saw hell yawning beneath him, and he preferred to hang in the tree to throwing himself into the abyss alive. Absalom's crime was, indeed, of a nature to deserve the supreme torture, for which reason he is one of the few Jews who have no portion in the world to come. + +Popular legend states that the eye of Absalom was of immense size, signifying his insatiable greed. Indeed, "hell itself opened beneath him, and David, his father, cried seven times: 'My son! my son!' while bewailing his death, praying at the same time for his redemption from the seventh section of Gehenna, to which he was consigned". According to R. Meir, "he has no share in the life to come". And according to the description of Gehenna by Joshua ben Levi, who, like Dante, wandered through hell under the guidance of the angel Duma, Absalom still dwells there, having the rebellious heathen in charge; and when the angels with their fiery rods run also against Absalom to smite him like the rest, a heavenly voice says: "Spare Absalom, the son of David, My servant." "That the extreme +penalties of hell were thus averted from him, was on account of David's eightfold repetition of his son's name in his lament over him. Besides, David's intercession had the effect of re-attaching Absalom's severed head to his body. At his death Absalom was childless, for all his children, his three sons and his daughter, died before him, as a punishment for his having set fire to a field of grain belonging to Joab." + +Art and literature + +Poetry + The Love of King David and Fair Bethsabe, with the Tragedie of Absalon, a play by George Peele, written before 1594 and published in 1599. + Absalom and Achitophel (1681), a satirical poem by John Dryden, uses the biblical story as an allegory for contemporary politics. + "Absalom" by Nathaniel Parker Willis (1806–1867). + "Absaloms Abfall" by Rainer Maria Rilke ("The Fall of Absalom", trans. Stephen Cohn). + "Absalom" is a section in Muriel Rukeyser's long poem The Book of the Dead (1938), inspired by the biblical text, spoken by a mother who lost three sons to silicosis. + "Avshalom" by Yona Wallach, published in her first poetry collection Devarim (1966), alludes to the biblical character. + +Fiction + In the 1946 short story "Absalom" by C.L. Moore and Henry Kuttner, the character Absalom is a child prodigy, who does non-consensual brain surgery on his father (a former child prodigy, though not as intelligent as his son) to make the father totally focused on Absalom's success. This relates to the Biblical story of the son usurping his father. + Georg Christian Lehms, Des israelitischen Printzens Absolons und seiner Prinzcessin Schwester Thamar Staats- Lebens- und Helden-Geschichte (The Heroic Life and History of the Israelite Prince Absolom and his Princess Sister Tamar), novel in German published in Nuremberg, 1710. + Absalom, Absalom! is a novel by William Faulkner, and refers to the return of the main character Thomas Sutpen's son. + Oh Absalom! was the original title of Howard Spring's novel My Son, My Son!, later adapted for the film of the latter name. + Cry, the Beloved Country by Alan Paton. Absalom was the name of Stephen Kumalo's son in the novel. Like the Biblical Absalom, Absalom Kumalo was at odds with his father, the two fighting a moral and ethical battle of sorts over the course of some of the novel's most important events. Absalom kills and murders a man, and also meets an untimely death. + Throughout Robertson Davies's The Manticore a comparison is repeatedly made between the protagonist's problematic relations with his father and those of the Biblical Absalom and King David. Paradoxically, in the modern version, it is the rebellious son who has the first name "David". The book also introduces the term "Absalonism", as a generic term for a son's rebellion against his father. + Absalom appears as a prominent character in Peter Shaffer's play Yonadab, which portrays Amnon's rape of Tamar and his murder at Absalom's hands. + A scene in the Swedish writer Frans G. Bengtsson's historical novel "The Long Ships" depicts a 10th Century Christian missionary recounting the story of Absalom's rebellion to the assembled Danish court, including the aging King Harald Bluetooth and his son Sweyn Forkbeard; thereupon, King Harald exclaims "Some people can learn a lesson from this story!", casting a meaningful glance at his son Sweyn—whom the King (rightly) suspects of plotting a rebellion. + In the novel The Book of Tamar by Nel Havas, the story of Absalom is presented from the viewpoint of his sister. While closely following the main events as related in the Bible, Havas concentrates on the motives behind Absalom's actions, which Havas presents as more complex than depicted in the scriptures. + In the novel Ender's Shadow by Orson Scott Card, the main character Bean invokes the quote to give solace to the kamikaze pilots Ender had unknowingly sent to their deaths to defeat the Formics. +The role played by luxuriant hair in the death of Absalom is referenced to telling effect in the ghost story The Diary of Mr Poynter by master of the genre M.R. James. The ghost in question is that of dissolute young nobleman Sir Everard Charlett, known to his Oxford University cronies by the nickname Absalom, on account of his beautiful, long hair and debauched lifestyle. Sir Everard has commemorated his flowing locks by the unusual expedient of having them portrayed in a wallpaper pattern, which later proves to have the power to summon his malign, hair-covered ghost - much to the horror of James’s unfortunate protagonist, Mr. James Denton. + +Music + Josquin des Prez composed the motet "Absalon, fili mi" on the occasion of the death of Juan Borgia (Absalon being a further alternative spelling). + Nicholas Gombert composed the two-part, eight-voice motet "Lugebat David Absalon". + Heinrich Schütz (1585–1672) composed "Fili mi, Absalon" as part of his Sinfoniae Sacrae, op. 6. + The single verse, 2 Samuel 18:33, regarding David's grief at the loss of his son ("And the king was much moved, and went up to the chamber over the gate, and wept: and as he went, thus he said, O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! would God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son!"), is the inspiration for the text of several pieces of choral music, usually entitled When David Heard (such as those by Renaissance composers Thomas Tomkins and Thomas Weelkes, or modern composers Eric Whitacre, Joshua Shank, and Norman Dinerstein). This verse is also used in "David's Lamentation" by William Billings, first published in 1778. + Leonard Cohen's poem "Prayer for Sunset" compares the setting sun to the raving Absalom, and asks whether another Joab will arrive tomorrow night to kill Absalom again. + "Absalom, Absalom" is a song on the 1996 Compass CD Making Light of It by singer/songwriter Pierce Pettis, incorporating several elements of the biblical narrative. + The Australian composer Nigel Butterley set the verse in his 2008 choral work "Beni Avshalom", commissioned by the Sydney Chamber Choir. + During the finale of the song "Distant Early Warning" by Canadian band Rush, Geddy Lee sings, "Absalom, Absalom, Absalom"; lyrics written by drummer Neil Peart. + David Olney's 2000 CD Omar's Blues includes the song "Absalom". The song depicts David grieving over the death of his son. + The story of Absalom is referred to several places in folk singer Adam Arcuragi's song "Always Almost Crying". + The San Francisco–based band Om mentions Absalom in their song "Kapila's Theme" from their debut album Variations on a Theme. + The garage folk band David's Doldrums references Absalom in their song, "My Name Is Absalom". The song alludes to Absalom's feelings of solemnity and abandonment of love and hope. + In "Every Kind Word" by Lackthereof, Danny Seim's project parallel to Menomena, Seim sings "... and your hair is long like Absalom." + "Barach Hamelech", an Israeli song by Amos Etinger and Yosef Hadar. + The grindcore band Discordance Axis references Absalom at the end of the track entitled "Castration Rite". + In 2007 Ryland Angel released "Absalom" on Ryland Angel-Manhattan Records. + "Hanging By His Hair" from the 1998 Wormwood album by The Residents recounts Absalom's defiance and death. Also performed on Roadworms (The Berlin Sessions) and Wormwood Live. + "Absalom" is a song on Brand New Shadows's debut album, White Flags. It is a mournful lament from King David's perspective. + "Absalom" is an album by the experimental/progressive band Stick Men featuring Tony Levin, Markus Reuter and Pat Mastelotto. + The American Rock band Little Feat reference Absalom in their song "Gimme a Stone" on the album entitled Chinese Work Songs. This song is written from the perspective of King David—mainly focusing on the task of fighting Goliath—but contains a lament to Absalom. This was a cover of the song, the original being on the 1998 Americana concept album Largo, by David Forman and Levon Helm. + +References + +Notes + +Citations + +Sources + +External links + + + Some musical scores of David's lament for Absalom: Absalon, fili mi () + + +Biblical murderers +Biblical murder victims +Children of David +Fratricides +Jewish rebels +Jewish royalty +Male murder victims +Rebellious princes +Abydos may refer to: + +Abydos, a progressive metal side project of German singer Andy Kuntz +Abydos (Hellespont), an ancient city in Mysia, Asia Minor +Abydos (Stargate), name of a fictional planet in the Stargate science fiction universe +Abydos, Egypt, a city in ancient Egypt +Abydos Station, a pastoral lease and cattle station in Western Australia + +See also +Abidu, a village in Iran +Abidos, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, in southwestern France +Abydos ( or ; Sahidic ) is one of the oldest cities of ancient Egypt, and also of the eighth nome in Upper Egypt. It is located about west of the Nile at latitude 26° 10' N, near the modern Egyptian towns of El Araba El Madfuna and El Balyana. In the ancient Egyptian language, the city was called Abdju (ꜣbḏw or AbDw)(Arabic Abdu عبد-و). +The English name Abydos comes from the Greek , a name borrowed by Greek geographers from the unrelated city of Abydos on the Hellespont. Abydos name in hieroglyphs + +Considered one of the most important archaeological sites in Egypt, the sacred city of Abydos was the site of many ancient temples, including Umm el-Qa'ab, a royal necropolis where early pharaohs were entombed. These tombs began to be seen as extremely significant burials and in later times it became desirable to be buried in the area, leading to the growth of the town's importance as a cult site. + +Today, Abydos is notable for the memorial temple of Seti I, which contains an inscription from the Nineteenth Dynasty known to the modern world as the Abydos King List. This is a chronological list showing cartouches of most dynastic pharaohs of Egypt from Menes until Seti I's father, Ramesses I. It is also notable for the Abydos graffiti, ancient Phoenician and Aramaic graffiti found on the walls of the Temple of Seti I. + +The Great Temple and most of the ancient town are buried under the modern buildings to the north of the Seti temple. Many of the original structures and the artifacts within them are considered irretrievable and lost; many may have been destroyed by the new construction. + +History + + +Most of Upper Egypt became unified under rulers from Abydos during the Naqada III period (3200–3000 BCE), at the expense of rival cities such as Hierakonpolis. The conflicts leading to the supremacy of Abydos may appear on numerous reliefs of the Naqada II period, such as the Gebel el-Arak Knife, or the frieze of Tomb 100 at Hierakonpolis. + +Tombs and at least one temple of rulers of the Predynastic period have been found at Umm El Qa'ab including that of Narmer, dating to . The temple and town continued to be rebuilt at intervals down to the times of the Thirtieth Dynasty, and the cemetery was in continuous use. + +The pharaohs of the First Dynasty were buried in Abydos, including Narmer, who is regarded as the founder of the First Dynasty, and his successor, Aha. It was in this time period that the Abydos boats were constructed. Some pharaohs of the Second Dynasty were also buried in Abydos. The temple was renewed and enlarged by these pharaohs as well. Funerary enclosures, misinterpreted in modern times as great 'forts', were built on the desert behind the town by three kings of the Second Dynasty; the most complete is that of Khasekhemwy, the Shunet El Zebib. + +From the Fifth Dynasty, the deity Khentiamentiu, foremost of the Westerners, came to be seen as a manifestation of the dead pharaoh in the underworld. Pepi I (Sixth Dynasty) constructed a funerary chapel which evolved over the years into the Great Temple of Osiris, the ruins of which still exist within the town enclosure. Abydos became the centre of the worship of the Isis and Osiris cult. + +During the First Intermediate Period, the principal deity of the area, Khentiamentiu, began to be seen as an aspect of Osiris, and the deities gradually merged and came to be regarded as one. Khentiamentiu's name became an epithet of Osiris. King Mentuhotep II was the first to build a royal chapel. In the Twelfth Dynasty a gigantic tomb was cut into the rock by Senusret III. Associated with this tomb was a cenotaph, a cult temple and a small town known as "Wah-Sut", that was used by the workers for these structures. Next to the cenotaph at least two kings of the Thirteenth Dynasty were buried (in tombs S9 and S10) as well as some rulers of the Second Intermediate Period, such as Senebkay. An indigenous line of kings, the Abydos Dynasty, may have ruled the region from Abydos at the time. + +New construction during the Eighteenth Dynasty began with a large chapel of Ahmose I. The Pyramid of Ahmose I was also constructed at Abydos—the only pyramid in the area; very little of it remains today. + +Thutmose III built a far larger temple, about . He also made a processional way leading past the side of the temple to the cemetery beyond, featuring a great gateway of granite. + +Seti I, during the Nineteenth Dynasty, founded a temple to the south of the town in honor of the ancestral pharaohs of the early dynasties; this was finished by Ramesses II, who also built a lesser temple of his own. Merneptah added the Osireion, just to the north of the temple of Seti. + +Ahmose II in the Twenty-sixth Dynasty rebuilt the temple again, and placed in it a large monolith shrine of red granite, finely wrought. The foundations of the successive temples were comprised within approximately . depth of the ruins discovered in modern times; these needed the closest examination to discriminate the various buildings, and were recorded by more than 4,000 measurements and 1,000 levellings. + +The last building added was a new temple of Nectanebo I, built in the Thirtieth Dynasty. From the Ptolemaic times of the Greek occupancy of Egypt, that began three hundred years before the Roman occupancy that followed, the structures began to decay and no later works are known. + +Cult centre +From earliest times, Abydos was a cult centre, first of the local deity, Khentiamentiu, and from the end of the Old Kingdom, the rising cult of Osiris. A tradition developed that the Early Dynastic cemetery was the burial place of Osiris and the tomb of Djer was reinterpreted as that of Osiris. + +Decorations in tombs throughout Egypt, such as the one displayed to the right, record pilgrimages to Abydos by wealthy families. + +Great Osiris Temple + +From the First Dynasty to the Twenty-sixth Dynasty, nine or ten temples were successively built on one site at Abydos. The first was an enclosure, about , enclosed by a thin wall of unbaked bricks. Incorporating one wall of this first structure, the second temple of about square was built with walls about thick. An outer temenos (enclosure) wall surrounded the grounds. This outer wall was made wider some time around the Second or Third Dynasty. The old temple entirely vanished in the Fourth Dynasty, and a smaller building was erected behind it, enclosing a wide hearth of black ashes. Pottery models of offerings are found in these ashes and were probably the substitutes for live sacrifices decreed by Khufu (or Cheops) in his temple reforms. + +At an undetermined date, a great clearance of temple offerings had been made and the modern discovery of a chamber into which they were gathered yielded the fine ivory carvings and the glazed figures and tiles that demonstrate the splendid work of the First Dynasty. A vase of Menes with purple hieroglyphs inlaid into a green glaze and tiles with relief figures are the most important pieces found. The Khufu Statuette in ivory, found in the stone chamber of the temple, gives the only portrait of this great pharaoh. + +The temple was entirely rebuilt on a larger scale by Pepi I in the Sixth Dynasty. He placed a great stone gateway to the temenos, an outer wall and gateway, with a colonnade between the gates. His temple was about inside, with stone gateways front and back, showing that it was of the processional type. In the Eleventh Dynasty Mentuhotep II added a colonnade and altars. Soon after, Mentuhotep III entirely rebuilt the temple, laying a stone pavement over the area, about square. He also added subsidiary chambers. Soon thereafter, in the Twelfth Dynasty, Senusret I laid massive foundations of stone over the pavement of his predecessor. A great temenos was laid out enclosing a much larger area and the new temple itself was about three times the earlier size. + +Brewery +On 14 February 2021, Egyptian and American archaeologists discovered what could be the oldest brewery in the world dating from around 3100 BCE at the reign of King Narmer. Dr. Matthew Adams, one of the leaders of the mission, stated that it was used to make beer for royal rituals. + +Main sites + +Temple of Seti I + +The temple of Seti I was built on entirely new ground half a mile to the south of the long series of temples just described. This surviving building is best known as the Great Temple of Abydos, being nearly complete and an impressive sight. A principal purpose of the temple was to serve as a memorial to king Seti I, as well as to show reverence for the early pharaohs, which is incorporated within as part of the "Rite of the Ancestors". + +The long list of the pharaohs of the principal dynasties—recognized by Seti—are carved on a wall and known as the "Abydos King List" (showing the cartouche name of many dynastic pharaohs of Egypt from the first, Narmer or Menes, until Seti's time). There were significant names deliberately left off of the list. So rare, as an almost complete list of pharaoh names, the Table of Abydos, rediscovered by William John Bankes, has been called the "Rosetta Stone" of Egyptian archaeology, analogous to the Rosetta Stone for Egyptian writing, beyond the Narmer Palette. + +There were also seven chapels built for the worship of the pharaoh and principal deities. These included three chapels for the "state" deities Ptah, Re-Horakhty, and (centrally positioned) Amun and the challenge for the Abydos triad of Osiris, Isis and Horus. The rites recorded in the deity chapels represent the first complete form known of the Daily Ritual, which was performed daily in temples across Egypt throughout the pharaonic period. At the back of the temple is an enigmatic structure known as the Osireion, which served as a cenotaph for Seti-Osiris, and is thought to be connected with the worship of Osiris as an "Osiris tomb". It is possible that from those chambers was led out the great Hypogeum for the celebration of the Osiris mysteries, built by Merenptah. The temple was originally long, but the forecourts are scarcely recognizable, and the part still in good condition is about + long and wide, including the wing at the side. Magazines for food and offerings storage were built to either side of the forecourts, as well as a small palace for the king and his retinue, to the southeast of the first forecourt (Ghazouli, The Palace and Magazines Attached to the Temple of Sety I at Abydos and the Facade of This Temple. ASAE 58 (1959)). + +Except for the list of pharaohs and a panegyric on Ramesses II, the subjects are not historical, but religious in nature, dedicated to the transformation of the king after his death. The temple reliefs are celebrated for their delicacy and artistic refinement, utilizing both the archaism of earlier dynasties with the vibrancy of late 18th Dynasty reliefs. The sculptures had been published mostly in hand copy, not facsimile, by Auguste Mariette in his Abydos, I. The temple has been partially recorded epigraphically by Amice Calverley and Myrtle Broome in their 4 volume publication of The Temple of King Sethos I at Abydos (1933–1958). + +Osireion + +The Osirion or Osireon is an ancient Egyptian temple. It is located to the rear of the temple of Seti I. It is an integral part of Seti I's funeral complex and is built to resemble an 18th Dynasty Valley of the Kings tomb. + +Helicopter hieroglyphs + +Some of the hieroglyphs carved over an arch on the site have been interpreted in esoteric and "ufological" circles as depicting modern technology. + +The "helicopter" image is the result of carved stone being re-used over time. The initial carving was made during the reign of Seti I and translates to "He who repulses the nine [enemies of Egypt]". This carving was later filled in with plaster and re-carved during the reign of Ramesses II with the title "He who protects Egypt and overthrows the foreign countries". Over time, the plaster has eroded away, leaving both inscriptions partially visible and creating a palimpsest-like effect of overlapping hieroglyphs. + +Ramesses II temple +The adjacent temple of Ramesses II was much smaller and simpler in plan, but it had a fine historical series of scenes around the outside that lauded his achievements, of which the lower parts remain. The outside of the temple was decorated with scenes of the Battle of Kadesh. His list of pharaohs, similar to that of Seti I, formerly stood here; the fragments were removed by the French consul and sold to the British Museum. + +Umm El Qa'ab + +The royal necropolises of the earliest dynasties were placed about a mile into the great desert plain, in a place now known as Umm El Qa'ab "The Mother of Pots" because of the shards remaining from all of the devotional objects left by religious pilgrims. + +The earliest burial is about inside, a pit lined with brick walls and originally roofed with timber and matting. Other tombs also built before Menes are . The probable tomb of Menes is of the latter size. Afterwards, the tombs increased in size and complexity. The tomb-pit was surrounded by chambers to hold offerings, the sepulchre being a great wooden chamber in the midst of the brick-lined pit. Rows of small pits, tombs for the servants of the pharaoh, surrounded the royal chamber, many dozens of such burials being usual. Some of the offerings included sacrificed animals, such as the asses found in the tomb of Merneith. Evidence of human sacrifice exists in the early tombs, such as the 118 servants in the tomb of Merneith, but this practice was changed later into symbolic offerings. + +By the end of the Second Dynasty the type of tomb constructed changed to a long passage with chambers on either side, the royal burial being in the middle of the length. The greatest of these tombs with its dependencies, covered a space of over , however it is possible for this to have been several tombs which abutted one another during construction; the Egyptians had no means of mapping the positioning of the tombs. The contents of the tombs have been nearly destroyed by successive plunderers; but enough remained to show that rich jewellery was placed on the mummies, a profusion of vases of hard and valuable stones from the royal table service stood about the body, the store-rooms were filled with great jars of wine, perfumed ointments, and other supplies, and tablets of ivory and of ebony were engraved with a record of the yearly annals of the reigns. The seals of various officials, of which over 200 varieties have been found, give an insight into the public arrangements. + +A cemetery for private persons was put into use during the First Dynasty, with some pit-tombs in the town. It was extensive in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Dynasties and contained many rich tombs. A large number of fine tombs were made in the Eighteenth to Twentieth Dynasties, and members of later dynasties continued to bury their dead here until the Roman period. Many hundreds of funeral steles were removed by Auguste Mariette's workmen, without any details of the burials being noted. Later excavations have been recorded by Edward R. Ayrton, Abydos, iii.; Maclver, El Amrah and Abydos; and Garstang, El Arabah. + +"Forts" +Some of the tomb structures, referred to as "forts" by modern researchers, lay behind the town. Known as Shunet ez Zebib, it is about over all, and one still stands high. It was built by Khasekhemwy, the last pharaoh of the Second Dynasty. Another structure nearly as large adjoined it, and probably is older than that of Khasekhemwy. A third "fort" of a squarer form is now occupied by a convent of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria; its age cannot be ascertained. + +Kom El Sultan + +The area now known as Kom El Sultan is a big mudbrick structure, the purpose of which is not clear and thought to have been at the original settlement area, dated to the Early Dynastic Period. The structure includes the early temple of Osiris. + +See also + + List of ancient Egyptian towns and cities + S 9 (Abydos) + S 10 (Abydos) + Mahat chapel of Mentuhotep II + +Notes + +References + + + + + + Mariette, Auguste, Abydos, ii. and iii. + William Flinders Petrie, Abydos, i. and ii. + William Flinders Petrie, Royal Tombs, i. and ii. + +External links + + + Encyclopædia Britannica Online, "Abydos" search: EncBrit-Abydos, importance of Abydos + The Mortuary Temple of Seti I at Abydos + University of Pennsylvania Museum excavations at Abydos + + +Populated places established in the 4th millennium BC +Populated places disestablished in the 4th century BC +Cities in ancient Egypt +Populated places in Sohag Governorate +Former populated places in Egypt +Archaeological sites in Egypt +Naqada III +Abydos (, ) was an ancient city and bishopric in Mysia. It was located at the Nara Burnu promontory on the Asian coast of the Hellespont (the straits of Dardanelles), opposite the ancient city of Sestos, and near the city of Çanakkale in Turkey. Abydos was founded in at the most narrow point in the straits, and thus was one of the main crossing points between Europe and Asia, until its replacement by the crossing between Lampsacus and Kallipolis in the 13th century, and the abandonment of Abydos in the early 14th century. + +In Greek mythology, Abydos is presented in the myth of Hero and Leander as the home of Leander. The city is also mentioned in Rodanthe and Dosikles, a novel written by Theodore Prodromos, a 12th-century writer, in which Dosikles kidnaps Rodanthe at Abydos. + +Archaeology +In 1675, the site of Abydos was first identified, and was subsequently visited by numerous classicists and travellers, such as Robert Wood, Richard Chandler, and Lord Byron. The city's acropolis is known in Turkish as Mal Tepe. + +Following the city's abandonment, the ruins of Abydos were scavenged for building materials from the 14th to the 19th century, and remains of walls and buildings continued to be reported until at least the 19th century, however, little remains and the area was declared a restricted military zone in the early 20th century, thus little to no excavation has taken place. + +History + +Classical period + +Abydos is mentioned in the Iliad as a Trojan ally, and, according to Strabo, was occupied by Bebryces and later Thracians after the Trojan War. It has been suggested that the city was originally a Phoenician colony as there was a temple of Aphrodite Porne (Aphrodite the Harlot) within Abydos. Abydos was settled by Milesian colonists contemporaneously with the foundation of the cities of Priapos and Prokonnesos in . Strabo related that Gyges, King of Lydia, granted his consent to the Milesians to settle Abydos; it is argued that this was carried out by Milesian mercenaries to act as a garrison to prevent Thracian raids into Asia Minor. The city became a thriving centre for tuna exportation as a result of the high yield of tuna in the Hellespont. + +Abydos was ruled by Daphnis, a pro-Persian tyrant, in the 520s BC, but was occupied by the Persian Empire in 514. Darius I destroyed the city following his Scythian campaign in 512. Abydos participated in the Ionian Revolt in the early 5th century BC, however, the city returned briefly to Persian control as, in 480, at the onset of the Second Persian invasion of Greece, Xerxes I and the Persian army passed through Abydos on their march to Greece crossing the Hellespont on Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges. After the failed Persian invasion, Abydos became a member of the Athenian-led Delian League, and was part of the Hellespontine district. Ostensibly an ally, Abydos was hostile to Athens throughout this time, and contributed a phoros of 4-6 talents. Xenophon documented that Abydos possessed gold mines at Astyra or Kremaste at the time of his writing. + +During the Second Peloponnesian War, a Spartan expedition led by Dercylidas arrived at Abydos in early May 411 BC and successfully convinced the city to defect from the Delian League and fight against Athens, at which time he was made harmost (commander/governor) of Abydos. A Spartan fleet was defeated by Athens at Abydos in the autumn of 411 BC. Abydos was attacked by the Athenians in the winter of 409/408 BC, but was repelled by a Persian force led by Pharnabazus, satrap (governor) of Hellespontine Phrygia. Dercylidas held the office of harmost of Abydos until at least . According to Aristotle, Abydos had an oligarchic constitution at this time. At the beginning of the Corinthian War in 394 BC, Agesilaus II, King of Sparta, passed through Abydos into Thrace. Abydos remained an ally of Sparta throughout the war and Dercylidas served as harmost of the city from 394 until he was replaced by Anaxibius in ; the latter was killed in an ambush near Abydos by the Athenian general Iphicrates in . At the conclusion of the Corinthian War, under the terms of the Peace of Antalcidas in 387 BC, Abydos was annexed to the Persian Empire. Within the Persian Empire, Abydos was administered as part of the satrapy of Hellespontine Phrygia, and was ruled by the tyrant Philiscus in 368. In , the city came under the control of the tyrant Iphiades. + +Hellenistic period +Abydos remained under Persian control until it was seized by a Macedonian army led by Parmenion, a general of Philip II, in the spring of 336 BC. In 335, whilst Parmenion besieged the city of Pitane, Abydos was besieged by a Persian army led by Memnon of Rhodes, forcing Parmenion to abandon his siege of Pitane and march north to relieve Abydos. Alexander ferried across from Sestos to Abydos in 334 and travelled south to the city of Troy, after which he returned to Abydos. The following day, Alexander left Abydos and led his army north to Percote. Alexander later established a royal mint at Abydos, as well as at other cities in Asia Minor. + +After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, Abydos, as part of the satrapy of Hellespontine Phrygia, came under the control of Leonnatus as a result of the Partition of Babylon. At the Partition of Triparadisus in 321 BC, Arrhidaeus succeeded Leonnatus as satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia. + +In 302, during the Fourth War of the Diadochi, Lysimachus, King of Thrace, crossed over into Asia Minor and invaded the kingdom of Antigonus I. Unlike the neighbouring cities of Parium and Lampsacus which surrendered, Abydos resisted Lysimachus and was besieged. Lysimachus was forced to abandon the siege, however, after the arrival of a relief force sent by Demetrius, son of King Antigonus I. According to Polybius, by the third century BC, the neighbouring city of Arisbe had become subordinate to Abydos. The city of Dardanus also came under the control of Abydos at some point in the Hellenistic period. Abydos became part of the Seleucid Empire after 281 BC. The city was conquered by Ptolemy III Euergetes, King of Egypt, in 245 BC, and remained under Ptolemaic control until at least 241, as Abydos had become part of the Kingdom of Pergamon by c. 200 BC. + +During the Second Macedonian War, Abydos was besieged by Philip V, King of Macedonia, in 200 BC, during which many of its citizens chose to commit suicide rather than surrender. Marcus Aemilius Lepidus met with Philip V during the siege to deliver an ultimatum on behalf of the Roman senate. Ultimately, the city was forced to surrender to Philip V due to a lack of reinforcements. The Macedonian occupation ended after the Peace of Flamininus at the end of the war in 196 BC. At this time, Abydos was substantially depopulated and partially ruined as a result of the Macedonian occupation. + +In the spring of 196 BC, Abydos was seized by Antiochus III, Megas Basileus of the Seleucid Empire, who refortified the city in 192/191 BC. Antiochus III later withdrew from Abydos during the Roman-Seleucid War, thus allowing for the transportation of the Roman army into Asia Minor by October 190 BC. Dardanus was subsequently liberated from Abydene control, and the Treaty of Apamea of 188 BC returned Abydos to the Kingdom of Pergamon. A gymnasium was active at Abydos in the 2nd century BC. + +Roman period +Attalus III, King of Pergamon, bequeathed his kingdom to Rome upon his death in 133 BC, and thus Abydos became part of the province of Asia. The gold mines of Abydos at Astyra or Kremaste were near exhaustion at the time was Strabo was writing. The city was counted amongst the telonia (custom houses) of the province of Asia in the lex portorii Asiae of 62 AD, and formed part of the conventus iuridicus Adramytteum. Abydos is mentioned in the Tabula Peutingeriana and Antonine Itinerary. The mint of Abydos ceased to function in the mid-3rd century AD. + +It is believed that Abydos, with Sestos and Lampsacus, is referred to as one of the "three large capital cities" of the Roman Empire in Weilüe, a 3rd-century AD Chinese text. The city was the centre for customs collection at the southern entrance of the Sea of Marmara, and was administered by a komes ton Stenon (count of the Straits) or an archon from the 3rd century to the 5th century AD. In the 6th century AD, Emperor Justinian I introduced the office of komes Abydou with responsibility for collecting customs duty in Abydos. + +Medieval period + +Pope Martin I rested at Abydos in the summer of 653 whilst en route to Constantinople. As a result of the administrative reforms of the 7th century, Abydos came to be administered as part of the theme of Opsikion. The office of kommerkiarios of Abydos is first attested in the mid-7th century, and was later sometimes combined with the office of paraphylax, the military governor of the fort, introduced in the 8th century, at which time the office of komes ton stenon is last mentioned. + +After the 7th century AD, Abydos became a major seaport. Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik, during his campaign against Constantinople, crossed over into Thrace at Abydos in July 717. The office of archon at Abydos was restored in the late 8th century and endured until the early 9th century. In 801, Empress Irene reduced commercial tariffs collected at Abydos. Emperor Nikephoros I, Irene's successor, introduced a tax on slaves purchased beyond the city. The city later also became part of the theme of the Aegean Sea and was the seat of a tourmarches. + +Abydos was sacked by an Arab fleet led by Leo of Tripoli in 904 AD whilst en route to Constantinople. The revolt of Bardas Phokas was defeated by Emperor Basil II at Abydos in 989 AD. In 992, the Venetians were granted reduced commercial tariffs at Abydos as a special privilege. In the early 11th century, Abydos became the seat of a separate command and the office of strategos (governor) of Abydos is first mentioned in 1004 with authority over the northern shore of the Hellespont and the islands of the Sea of Marmara. + +In 1024, a Rus' raid led by a certain Chrysocheir defeated the local commander at Abydos and proceeded to travel south through the Hellespont. Following the Battle of Manzikert, Abydos was seized by the Seljuk Turks, but was recovered in 1086 AD, in which year Leo Kephalas was appointed katepano of Abydos. Abydos' population likely increased at this time as a result of the arrival of refugees from northwestern Anatolia who had fled the advance of the Turks. In 1092/1093, the city was attacked by Tzachas, a Turkish pirate. Emperor Manuel I Komnenos repaired Abydos' fortifications in the late 12th century. + +By the 13th century AD, the crossing from Lampsacus to Kallipolis had become more common and largely replaced the crossing from Abydos to Sestos. During the Fourth Crusade, in 1204, the Venetians seized Abydos, and, following the Sack of Constantinople and the formation of the Latin Empire later that year, Emperor Baldwin granted the land between Abydos and Adramyttium to his brother Henry of Flanders. Henry of Flanders passed through Abydos on 11 November 1204 and continued his march to Adramyttium. Abydos was seized by the Empire of Nicaea, a successor state of the Eastern Roman Empire, during its offensive in 1206–1207, but was reconquered by the Latin Empire in 1212–1213. The city was later recovered by Emperor John III Vatatzes. Abydos declined in the 13th century, and was eventually abandoned between 1304 and 1310/1318 due to the threat of Turkish tribes and disintegration of Roman control over the region. + +Ecclesiastical history + +The bishopric of Abydus appears in all the Notitiae Episcopatuum of the Patriarchate of Constantinople from the mid-7th century until the time of Andronikos III Palaiologos (1341), first as a suffragan of Cyzicus and then from 1084 as a metropolitan see without suffragans. The earliest bishop mentioned in extant documents is Marcian, who signed the joint letter of the bishops of Hellespontus to Emperor Leo I in 458, protesting about the murder of Proterius of Alexandria. A letter of Peter the Fuller (471–488) mentions a bishop of Abydus called Pamphilus. Ammonius signed the decretal letter of the Council of Constantinople in 518 against Severus of Antioch and others. Isidore was at the Third Council of Constantinople (680–681), John at the Trullan Council (692), Theodore at the Second Council of Nicaea (787). An unnamed bishop of Abydus was a counsellor of Emperor Nikephoros II in 969. + +Seals attest Theodosius as bishop of Abydos in the 11th century, and John as metropolitan bishop of Abydos in the 11/12th century. Abydos remained a metropolitan see until the city fell to the Turks in the 14th century. The diocese is currently a titular see of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, and Gerasimos Papadopoulos was titular Bishop of Abydos from 1962 until his death in 1995. Simeon Kruzhkov was bishop of Abydos from May to September 1998. Kyrillos Katerelos was consecrated bishop of Abydos in 2008. + +In 1222, during the Latin occupation, the papal legate Giovanni Colonna united the dioceses of Abydos and Madytos and placed the see under direct Papal authority. No longer a residential bishopric, Abydus is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see. + +See also + List of ancient Greek cities + +References +Notes + +Citations + +Bibliography + +External links + +Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey +Former populated places in Turkey +Greek colonies in Mysia +Milesian colonies +Members of the Delian League +Populated places established in the 7th century BC +Populated places of the Byzantine Empire +Roman towns and cities in Turkey +Populated places in ancient Mysia +History of Çanakkale Province + + +Events + +Pre-1600 + 636 – Arab–Byzantine wars: The Battle of Yarmouk between the Byzantine Empire and the Rashidun Caliphate begins. + 717 – Arab–Byzantine wars: Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik begins the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople, which will last for nearly a year. + 718 – Arab–Byzantine wars: Raising of the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople. +747 – Carloman, mayor of the palace of Austrasia, renounces his position as majordomo and retires to a monastery near Rome. His brother, Pepin the Short, becomes the sole ruler (de facto) of the Frankish Kingdom. + 778 – The Battle of Roncevaux Pass takes place between the army of Charlemagne and a Basque army. + 805 – Noble Erchana of Dahauua grants the Bavarian town of Dachau to the Diocese of Freising + 927 – The Saracens conquer and destroy Taranto. + 982 – Holy Roman Emperor Otto II is defeated by the Saracens in the Battle of Capo Colonna, in Calabria. +1018 – Byzantine general Eustathios Daphnomeles blinds and captures Ibatzes of Bulgaria by a ruse, thereby ending Bulgarian resistance against Emperor Basil II's conquest of Bulgaria. +1038 – King Stephen I, the first king of Hungary, dies; his nephew, Peter Orseolo, succeeds him. +1057 – King Macbeth is killed at the Battle of Lumphanan by the forces of Máel Coluim mac Donnchada. +1070 – The Pavian-born Benedictine Lanfranc is appointed as the new Archbishop of Canterbury in England. +1096 – Starting date of the First Crusade as set by Pope Urban II. +1185 – The cave city of Vardzia is consecrated by Queen Tamar of Georgia. +1224 – The Livonian Brothers of the Sword, a Catholic military order, occupy Tarbatu (today Tartu) as part of the Livonian Crusade. +1237 – Spanish Reconquista: The Battle of the Puig between the Moorish forces of Taifa of Valencia against the Kingdom of Aragon culminates in an Aragonese victory. +1248 – The foundation stone of Cologne Cathedral, built to house the relics of the Three Wise Men, is laid. (Construction is eventually completed in 1880.) +1261 – Michael VIII Palaiologos is crowned as the first Byzantine emperor in fifty-seven years. +1281 – Mongol invasion of Japan: The Mongolian fleet of Kublai Khan is destroyed by a "divine wind" for the second time in the Battle of Kōan. +1310 – The city of Rhodes surrenders to the forces of the Knights of St. John, completing their conquest of Rhodes. The knights establish their headquarters on the island and rename themselves the Knights of Rhodes. +1430 – Francesco Sforza, lord of Milan, conquers Lucca. +1461 – The Empire of Trebizond surrenders to the forces of Sultan Mehmed II. This is regarded by some historians as the real end of the Byzantine Empire. Emperor David is exiled and later murdered. +1483 – Pope Sixtus IV consecrates the Sistine Chapel. +1511 – Afonso de Albuquerque of Portugal conquers Malacca, the capital of the Malacca Sultanate. +1517 – Seven Portuguese armed vessels led by Fernão Pires de Andrade meet Chinese officials at the Pearl River estuary. +1519 – Panama City, Panama is founded. +1534 – Ignatius of Loyola and six classmates take initial vows, leading to the creation of the Society of Jesus in September 1540. +1537 – Asunción, Paraguay is founded. +1540 – Arequipa, Peru is founded. +1549 – Jesuit priest Francis Xavier comes ashore at Kagoshima (Traditional Japanese date: 22 July 1549). +1592 – Imjin War: At the Battle of Hansan Island, the Korean Navy, led by Yi Sun-sin, Yi Eok-gi, and Won Gyun, decisively defeats the Japanese Navy, led by Wakisaka Yasuharu. +1599 – Nine Years' War: Battle of Curlew Pass: Irish forces led by Hugh Roe O'Donnell successfully ambush English forces, led by Sir Conyers Clifford, sent to relieve Collooney Castle. + +1601–1900 +1695 – French forces end the bombardment of Brussels. +1760 – Seven Years' War: Battle of Liegnitz: Frederick the Great's victory over the Austrians under Ernst Gideon von Laudon. +1824 – The Marquis de Lafayette, the last surviving French general of the American Revolutionary War, arrives in New York and begins a tour of 24 states. +1843 – The Cathedral of Our Lady of Peace in Honolulu, Hawaii is dedicated. Now the cathedral of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu, it is the oldest Roman Catholic cathedral in continuous use in the United States. + 1843 – Tivoli Gardens, one of the oldest still intact amusement parks in the world, opens in Copenhagen, Denmark. +1863 – The Anglo-Satsuma War begins between the Satsuma Domain of Japan and the United Kingdom (Traditional Japanese date: July 2, 1863). +1893 – Ibadan area becomes a British Protectorate after a treaty signed by Fijabi, the Baale of Ibadan with the British acting Governor of Lagos, George C. Denton. +1899 – Fratton Park football ground in Portsmouth, England is officially first opened. + +1901–present +1907 – Ordination in Constantinople of Fr. Raphael Morgan, the first African-American Orthodox priest, "Priest-Apostolic" to America and the West Indies. +1914 – A servant of American architect, Frank Lloyd Wright, sets fire to the living quarters of Wright's Wisconsin home, Taliesin, and murders seven people there. + 1914 – The Panama Canal opens to traffic with the transit of the cargo ship . + 1914 – World War I: The First Russian Army, led by Paul von Rennenkampf, enters East Prussia. + 1914 – World War I: Beginning of the Battle of Cer, the first Allied victory of World War I. +1915 – A story in New York World newspaper reveals that the Imperial German government had purchased excess phenol from Thomas Edison that could be used to make explosives for the war effort and diverted it to Bayer for aspirin production. +1920 – Polish–Soviet War: Battle of Warsaw, so-called Miracle at the Vistula. +1935 – Will Rogers and Wiley Post are killed after their aircraft develops engine problems during takeoff in Barrow, Alaska. +1939 – Twenty-six Junkers Ju 87 bombers commanded by Walter Sigel meet unexpected ground fog during a dive-bombing demonstration for Luftwaffe generals at Neuhammer. Thirteen of them crash and burn. + 1939 – The Wizard of Oz premieres at Grauman's Chinese Theater in Los Angeles, California. +1940 – An Italian submarine torpedoes and sinks the at Tinos harbor during peacetime, marking the most serious Italian provocation prior to the outbreak of the Greco-Italian War in October. +1941 – Corporal Josef Jakobs is executed by firing squad at the Tower of London at 07:12, making him the last person to be executed at the Tower for espionage. +1942 – World War II: Operation Pedestal: The oil tanker reaches the island of Malta barely afloat carrying vital fuel supplies for the island's defenses. +1943 – World War II: Battle of Trahili: Superior German forces surround Cretan partisans, who manage to escape against all odds. +1944 – World War II: Operation Dragoon: Allied forces land in southern France. +1945 – Emperor Hirohito broadcasts his declaration of surrender following the effective surrender of Japan in World War II; Korea gains independence from the Empire of Japan. +1947 – India gains independence from British rule after near 190 years of British company and crown rule and joins the Commonwealth of Nations. + 1947 – Founder of Pakistan, Muhammad Ali Jinnah is sworn in as first Governor-General of Pakistan in Karachi. +1948 – The First Republic of Korea (South Korea) is established in the southern half of the peninsula. +1950 – Measuring 8.6, the largest earthquake on land occurs in the Assam-Tibet-Myanmar border, killing 4,800. +1952 – A flash flood drenches the town of Lynmouth, England, killing 34 people. +1954 – Alfredo Stroessner begins his dictatorship in Paraguay. +1959 – American Airlines Flight 514, a Boeing 707, crashes near the Calverton Executive Airpark in Calverton, New York, killing all five people on board. +1960 – Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville) becomes independent from France. +1961 – Border guard Conrad Schumann flees from East Germany while on duty guarding the construction of the Berlin Wall. +1962 – James Joseph Dresnok defects to North Korea after running across the Korean Demilitarized Zone. Dresnok died in 2016. +1963 – Execution of Henry John Burnett, the last man to be hanged in Scotland. + 1963 – President Fulbert Youlou is overthrown in the Republic of the Congo, after a three-day uprising in the capital. +1965 – The Beatles play to nearly 60,000 fans at Shea Stadium in New York City, an event later regarded as the birth of stadium rock. +1969 – The Woodstock Music & Art Fair opens in Bethel, New York, featuring some of the top rock musicians of the era. +1970 – Patricia Palinkas becomes the first woman to play professionally in an American football game. +1971 – President Richard Nixon completes the break from the gold standard by ending convertibility of the United States dollar into gold by foreign investors. + 1971 – Bahrain gains independence from the United Kingdom. +1973 – Vietnam War: The USAF bombing of Cambodia ends. +1974 – Yuk Young-soo, First Lady of South Korea, is killed during an apparent assassination attempt upon President Park Chung Hee. +1975 – Bangladeshi leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman is killed along with most members of his family during a military coup. + 1975 – Takeo Miki makes the first official pilgrimage to Yasukuni Shrine by an incumbent prime minister on the anniversary of the end of World War II. +1976 – SAETA Flight 232 crashes into the Chimborazo volcano in Ecuador, killing all 59 people on board; the wreckage is not discovered until 2002. +1977 – The Big Ear, a radio telescope operated by Ohio State University as part of the SETI project, receives a radio signal from deep space; the event is named the "Wow! signal" from the notation made by a volunteer on the project. +1984 – The Kurdistan Workers' Party in Turkey starts a campaign of armed attacks upon the Turkish Armed Forces with an attack on police and gendarmerie bases in Şemdinli and Eruh. +1985 – Signing of the Assam Accord, an agreement between representatives of the Government of India and the leaders of the Assam Movement to end the movement. +1989 – China Eastern Airlines Flight 5510 crashes after takeoff from Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport, killing 34 of the 40 people on board. +1995 – In South Carolina, Shannon Faulkner becomes the first female cadet matriculated at The Citadel (she drops out less than a week later). + 1995 – Tomiichi Murayama, Prime Minister of Japan, releases the Murayama Statement, which formally expresses remorse for Japanese war crimes committed during World War II. +1998 – Northern Ireland: Omagh bombing takes place; 29 people (including a woman pregnant with twins) killed and some 220 others injured. + 1998 – Apple introduces the iMac computer. +1999 – Beni Ounif massacre in Algeria: Some 29 people are killed at a false roadblock near the Moroccan border, leading to temporary tensions with Morocco. +2005 – Israel's unilateral disengagement plan to evict all Israelis from the Gaza Strip and from four settlements in the northern West Bank begins. + 2005 – The Helsinki Agreement between the Free Aceh Movement and the Government of Indonesia was signed, ending almost three decades of fighting. +2007 – An 8.0-magnitude earthquake off the Pacific coast devastates Ica and various regions of Peru killing 514 and injuring 1,090. +2013 – At least 27 people are killed and 226 injured in an explosion in southern Beirut near a complex used by Lebanon's militant group Hezbollah in Lebanon. A previously unknown Syrian Sunni group claims responsibility in an online video. + 2013 – The Smithsonian announces the discovery of the olinguito, the first new carnivorous species found in the Americas in 35 years. +2015 – North Korea moves its clock back half an hour to introduce Pyongyang Time, 8 hours ahead of UTC. +2020 – Russia begins production on the Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine. +2021 – Kabul falls into the hands of the Taliban as Ashraf Ghani flees Afghanistan along with local residents and foreign nationals, effectively reestablishing the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. + +Births + +Pre-1600 +1013 – Teishi, empress of Japan (d. 1094) +1171 – Alfonso IX, king of León and Galicia (d. 1230) +1195 – Anthony of Padua, Portuguese priest and saint (d. 1231) +1385 – Richard de Vere, 11th Earl of Oxford, English commander (d. 1417) +1432 – Luigi Pulci, Italian poet (d. 1484) +1455 – George, duke of Bavaria (d. 1503) +1507 – George III, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, German prince (d. 1553) +1575 – Bartol Kašić, Croatian linguist and lexicographer (d. 1650) +1589 – Gabriel Báthory, Prince of Transylvania (d. 1613) + +1601–1900 +1607 – Herman IV, landgrave of Hesse-Rotenburg (d. 1658) +1608 – Henry Howard, 22nd Earl of Arundel, English politician (d. 1652) +1613 – Gilles Ménage, French lawyer, philologist, and scholar (d. 1692) +1615 – Marie de Lorraine, duchess of Guise (d. 1688) +1652 – John Grubb, American politician (d. 1708) +1702 – Francesco Zuccarelli, Italian painter and Royal Academician (d. 1788) +1717 – Blind Jack, English engineer (d. 1810) +1736 – Johann Christoph Kellner, German organist and composer (d. 1803) +1740 – Matthias Claudius, German poet and author (d. 1815) +1769 – Napoleon Bonaparte, French general and emperor (d. 1821) +1771 – Walter Scott, Scottish novelist, playwright, and poet (d. 1832) +1785 – Thomas De Quincey, English journalist and author (d. 1859) +1787 – Eliza Lee Cabot Follen, American writer, editor, abolitionist (d. 1860) +1798 – Sangolli Rayanna, Indian warrior (d. 1831) +1807 – Jules Grévy, French lawyer and politician, 4th President of the French Republic (d. 1891) +1810 – Louise Colet, French poet (d. 1876) +1824 – John Chisum, American businessman (d. 1884) +1839 – Antonín Petrof, Czech piano maker (d. 1915) +1844 – Thomas-Alfred Bernier, Canadian journalist, lawyer, and politician (d. 1908) +1845 – Walter Crane, English artist and book illustrator (d. 1915) +1856 – Keir Hardie, Scottish politician and trade unionist (d. 1915) +1857 – Albert Ballin, German businessman (d. 1918) +1858 – E. Nesbit, English author and poet (d. 1924) +1859 – Charles Comiskey, American baseball player and manager (d. 1931) +1860 – Florence Harding, American publisher, 31st First Lady of the United States (d. 1924) +1863 – Aleksey Krylov, Russian mathematician and engineer (d. 1945) +1865 – Mikao Usui, Japanese spiritual leader, founded Reiki (d. 1926) +1866 – Italo Santelli, Italian fencer (d. 1945) +1872 – Sri Aurobindo, Indian guru, poet, and philosopher (d. 1950) +1873 – Ramaprasad Chanda, Indian archaeologist and historian (d. 1942) +1875 – Samuel Coleridge-Taylor, English pianist, violinist, and composer (d. 1912) +1876 – Stylianos Gonatas, Greek colonel and politician, 111th Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1966) +1877 – Tachiyama Mineemon, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 22nd Yokozuna (d. 1941) +1879 – Ethel Barrymore, American actress (d. 1959) +1881 – Alfred Wagenknecht, German-American activist and politician (d. 1956) +1882 – Marion Bauer, American composer and critic (d. 1955) + 1882 – Gisela Richter, English archaeologist and art historian (d. 1972) +1883 – Ivan Meštrović, Croatian sculptor and architect (d. 1962) +1885 – Edna Ferber, American novelist, short story writer, and playwright (d. 1968) +1886 – Bill Whitty, Australian cricketer (d. 1974) +1890 – Jacques Ibert, French composer and educator (d. 1962) +1892 – Louis de Broglie, French physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1987) + 1892 – Abraham Wachner, New Zealand politician, 35th Mayor of Invercargill (d. 1950) +1893 – Leslie Comrie, New Zealand astronomer and academic (d. 1950) +1896 – Gerty Cori, Czech-American biochemist and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1957) + 1896 – Catherine Doherty, Russian-Canadian activist, founded the Madonna House Apostolate (d. 1985) + 1896 – Paul Outerbridge, American photographer and educator (d. 1958) +1898 – Jan Brzechwa, Polish author and poet (d. 1966) +1900 – Estelle Brody, American silent film actress (d. 1995) + 1900 – Jack Tworkov, Polish-American painter and educator (d. 1982) + +1901–present +1901 – Arnulfo Arias Madrid, 21st president of the republic of Panamá (d. 1988) + 1901 – Pyotr Novikov, Russian mathematician and theorist (d. 1975) +1902 – Jan Campert, Dutch journalist and critic (d. 1943) +1904 – George Klein, Canadian inventor, invented the motorized wheelchair (d. 1992) +1909 – Hugo Winterhalter, American composer and bandleader (d. 1973) +1912 – Julia Child, American chef and author (d. 2004) + 1912 – Wendy Hiller, English actress (d. 2003) +1914 – Paul Rand, American graphic designer and art director (d. 1996) +1915 – Signe Hasso, Swedish-American actress (d. 2002) +1916 – Aleks Çaçi, Albanian journalist and author (d. 1989) +1917 – Jack Lynch, Irish footballer and politician, 5th Taoiseach of Ireland (d. 1999) + 1917 – Óscar Romero, Salvadoran archbishop (d. 1980) +1919 – Huntz Hall, American actor (d. 1999) + 1919 – Benedict Kiely, Irish journalist and author (d. 2007) +1920 – Judy Cassab, Austrian-Australian painter (d. 2008) +1921 – August Kowalczyk, Polish actor and director (d. 2012) +1922 – Leonard Baskin, American sculptor and illustrator (d. 2000) + 1922 – Giorgos Mouzakis, Greek trumpet player and composer (d. 2005) + 1922 – Sabino Barinaga, Spanish footballer and manager (d. 1988) +1923 – Rose Marie, American actress and singer (d. 2017) +1924 – Robert Bolt, English playwright and screenwriter (d. 1995) + 1924 – Hedy Epstein, German-American Holocaust survivor and activist (d. 2016) + 1924 – Yoshirō Muraki, Japanese production designer, art director, and fashion designer (d. 2009) + 1924 – Phyllis Schlafly, American lawyer, writer, and political activist (d. 2016) +1925 – Mike Connors, American actor and producer (d. 2017) + 1925 – Rose Maddox, American singer-songwriter and fiddle player (d. 1998) + 1925 – Oscar Peterson, Canadian pianist and composer (d. 2007) + 1925 – Bill Pinkney, American singer (d. 2007) + 1925 – Erik Schmidt, Swedish-Estonian painter and author (d. 2014) +1926 – Julius Katchen, American pianist and composer (d. 1969) + 1926 – Eddie Little Sky, American actor (d. 1997) + 1926 – Sami Michael, Iraqi-Israeli author and playwright + 1926 – John Silber, American philosopher and academic (d. 2012) + 1926 – Konstantinos Stephanopoulos, Greek lawyer and politician, 6th President of Greece (d. 2016) +1927 – Eddie Leadbeater, English cricketer (d. 2011) + 1927 – Oliver Popplewell, English cricketer and judge +1928 – Carl Joachim Classen, German scholar and academic (d. 2013) + 1928 – Malcolm Glazer, American businessman (d. 2014) + 1928 – Nicolas Roeg, English director and cinematographer (d. 2018) +1931 – Ernest C. Brace, American captain and pilot (d. 2014) + 1931 – Richard F. Heck, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2015) +1932 – Abby Dalton, American actress (d. 2020) + 1932 – Robert L. Forward, American physicist and engineer (d. 2002) + 1932 – Jim Lange, American game show host and DJ (d. 2014) + 1932 – Johan Steyn, Baron Steyn, South African-English lawyer and judge (d. 2017) +1933 – Bobby Helms, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1997) + 1933 – Stanley Milgram, American social psychologist (d. 1984) + 1933 – Mike Seeger, American folk musician and folklorist (d. 2009) +1934 – Bobby Byrd, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2007) + 1934 – Reginald Scarlett, Jamaican cricketer and coach (d. 2019) + 1934 – Valentin Varlamov, Soviet pilot and cosmonaut instructor (d. 1980) +1935 – Jim Dale, English actor, narrator, singer, director, and composer + 1935 – Régine Deforges, French author, playwright, and director (d. 2014) +1936 – Pat Priest, American actress + 1936 – Rita Shane, American soprano and educator (d. 2014) +1938 – Stephen Breyer, American lawyer and jurist, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States + 1938 – Stix Hooper, American jazz drummer + 1938 – Pran Kumar Sharma, Indian cartoonist (d. 2014) + 1938 – Maxine Waters, American educator and politician + 1938 – Janusz Zajdel, Polish engineer and author (d. 1985) +1940 – Gudrun Ensslin, German militant leader, founded Red Army Faction (d. 1977) +1941 – Jim Brothers, American sculptor (d. 2013) + 1941 – Don Rich, American country musician (d. 1974) +1942 – Pete York, English rock drummer +1943 – Eileen Bell, Northern Irish civil servant and politician, 2nd Speaker of the Northern Ireland Assembly +1944 – Dimitris Sioufas, Greek lawyer and politician, Greek Minister of Health (d. 2019) +1945 – Khaleda Zia, Bangladeshi politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh +1946 – Jimmy Webb, American singer-songwriter and pianist +1947 – Rakhee Gulzar, Indian film actress +1948 – Patsy Gallant, Canadian singer-songwriter and actress + 1948 – Tom Johnston, American singer-songwriter and guitarist +1949 – Phyllis Smith, American actress +1950 – Tommy Aldridge, American drummer + 1950 – Tess Harper, American actress + 1950 – Tom Kelly, American baseball player + 1950 – Anne, Princess Royal of the United Kingdom +1951 – Ann Biderman, American screenwriter and producer + 1951 – Bobby Caldwell, American singer-songwriter (d. 2023) + 1951 – John Childs, English cricketer +1952 – Chuck Burgi, American drummer +1953 – Carol Thatcher, English journalist and author + 1953 – Mark Thatcher, English businessman + 1953 – Wolfgang Hohlbein, German author +1954 – Stieg Larsson, Swedish journalist and author (d. 2004) +1956 – Lorraine Desmarais, Canadian pianist and composer + 1956 – Freedom Neruda, Ivorian journalist + 1956 – Robert Syms, English businessman and politician +1957 – Željko Ivanek, Slovenian-American actor +1958 – Simon Baron-Cohen, English-Canadian psychiatrist and author + 1958 – Craig MacTavish, Canadian ice hockey player and coach + 1958 – Simple Kapadia, Indian actress and costume designer (d. 2009) + 1958 – Victor Shenderovich, Russian journalist and radio host + 1958 – Rondell Sheridan, American actor and comedian +1959 – Scott Altman, American captain, pilot, and astronaut +1961 – Ed Gillespie, American political strategist + 1961 – Matt Johnson, English singer-songwriter and musician + 1961 – Gary Kubiak, American football player and coach + 1961 – Suhasini Maniratnam, Indian actress and screenwriter +1962 – Tom Colicchio, American chef and author + 1962 – Rıdvan Dilmen, Turkish footballer and manager + 1962 – Inês Pedrosa, Portuguese writer + 1962 – Vilja Savisaar-Toomast, Estonian lawyer and politician +1963 – Alejandro González Iñárritu, Mexican director, producer, and screenwriter + 1963 – Simon Hart, Welsh soldier and politician + 1963 – Jack Russell, England cricketer and coach +1964 – Jane Ellison, English lawyer and politician + 1964 – Melinda Gates, American businesswoman and philanthropist, co-founded the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation +1965 – Rob Thomas, American author, screenwriter, and producer +1966 – Scott Brosius, American baseball player and coach + 1966 – Dimitris Papadopoulos, Greek basketball player and coach +1967 – Tony Hand, Scottish ice hockey player and coach + 1967 – Peter Hermann, American actor +1968 – Debra Messing, American actress +1969 – Bernard Fanning, Australian singer-songwriter + 1969 – Carlos Roa, Argentine footballer +1970 – Anthony Anderson, American comedian, actor, and producer + 1970 – Ben Silverman, American actor, producer, and screenwriter, founded Electus Studios +1971 – Adnan Sami, Indian singer, musician, music composer, pianist and actor +1972 – Ben Affleck, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter + 1972 – Jennifer Alexander, Canadian ballerina (d. 2007) + 1972 – Mikey Graham, Irish singer +1974 – Natasha Henstridge, Canadian model and actress + 1974 – Tomasz Suwary, Polish footballer +1975 – Bertrand Berry, American football player and radio host + 1975 – Vijay Bharadwaj, Indian cricketer and coach + 1975 – Brendan Morrison, Canadian ice hockey player + 1975 – Kara Wolters, American basketball player +1976 – Boudewijn Zenden, Dutch footballer and manager +1977 – Martin Biron, Canadian ice hockey player + 1977 – Anthony Rocca, Australian footballer and coach +1978 – Waleed Aly, Australian journalist and television host + 1978 – Lilia Podkopayeva, Ukrainian gymnast + 1978 – Stavros Tziortziopoulos, Greek footballer + 1978 – Kerri Walsh Jennings, American volleyball player +1979 – Carl Edwards, American race car driver +1980 – Fiann Paul, Icelandic explorer +1981 – Brendan Hansen, American swimmer + 1981 – Óliver Pérez, American baseball player +1982 – Casey Burgener, American weightlifter + 1982 – Germán Caffa, Argentine footballer + 1982 – David Harrison, American basketball player +1983 – Siobhan Chamberlain, English association football goalkeeper +1984 – Jarrod Dyson, American baseball player + 1984 – Emily Kinney, American actress and singer-songwriter +1985 – Nipsey Hussle, American rapper (d. 2019) + 1985 – Emily Kinney, American actress, singer, and songwriter +1987 – Ryan D'Imperio, American football player + 1987 – Michel Kreder, Dutch cyclist + 1987 – Sean McAllister, English footballer +1988 – Oussama Assaidi, Moroccan footballer +1989 – Joe Jonas, American singer-songwriter + 1989 – Ryan McGowan, Australian footballer + 1989 – Carlos PenaVega, American actor and singer + 1989 – Jordan Rapana, New Zealand rugby league player +1990 – Jennifer Lawrence, American actress +1991 – Petja Piiroinen, Finnish snowboarder +1992 – Baskaran Adhiban, Indian chess player + 1992 – Matthew Judon, American football player +1993 – Rieah Holder, Barbadian netball player + 1993 – Clinton N'Jie, Cameroonian footballer + 1993 – Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain, English footballer +1994 – Lasse Vigen Christensen, Danish footballer + 1994 – Kosuke Hagino, Japanese swimmer +1995 – Chief Keef, American rapper +1999 – Paola Reis, BMX rider + +Deaths + +Pre-1600 + 398 – Lan Han, official of the Xianbei state Later Yan + 423 – Honorius, Roman emperor (b. 384) + 465 – Libius Severus, Roman emperor (b. 420) + 698 – Theodotus of Amida, Syrian Orthodox holy man +767 – Abu Hanifa, Iraqi scholar and educator (b. 699) + 778 – Roland, Frankish military leader + 873 – Yi Zong, Chinese emperor (b. 833) + 874 – Altfrid, bishop of Hildesheim + 912 – Han Jian, Chinese warlord (b. 855) + 932 – Ma Xisheng, Chinese governor and king (b. 899) + 978 – Li Yu, ruler ('king') of Southern Tang + 986 – Minnborinus, Irish missionary and abbot +1022 – Nikephoros Phokas Barytrachelos, Byzantine rebel +1038 – Stephen I, Hungarian king (b. 975) +1057 – Macbeth, King of Scotland +1118 – Alexios I Komnenos, Byzantine emperor (b. 1048) +1196 – Conrad II, Duke of Swabia (b. 1173) +1224 – Marie of France, Duchess of Brabant (b. 1198) +1257 – Saint Hyacinth of Poland +1274 – Robert de Sorbon, French theologian and educator, founded the College of Sorbonne (b. 1201) +1275 – Lorenzo Tiepolo, Doge of Venice +1328 – Yesün 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(a public holiday in Austria, Belgium, Benin, Bosnia, Burundi, Cameroon, Chile, Colombia, Croatia, Cyprus, France, some states in Germany, Greece, Guatemala, Italy, Ivory Coast, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Madagascar, Malta, Mauritius, Paraguay, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Senegal, Seychelles, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, Togo, and Vanuatu); and its related observances: + Feast of the Dormition of the Theotokos (Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches) + Ferragosto (Italy) + Lady's Day (Ireland) + Māras (Latvia) + Mother's Day (Antwerp and Costa Rica) + National Acadian Day (Acadians) +Navy Day (Romania) + Virgin of Candelaria, patron of the Canary Islands. (Tenerife, Spain) +San La Muerte (Paraguayan Folk Catholicism) +Santa Muerte (Mexican Folk Catholicism) + Tarcisius + August 15 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) + Constitution Day (Equatorial Guinea) + Founding of Asunción (Paraguay) + Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Korea from Japan in 1945: + Gwangbokjeol, "Independence Day" (South Korea) + Jogukhaebangui nal, "Fatherland Liberation Day" (North Korea) + Independence Day, celebrates the independence of India from the United Kingdom in 1947. + Independence Day, celebrates the independence of the Republic of the Congo from France in 1960. + National Day (Liechtenstein) + National Day of Mourning (Bangladesh) + The first day of Flooding of the Nile, or Wafaa El-Nil (Egypt and Coptic Church) + The main day of Bon Festival (Japan), and its related observances: + Awa Dance Festival (Tokushima Prefecture) + Victory over Japan Day (United Kingdom), and its related observances: + End-of-war Memorial Day, when the National Memorial Service for War Dead is held (Japan) + +References + +External links + + + + + +Days of the year +August +Acacia s.l. (pronounced or ), known commonly as mimosa, acacia, thorntree or wattle, babul [India/hindi] is a polyphyletic genus of shrubs and trees belonging to the subfamily Mimosoideae of the family Fabaceae. It was described by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in 1773 based on the African species Acacia nilotica. Many non-Australian species tend to be thorny, whereas the majority of Australian acacias are not. All species are pod-bearing, with sap and leaves often bearing large amounts of tannins and condensed tannins that historically found use as pharmaceuticals and preservatives. + +The genus Acacia constitutes, in its traditional circumspection, the second largest genus in Fabaceae (Astragalus being the largest), with roughly 1,300 species, about 960 of them native to Australia, with the remainder spread around the tropical to warm-temperate regions of both hemispheres, including Europe, Africa, southern Asia, and the Americas (see List of Acacia species). The genus was divided into five separate genera under the tribe "Acacieae". The genus now called Acacia represents the majority of the Australian species and a few native to southeast Asia, Réunion, and Pacific Islands. Most of the species outside Australia, and a small number of Australian species, are classified into Vachellia and Senegalia. The two final genera, Acaciella and Mariosousa, each contain about a dozen species from the Americas (but see "Classification" below for the ongoing debate concerning their taxonomy). + +Classification + +English botanist and gardener Philip Miller adopted the name Acacia in 1754. The generic name is derived from (), the name given by early Greek botanist-physician Pedanius Dioscorides (middle to late first century) to the medicinal tree A. nilotica in his book Materia Medica. This name derives from the Ancient Greek word for its characteristic thorns, (; "thorn"). The species name nilotica was given by Linnaeus from this tree's best-known range along the Nile river. This became the type species of the genus. + +The traditional circumscription of Acacia eventually contained approximately 1,300 species. However, evidence began to accumulate that the genus as described was not monophyletic. Queensland botanist Les Pedley proposed the subgenus Phyllodineae be renamed Racosperma and published the binomial names. This was taken up in New Zealand but generally not followed in Australia, where botanists declared more study was needed. + +Eventually, consensus emerged that Acacia needed to be split as it was not monophyletic. This led to Australian botanists Bruce Maslin and Tony Orchard pushing for the retypification of the genus with an Australian species instead of the original African type species, an exception to traditional rules of priority that required ratification by the International Botanical Congress. That decision has been controversial, and debate continued, with some taxonomists (and many other biologists) deciding to continue to use the traditional Acacia sensu lato circumscription of the genus, in defiance of decisions by an International Botanical Congress. However, a second International Botanical Congress has now confirmed the decision to apply the name Acacia to the mostly Australian plants, which some had been calling Racosperma, and which had formed the overwhelming majority of Acacia sensu lato. Debate continues regarding the traditional acacias of Africa, possibly placed in Senegalia and Vachellia, and some of the American species, possibly placed in Acaciella and Mariosousa. + +Acacias belong to the subfamily Mimosoideae, the major clades of which may have formed in response to drying trends and fire regimes that accompanied increased seasonality during the late Oligocene to early Miocene (~25 mya). Pedley (1978), following Vassal (1972), viewed Acacia as comprising three large subgenera, but subsequently (1986) raised the rank of these groups to genera Acacia, Senegalia (s.l.) and Racosperma, which was underpinned by later genetic studies. + +In common parlance, the term "acacia" is occasionally applied to species of the genus Robinia, which also belongs in the pea family. Robinia pseudoacacia, an American species locally known as black locust, is sometimes called "false acacia" in cultivation in the United Kingdom and throughout Europe. + +Description + +The leaves of acacias are compound pinnate in general. In some species, however, more especially in the Australian and Pacific Islands species, the leaflets are suppressed, and the leaf-stalks (petioles) become vertically flattened in order to serve the purpose of leaves. These are known as "phyllodes". The vertical orientation of the phyllodes protects them from intense sunlight since with their edges towards the sky and earth they do not intercept light as fully as horizontally placed leaves. A few species (such as Acacia glaucoptera) lack leaves or phyllodes altogether but instead possess cladodes, modified leaf-like photosynthetic stems functioning as leaves. + +The small flowers have five very small petals, almost hidden by the long stamens, and are arranged in dense, globular or cylindrical clusters; they are yellow or cream-colored in most species, whitish in some, or even purple (Acacia purpureopetala) or red (Acacia leprosa 'Scarlet Blaze'). Acacia flowers can be distinguished from those of a large related genus, Albizia, by their stamens, which are not joined at the base. Also, unlike individual Mimosa flowers, those of Acacia have more than ten stamens. + +The plants often bear spines, especially those species growing in arid regions. These sometimes represent branches that have become short, hard, and pungent, though they sometimes represent leaf-stipules. Acacia armata is the kangaroo-thorn of Australia, and Acacia erioloba (syn. Acacia eriolobata) is the camelthorn of Africa. + +Acacia seeds can be difficult to germinate. Research has found that immersing the seeds in various temperatures (usually around 80 °C (176 °F)) and manual seed coat chipping can improve growth to around 80%. + +Symbiosis + +In the Central American bullthorn acacias—Acacia sphaerocephala, Acacia cornigera and Acacia collinsii — some of the spiny stipules are large, swollen and hollow. These afford shelter for several species of Pseudomyrmex ants, which feed on extrafloral nectaries on the leaf-stalk and small lipid-rich food-bodies at the tips of the leaflets called Beltian bodies. In return, the ants add protection to the plant against herbivores. Some species of ants will also remove competing plants around the acacia, cutting off the offending plants' leaves with their jaws and ultimately killing them. Other associated ant species appear to do nothing to benefit their hosts. + +Similar mutualisms with ants occur on Acacia trees in Africa, such as the whistling thorn acacia. The acacias provide shelter for ants in similar swollen stipules and nectar in extrafloral nectaries for their symbiotic ants, such as Crematogaster mimosae. In turn, the ants protect the plant by attacking large mammalian herbivores and stem-boring beetles that damage the plant. + +The predominantly herbivorous spider Bagheera kiplingi, which is found in Central America and Mexico, feeds on nubs at the tips of the acacia leaves, known as Beltian bodies, which contain high concentrations of protein. These nubs are produced by the acacia as part of a symbiotic relationship with certain species of ant, which also eat them. + +Pests +In Australia, Acacia species are sometimes used as food plants by the larvae of hepialid moths of the genus Aenetus including A. ligniveren. These burrow horizontally into the trunk then vertically down. Other Lepidoptera larvae which have been recorded feeding on Acacia include brown-tail, Endoclita malabaricus and turnip moth. The leaf-mining larvae of some bucculatricid moths also feed on Acacia; Bucculatrix agilis feeds exclusively on Acacia horrida and Bucculatrix flexuosa feeds exclusively on Acacia nilotica. + +Acacias contain a number of organic compounds that defend them from pests and grazing animals. + +Uses + +Use as human food + +Acacia seeds are often used for food and a variety of other products. + +In Myanmar, Laos, and Thailand, the feathery shoots of Acacia pennata (common name cha-om, ชะอม and su pout ywet in Burmese) are used in soups, curries, omelettes, and stir-fries. + +Gum +Various species of acacia yield gum. True gum arabic is the product of Acacia senegal, abundant in dry tropical West Africa from Senegal to northern Nigeria. + +Acacia nilotica (syn. Acacia arabica) is the gum arabic tree of India, but yields a gum inferior to the true gum arabic. Gum arabic is used in a wide variety of food products, including some soft drinks and confections. + +The ancient Egyptians used acacia gum in paints. + +The gum of Acacia xanthophloea and Acacia karroo has a high sugar content and is sought out by the lesser bushbaby. Acacia karroo gum was once used for making confectionery and traded under the name "Cape Gum". It was also used medicinally to treat cattle suffering poisoning by Moraea species. + +Uses in folk medicine +Acacia species have possible uses in folk medicine. A 19th-century Ethiopian medical text describes a potion made from an Ethiopian species (known as grar) mixed with the root of the tacha, then boiled, as a cure for rabies. + +An astringent medicine high in tannins, called catechu or cutch, is procured from several species, but more especially from Senegalia catechu (syn. Acacia catechu), by boiling down the wood and evaporating the solution so as to get an extract. The catechu extract from A. catechu figures in the history of chemistry in giving its name to the catechin, catechol, and catecholamine chemical families ultimately derived from it. + +Ornamental uses +A few species are widely grown as ornamentals in gardens; the most popular perhaps is A. dealbata (silver wattle), with its attractive glaucous to silvery leaves and bright yellow flowers; it is erroneously known as "mimosa" in some areas where it is cultivated, through confusion with the related genus Mimosa. + +Another ornamental acacia is the fever tree. Southern European florists use A. baileyana, A. dealbata, A. pycnantha and A. retinodes as cut flowers and the common name there for them is mimosa. + +Ornamental species of acacias are also used by homeowners and landscape architects for home security. The sharp thorns of some species are a deterrent to trespassing, and may prevent break-ins if planted under windows and near drainpipes. The aesthetic characteristics of acacia plants, in conjunction with their home security qualities, makes them a reasonable alternative to constructed fences and walls. + +Perfume + +Acacia farnesiana is used in the perfume industry due to its strong fragrance. The use of acacia as a fragrance dates back centuries. + +Symbolism and ritual + +Egyptian mythology has associated the acacia tree with characteristics of the tree of life, such as in the Myth of Osiris and Isis. + +Several parts (mainly bark, root, and resin) of Acacia species are used to make incense for rituals. Acacia is used in incense mainly in India, Nepal, and China including in its Tibet region. Smoke from acacia bark is thought to keep demons and ghosts away and to put the gods in a good mood. Roots and resin from acacia are combined with rhododendron, acorus, cytisus, salvia, and some other components of incense. Both people and elephants like an alcoholic beverage made from acacia fruit. +According to Easton's Bible Dictionary, the acacia tree may be the "burning bush" (Exodus 3:2) which Moses encountered in the desert. Also, when God gave Moses the instructions for building the Tabernacle, he said to "make an ark" and "a table of acacia wood" (Exodus 25:10 & 23, Revised Standard Version). Also, in the Christian tradition, Christ's crown of thorns is thought to have been woven from acacia. + +Acacia was used for Zulu warriors' iziQu (or isiKu) beads, which passed on through Robert Baden-Powell to the Scout movement's Wood Badge training award. + +In Russia, Italy, and other countries, it is customary to present women with yellow mimosas (among other flowers) on International Women's Day (March 8). These "mimosas" may be from A. dealbata (silver wattle). + +In 1918, May Gibbs, the popular Australian children's author, wrote the book 'Wattle Babies', in which a third-person narrator describes the lives of imaginary inhabitants of the Australian forests (the 'bush'). The main characters are the Wattle Babies, who are tiny people that look like acacia flowers and who interact with various forest creatures. Gibbs wrote "Wattle Babies are the sunshine of the Bush. In Winter, when the sky is grey and all the world seems cold, they put on their yellowest clothes and come out, for they have such cheerful hearts." Gibbs was referring to the fact that an abundance of acacias flower in August in Australia, in the midst of the southern hemisphere winter. + +Tannin +The bark of various Australian species, known as wattles, is very rich in tannin and forms an important article of export; important species include A. pycnantha (golden wattle), A. decurrens (tan wattle), A. dealbata (silver wattle) and A. mearnsii (black wattle). + +Black wattle is grown in plantations in South Africa and South America. The pods of A. nilotica (under the name of neb-neb), and of other African species, are also rich in tannin and used by tanners. In Yemen, the principal tannin substance was derived from the leaves of the salam-tree (Acacia etbaica), a tree known locally by the name qaraẓ (garadh). A bath solution of the crushed leaves of this tree, into which raw leather had been inserted for prolonged soaking, would take only 15 days for curing. The water and leaves, however, required changing after seven or eight days, and the leather needed to be turned over daily. + +Wood + +Some Acacia species are valuable as timber, such as A. melanoxylon (blackwood) from Australia, which attains a great size; its wood is used for furniture, and takes a high polish; and A. omalophylla (myall wood, also Australian), which yields a fragrant timber used for ornaments. A. seyal is thought to be the shittah-tree of the Bible, which supplied shittim-wood. According to the Book of Exodus, this was used in the construction of the Ark of the Covenant. A. koa from the Hawaiian Islands and A. heterophylla from Réunion are both excellent timber trees. Depending on abundance and regional culture, some Acacia species (e.g. A. fumosa) are traditionally used locally as firewoods. It is also used to make homes for different animals. + +Pulpwood +In Indonesia (mainly in Sumatra) and in Malaysia (mainly in Sabah), plantations of A. mangium are being established to supply pulpwood to the paper industry. + +Acacia wood pulp gives high opacity and below average bulk paper. This is suitable in lightweight offset papers used for Bibles and dictionaries. It is also used in paper tissue where it improves softness. + +Land reclamation +Acacias can be planted for erosion control, especially after mining or construction damage. + +Ecological invasion +For the same reasons it is favored as an erosion-control plant, with its easy spreading and resilience, some varieties of acacia are potentially invasive species. At least fourteen Acacia species introduced to South Africa are categorized as invasive, due to their naturally aggressive propagation. One of the most globally significant invasive acacias is black wattle A. mearnsii, which is taking over grasslands and abandoned agricultural areas worldwide, especially in moderate coastal and island regions where mild climate promotes its spread. Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment gives it a "high risk, score of 15" rating and it is considered one of the world's 100 most invasive species. +Extensive ecological studies should be performed before further introduction of acacia varieties, as this fast-growing genus, once introduced, spreads quickly and is extremely difficult to eradicate. + +Phytochemistry + +Cyanogenic glycosides +Nineteen different species of Acacia in the Americas contain cyanogenic glycosides, which, if exposed to an enzyme which specifically splits glycosides, can release hydrogen cyanide (HCN) in the "leaves". This sometimes results in the poisoning death of livestock. + +If fresh plant material spontaneously produces 200 ppm or more HCN, then it is potentially toxic. This corresponds to about 7.5 μmol HCN per gram of fresh plant material. It turns out that, if acacia "leaves" lack the specific glycoside-splitting enzyme, then they may be less toxic than otherwise, even those containing significant quantities of cyanic glycosides. + +Some Acacia species containing cyanogens include Acacia erioloba, A. cunninghamii, A. obtusifolia, A. sieberiana, and A. sieberiana var. woodii + +Famous acacias +The Arbre du Ténéré in Niger was the most isolated tree in the world, about from any other tree. The tree was knocked down by a truck driver in 1973. + +In Nairobi, Kenya, the Thorn Tree Café is named after a Naivasha thorn tree (Acacia xanthophloea) in its centre. Travelers used to pin notes to others to the thorns of the tree. The current tree is the third of the same variety. + +References + +Further reading + + + + Shulgin, Alexander and Ann, TiHKAL the Continuation. Transform Press, 1997. + +External links + + World Wide Wattle + Acacia-world + Wayne's Word on "The Unforgettable Acacias" + The genus Acacia and Entheogenic Tryptamines, with reference to Australian and related species, by mulga + A description of Acacia from Pomet's 1709 reference book, History of Druggs + Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases + Flora identification tools from the State Herbarium of South Australia + Tannins in Some Interrelated Wattles + List of Acacia Species in the U.S. + FAO Timber Properties of Various Acacia Species + FAO Comparison of Various Acacia Species as Forage + Vet. Path. ResultsAFIP Wednesday Slide Conference – No. 21 February 24, 1999 + Acacia cyanophylla lindl as supplementary feed/for small stock in Libya + Description of Acacia Morphology + + Nitrogen Fixation in Acacias + Acacias with Cyagenic Compounds + Acacia Alarm System + + +Excipients +Medicinal plants +Medicinal plants of Australia +Acapulco de Juárez (), commonly called Acapulco ( , ; ), is a city and major seaport in the state of Guerrero on the Pacific Coast of Mexico, south of Mexico City. Acapulco is located on a deep, semicircular bay and has been a port since the early colonial period of Mexico's history. It is a port of call for shipping and cruise lines running between Panama and San Francisco, California, United States. The city of Acapulco is the largest in the state, far larger than the state capital Chilpancingo. Acapulco is also Mexico's largest beach and balneario resort city. Acapulco de Juárez is the municipal seat of the municipality of Acapulco. + +The city is one of Mexico's oldest beach resorts, coming into prominence in the 1940s through the 1960s as a getaway for Hollywood stars and millionaires. Acapulco was once a popular tourist resort, but due to a massive upsurge in gang violence and homicide numbers since 2014, Acapulco no longer attracts many foreign tourists, and most now only come from Mexico itself. It is both the ninth deadliest city in Mexico and the tenth-deadliest city in the world as of 2022; the US government has warned its citizens not to travel there. In 2016 there were 918 murders, and the homicide rate was one of the highest in the world: 103 in every 100,000. In September 2018 the city's entire police force was disarmed by the military, due to suspicions that it has been infiltrated by drug gangs. + +The resort area is divided into three parts: the north end of the bay and beyond is the "traditional" area, which encompasses the area from Parque Papagayo through the and onto the beaches of Caleta and Caletilla, the main part of the bay known as "" ('golden zone' in Spanish), where the famous in the mid-20th century vacationed, and the south end, "" ('diamond' in Spanish), which is dominated by newer luxury high-rise hotels and condominiums. + +The name "Acapulco" comes from Nahuatl language Aca-pōl-co, and means "where the reeds were destroyed or washed away" or "at the big reeds", which inspired the city's seal, which is an Aztec-type glyph showing two hands breaking reeds. + +The "de Juárez" was added to the official name in 1885 to honor Benito Juárez, former president of Mexico (1806–1872). The island and municipality of Capul, in the Philippines, derives its name from Acapulco. Acapulco was the eastern end of the trans-Pacific sailing route from Acapulco to Manila, in what was then a Spanish colony. + +History + +Pre-Columbian + +By the 8th century around the Acapulco Bay area, there was a small culture which would first be dominated by the Olmecs, then by a number of others during the pre-Hispanic period before it ended in the 1520s. At Acapulco Bay itself, there were two Olmec sites, one by Playa Larga and the other on a hill known as El Guitarrón. Olmec influence caused the small spread-out villages here to coalesce into larger entities and build ceremonial centers. + +Later, Teotihuacan influence came to the area via Cuernavaca and Chilpancingo. Then Mayan influence arrived from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and through what is now Oaxaca. This history is known through the archaeological artifacts that have been found here, especially at Playa Hornos, Pie de la Cuesta, and Tambuco. + +In the 11th century, new waves of migration of Nahuas and Coixas came through here. These people were the antecedents of the Aztecs. In the later 15th century, after four years of military struggle, Acapulco became part of the Aztec Empire during the reign of Ahuizotl (1486–1502). It was annexed to a tributary province named Tepecuacuilco. However, this was only transitory, as the Aztecs could only establish an unorganized military post at the city's outskirts. The city was in territory under control of the Yopes, who continued defending it and living there until the arrival of the Spanish in the 1520s. + +16th century + +There are two stories about how Acapulco bay was discovered by Europeans. The first states that two years after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, Hernán Cortés sent explorers west to find gold. The explorers had subdued this area after 1523, and Captain Saavedra Cerón was authorized by Cortés to found a settlement here. The other states that the bay was discovered on December 13, 1526, by a small ship named the El Tepache Santiago captained by Santiago Guevara. + +The first encomendero was established in 1525 at Cacahuatepec, which is still part of the modern Acapulco municipality. In 1531, a number of Spaniards, most notably Juan Rodriguez de Villafuerte, left the Oaxaca coast and founded the village of Villafuerte where the city of Acapulco now stands. Villafuerte was unable to subdue the local native peoples, and this eventually resulted in the Yopa Rebellion in the region of Cuautepec. Hernán Cortés was obligated to send Vasco Porcayo to negotiate with the indigenous people giving concessions. The province of Acapulco became the encomendero of Rodriguez de Villafuerte who received taxes in the form of cocoa, cotton and corn. + +Cortés established Acapulco as a major port by the early 1530s, with the first major road between Mexico City and the port constructed by 1531. The wharf, named Marqués, was constructed by 1533 between Bruja Point and Diamond Point. Soon after, the area was made an "alcadia" (major province or town). + +Spanish trade in the Far East would give Acapulco a prominent position in the economy of New Spain. In 1550 thirty Spanish families were sent to live here from Mexico City to have a permanent base of European residents. Galleons started arriving in Acapulco from Asia by 1565. Acapulco would become the second most important port, after Veracruz, due to its direct trade with the Philippines. This trade would focus on the yearly Manila-Acapulco Galleon trade, which was the nexus of all kinds of communications between New Spain, Europe and Asia. In 1573, the port was granted the monopoly of the Manila trade. + +17th–19th centuries + +On January 25, 1614, a delegation led by samurai Hasekura Tsunenaga, which included over one hundred Japanese Christians as well as twenty-two samurai under the shōgun Tokugawa Ieyasu, arrived from Japan to Acapulco as part of a mission to form closer relations with Catholic Europe. A fight soon broke out in which a Japanese samurai stabbed a Spanish colonial soldier in Acapulco. This was witnessed and recorded by historian Chimalpahin, who was the grandson of an Aztec nobleman. Some of Tsunenaga's delegation would stay and marry with the locals. + +The galleon trade made its yearly run from the mid-16th century until the early 19th. The luxury items it brought to New Spain attracted the attention of English and Dutch pirates, such as Francis Drake, Henry Morgan and Thomas Cavendish, who called it "The Black Ship". A Dutch fleet invaded Acapulco in 1615, destroying much of the town before being driven off. The Fort of San Diego was built the following year to protect the port and the cargo of arriving ships. The fort was destroyed by an earthquake in 1776 and was rebuilt between 1778 and 1783. + +At the beginning of the 19th century, King Charles IV declared Acapulco a Ciudad Official and it became an essential part of the Spanish Crown. However, not long after, the Mexican War of Independence began. In 1810, José María Morelos y Pavón attacked and burnt down the city, after he defeated royalist commander Francisco Parés at the Battle of Tres Palos. The independence of Mexico in 1821 ended the run of the Manila Galleon. Acapulco's importance as a port recovered during the California Gold Rush in the mid-19th-century, with ships going to and coming from Panama stopping here. This city was besieged on 19 April 1854 by Antonio López de Santa Anna after Guerrero's leadership had rebelled by issuing the Plan de Ayutla. After an unsuccessful week of fighting, Santa Anna retreated. + +20th century + +In 1911, revolutionary forces took over the main plaza of Acapulco. +In 1920, the Prince of Wales (the future King Edward VIII) visited the area. Impressed by what he saw, he recommended the place to his compatriots in Europe, making it popular with the elite there. Much of the original hotel and trading infrastructure was built by a businessman named Albert B. Pullen from Corrigan, Texas, in the area now known as Old Acapulco. In 1933 Carlos Barnard started the first section of Hotel El Mirador, with 12 rooms on the cliffs of La Quebrada. Wolf Schoenborn purchased large amounts of undeveloped land and Albert Pullen built the Las Americas Hotel. + +In the mid-1940s, the first commercial wharf and warehouses were built. In the early 1950s, President Miguel Alemán Valdés upgraded the port's infrastructure, installing electrical lines, drainage systems, roads and the first highway to connect the port with Mexico City. + +The economy grew and foreign investment increased with it. During the 1950s, Acapulco became the fashionable place for millionaire Hollywood stars such as Elizabeth Taylor, Frank Sinatra, Eddie Fisher and Brigitte Bardot. The 1963 Hollywood movie Fun in Acapulco, starring Elvis Presley, is set in Acapulco although the filming took place in the United States. Former swing musician Teddy Stauffer, the so-called "Mister Acapulco", was a hotel manager ("Villa Vera", "Casablanca"), who attracted many celebrities to Acapulco. + +From a population of only 4,000 or 5,000 in the 1940s, by the early 1960s, Acapulco had a population of about 50,000. In 1958, the Diocese of Acapulco was created by Pope Pius XII. It became an archdiocese in 1983. + +During the 1960s and 1970s, new hotel resorts were built, and accommodation and transport were made cheaper. It was no longer necessary to be a millionaire to spend a holiday in Acapulco; the foreign and Mexican middle class could now afford to travel here. However, as more hotels were built in the south part of the bay, the old hotels of the 1950s lost their grandeur. For the 1968 Summer Olympics in neighboring Mexico City, Acapulco hosted the sailing (then yachting) events. + +In the 1970s, there was a significant expansion of the port. + +The Miss Universe 1978 pageant took place in the city. In 1983, singer-songwriter Juan Gabriel wrote the song "Amor eterno", which pays homage to Acapulco. The song was first and most famously recorded by Rocío Dúrcal. Additionally, Acapulco is the hometown of actress, singer, and comedian Aída Pierce, who found fame during the 1980s, 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century. + +The tollway known as the Ruta del Sol was built during the 1990s, crossing the mountains between Mexico City and Acapulco. The journey takes only about three-and-a-half hours, making Acapulco a favorite weekend destination for Mexico City inhabitants. It was in that time period that the economic impact of Acapulco as a tourist destination increased positively, and as a result new types of services emerged, such as the Colegio Nautilus. This educational project, backed by the state government, was created for the families of local and foreign investors and businessmen living in Acapulco who were in need of a bilingual and international education for their children. + +The port continued to grow and in 1996, a new private company, API Acapulco, was created to manage operations. This consolidated operations and now Acapulco is the major port for car exports to the Pacific. + +The city was devastated by Hurricane Pauline in 1997. The storm stranded tourists and left more than 100 dead in the city. Most of the victims were from the shantytowns built on steep hillsides that surround the city. Other victims were swept away by thirty-foot (9 m) waves and winds. The main road, Avenida Costera, became a fast-moving river of sludge three feet (1 m) in depth. + +21st century + +In the 21st century, the Mexican Drug War has had a negative effect on tourism in Acapulco as rival drug traffickers fight each other for the Guerrero coast route that brings drugs from South America as well as soldiers that have been fighting the cartels since 2006. + +A major gun battle between 18 gunmen and soldiers took place in the summer of 2009 in the Old Acapulco seaside area, lasting hours and killing 16 of the gunmen and two soldiers. This came after the 2009 swine flu pandemic outbreak earlier in the year nearly paralyzed the Mexican economy, forcing hotels to give discounts to bring tourists back. However, hotel occupancy for 2009 was down five percent from the year before. The death of Arturo Beltrán Leyva in December 2009 resulted in infighting among different groups within the Beltrán Leyva cartel. + +Gang violence continued to plague Acapulco through 2010 and into 2011, most notably with at least 15 dying in drug-related violence on March 13, 2010, and another 15 deaths on January 8, 2011. Among the first incident's dead were six members of the city police and the brother of an ex-mayor. In the second incident, the headless bodies of 15 young men were found dumped near the Plaza Sendero shopping center. On August 20, 2011, Mexican authorities reported that five headless bodies were found in Acapulco, three of which were placed in the city's main tourist area and two of which were cut into multiple pieces. + +On February 4, 2013, six Spanish men were tied up and robbed and the six Spanish women with them were gang-raped by five masked gunmen who stormed a beach house on the outskirts of Acapulco, though after these accusations, none of the victims decided to press charges. On September 28, 2014, Mexican politician Braulio Zaragoza was gunned down at the El Mirador hotel in the city. He was the leader of the conservative opposition National Action Party (PAN) in southern Guerrero state. Several politicians have been targeted by drug cartels operating in the area. Investigations are under way, but no arrests have yet been made. The insecurity due to individuals involved with drug cartels has cost the city of Acapulco its popularity among national and international tourists. It was stated by the Dirección General de Aeronáutica Civil that the number of international flyers coming to Acapulco decreased from 355,760 flyers registered in 2006 to 52,684 flyers in the year 2015, the number of international tourists flying to Acapulco dropped 85% in the interval of nine years. In 2018, the Mexican Armed Forces entered the city, placing it under occupation. The police department was disarmed after allegations of the latter being linked to the cartels. + +Hurricane Otis +On October 25, 2023, Hurricane Otis, a Category 5 hurricane with 1-minute sustained winds of , caused widespread devastation throughout the city while making landfall nearby. + +Geography + +The city, located on the Pacific coast of Mexico in the state of Guerrero, is classified as one of the state's seven regions, dividing the rest of the Guerrero coast into the Costa Grande and the Costa Chica. Forty percent of the municipality is mountainous terrain; another forty percent is semi-flat; and the other twenty percent is flat. Elevation varies from sea level to . The highest peaks are Potrero, San Nicolas, and Alto Camarón. One major river runs through the municipality, the Papagayo, along with a number of arroyos (streams). There are also two small lagoons, Tres Palos and Coyuca, along with a number of thermal springs. + +Climate +Acapulco features a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen: Aw): hot with distinct wet and dry seasons, with more even temperatures between seasons than resorts farther north in Mexico, but this varies depending on altitude. The warmest areas are next to the sea where the city is. Pacific hurricanes and tropical storms are threats from May through November; notably, the city was struck directly by Category 5 Hurricane Otis on October 25, 2023, which caused extensive damage. The forested area tends to lose leaves during the winter dry season, with evergreen pines in the highest elevations. Fauna consists mostly of deer, small mammals, a wide variety of both land and seabirds, and marine animals such as turtles. Oddly enough, January, its coolest month, also features its all-time record high. + +The temperature of the sea is quite stable, with lows of between January – March, and a high of in August. + +Government + +As the seat of a municipality, the city of Acapulco is the government authority for over 700 other communities, which together have a territory of 1,880.60 km2. This municipality borders the municipalities of Chilpancingo, Juan R Escudero (Tierra Colorada), San Marcos, Coyuca de Benítez with the Pacific Ocean to the south. + +The metropolitan area is made up of the municipalities of Acapulco de Juárez and Coyuca de Benitez. The area has a population () of 786,830. + +For the names and terms of some Acapulco mayors, you can check a List of municipal presidents of Acapulco. + +Demographics + +Population +Acapulco is the most populated city in the state of Guerrero, according to the results of the II Population and Housing Census 2010 carried out by the National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI) with a census date of June 12, 2010, The city had until then a total population of 673 479 inhabitants, of that amount, 324 746 were men and 348 733 women. It is considered the twenty-second most populous city in Mexico and the tenth most populous metropolitan area in Mexico. It is also the city with the highest concentration of population of the homonymous municipality, representing 85.25 percent of the 789.971 inhabitants. + +The metropolitan area of Acapulco is made up of six towns in the municipality of Acapulco de Juárez and four in the municipality of Coyuca de Benítez. In agreement with the last count and official delimitation realized in 2010 altogether by the National Institute of Statistics and Geography, the National Council of Population and the Secretariat of Social Development, the metropolitan area of Acapulco grouped a total of 863 431 inhabitants in a surface of 3 538.5 km2, which placed it as the tenth most populated district in Mexico. It is estimated according to a study by the National Autonomous University of Mexico on climate and geography, carried out in 2002, that between 2015 and 2020 the city of Acapulco will exceed one million inhabitants. + + + +Notes + +Economy +Tourism is the main economic activity of the municipality and most of this is centered on Acapulco Bay. About seventy-three percent of the municipality's population is involved in commerce, most of it related to tourism and the port. Mining and manufacturing employ less than twenty percent and only about five percent is dedicated to agriculture. Industrial production is limited mostly to bottling, milk products, cement products, and ice and energy production. Agricultural products include tomatoes, corn, watermelon, beans, green chili peppers, and melons. + +Tourism + +Acapulco is one of Mexico's oldest coastal tourist destinations, reaching prominence in the 1950s as the place where Hollywood stars and millionaires vacationed on the beach in an exotic locale. In modern times, tourists in Acapulco have been facing problems with corrupt local police who steal money by extortion and intimidate visitors with threats of jail. + +The city is divided into three tourist areas. + +Traditional Acapulco is the old part of the port, where hotels like Hotel Los Flamingos, owned by personalities Johnny Weissmuller and John Wayne are located, is on the northern end of the bay. Anchored by attractions such as the beaches of Caleta and Caletilla, the cliff divers of La Quebrada, and the city square, known as El Zocalo. The heyday of this part of Acapulco ran from the late 1930s until the 1960s, with development continuing through the 1980s. This older section of town now caters to a mostly middle-class, almost exclusively Mexican clientele, while the glitzier newer section caters to the Mexican upper classes, many of whom never venture into the older, traditional part of town. + +Acapulco Dorado had its development between the 1950s and the 1970s, and is about 25 minutes from the Acapulco International Airport. It is the area that presents the most tourist influx in the port, runs through much of the Acapulco bay, from Icacos, passing through Costera Miguel Aleman Avenue, which is the main one, to Papagayo Park. It has several hotels, + +Acapulco Diamante, also known as Punta Diamante, is the newest and most developed part of the port, with investment having created one of the greatest concentrations of luxury facilities in Mexico, including exclusive hotels and resorts of international chains, residential complexes, luxury condominiums and private villas, spas, restaurants, shopping areas and a golf course. Starting at the Scenic Highway in Las Brisas, it includes Puerto Marqués and Punta Diamante and extends to Barra Vieja Beach. It is 10 minutes from the Acapulco International Airport. In this area, all along Boulevard de las Naciones, almost all transportation is by car, limousine or golf cart. + +Acapulco's reputation of a high-energy party town and the nightlife have long been draws of the city for tourists. From November to April, luxury liners stop here daily and include ships such as the , the , Crystal Harmony, and all the Princess line ships. Despite Acapulco's international fame, most of its visitors are from central Mexico, especially the affluent from Mexico City. Acapulco is one of the embarkation ports for the Mexican cruise line Ocean Star Cruises. + +For the Christmas season of 2009, Acapulco received 470,000 visitors, most of whom are Mexican nationals, adding 785 million pesos to the economy. Eighty percent arrive by land and eighteen percent by air. The area has over 25,000 condominiums, most of which function as second homes for their Mexican owners. Acapulco is still popular with Mexican celebrities and the wealthy, such as Luis Miguel and Plácido Domingo, who maintain homes there. + +Problems +From the latter 20th century on, the city has also taken on other less-positive reputations. Some consider it a passé resort, eclipsed by the newer Cancún and Cabo San Lucas. Over the years, a number of problems have developed here, especially in the bay and the older sections of the city. The large number of wandering vendors on the beaches, who offer everything from newspapers to massages, are a recognized problem. It is a bother to tourists who simply want to relax on the beach, but the government says it is difficult to eradicate, as there is a lot of unemployment and poverty in the city. Around the city are many small shantytowns that cling to the mountainsides, populated by migrants who have come to the city looking for work. In the last decade, drug-related violence has caused massive problems for the local tourism trade. + +Another problem is the garbage that has accumulated in the bay. Although 60.65 tons have recently been extracted from the bays of Acapulco and nearby Zihuatanejo, more needs to be done. Most of trash removal during the off seasons is done on the beaches and in the waters closest to them. However, the center of the bay is not touched. The reason trash winds up in the bay is that it is common in the city to throw it in streets, rivers and the bay itself. The most common items cleaned out of the bay are beer bottles and car tires. Acapulco has seen some success in this area, having several beaches receiving the high "blue flag" certifications for cleanliness and water quality. + +Cuisine +Acapulco's cuisine is very rich. The following are typical dishes from the region: Relleno is baked pork with a variety of vegetables and fruits such as potatoes, raisins, carrots and chiles. It is eaten with bread called bolillo. Pozole is a soup with a salsa base (it can be white, red or green), hominy, meat that can be either pork or chicken and it is accompanied with antojitos (snacks) like tostadas, tacos and tamales. This dish is served as part of a weekly Thursday event in the city and the state, with many restaurants offering the meal with special entertainment, from bands to dancers to celebrity impersonators. + +Attractions + +Acapulco's main attraction is its nightlife, as it has been for many decades. Nightclubs change names and owners frequently. +For example, Baby 'O has been open to the national and international public since 1976 and different celebrities have visited their installations such as Mexican singer Luis Miguel, Bono from U2 and Sylvester Stallone. Another nightclub is Palladium, located in the Escénica Avenue, the location gives the nightclub a view of the Santa Lucia Bay at night. Various DJs have had performances in Palladium among them DVBBS, Tom Swoon, Nervo and Junkie KID. + +Informal lobby or poolside cocktail bars often offer free live entertainment. In addition, there is the beach bar zone, where younger crowds go. These are located along the Costera road, face the ocean and feature techno or alternative rock. Most are concentrated between the Fiesta Americana and Continental Plaza hotels. These places tend to open earlier and have more informal dress. There is a bungee jump in this area as well. + +Another attraction at Acapulco is the La Quebrada Cliff Divers. The tradition started in the 1930s when young men casually competed against each other to see who could dive from the highest point into the sea below. Eventually, locals began to ask for tips for those coming to see the men dive. Today the divers are professionals, diving from heights of into an inlet that is only wide and deep, after praying first at a shrine to the Virgin of Guadalupe. On the evening before December 12, the feast day of this Virgin, freestyle cliff divers jump into the sea to honor her. Dives range from the simple to the complicated and end with the "Ocean of Fire" when the sea is lit with gasoline, making a circle of flames which the diver aims for. The spectacle can be seen from a public area which charges a small fee or from the Hotel Plaza Las Glorias/El Mirador from its bar or restaurant terrace. + +There are a number of beaches in the Acapulco Bay and the immediate coastline. In the bay proper there are the La Angosta (in the Quebrada), Caleta, Caletilla, Dominguillo, Tlacopanocha, Hornos, Hornitos, Honda, Tamarindo, Condesa, Guitarrón, Icacos, Playuela, Playuelilla and Playa del Secreto. In the adjoining, smaller Bay of Puerto Marqués there is Pichilingue, Las Brisas, and Playa Roqueta. Facing open ocean just northwest of the bays is Pie de la Cuesta and southeast are Playa Revolcadero, Playa Aeromar, Playa Encantada and Barra Vieja. Two lagoons are in the area, Coyuca to the northwest of Acapulco Bay and Tres Palos to the southeast. Both lagoons have mangroves and offer boat tours. Tres Palos also has sea turtle nesting areas which are protected. + +In addition to sunbathing, the beaches around the bay offer a number of services, such as boat rentals, boat tours, horseback riding, scuba diving and other aquatic sports. One popular cruise is from Caletilla Beach to Roqueta Island, which has places to snorkel, have lunch, and a lighthouse. There is also an underwater statue of the Virgin of Guadalupe here, created in 1958 by Armando Quesado in memory of a group of divers who died here. Many of the scuba-diving tours come to this area as well, where there are sunken ships, sea mountains, and cave rock formations. Another popular activity is deep-sea fishing. The major attraction is sail fishing. Fish caught here have weighed between 89 and 200 pounds. Sailfish are so plentiful that boat captains have been known to bet with a potential customer that if he does not catch anything, the trip is free. + +In the old part of the city, there is a traditional main square called the Zócalo, lined with shade trees, cafés and shops. At the north end of the square is Nuestra Señora de la Soledad cathedral, with blue onion-shaped domes and Byzantine towers. The building was originally constructed as a movie set, but was later adapted into a church. Acapulco's most historic building is the Fort of San Diego, located east of the main square and originally built in 1616 to protect the city from pirate attacks. The fort was partially destroyed by the Dutch in the mid-17th century, rebuilt, then destroyed again in 1776 by an earthquake. It was rebuilt again by 1783 and this is the building that can be seen today, unchanged except for renovations done to it in 2000. Parts of the moats remain as well as the five bulwarks and the battlements. Today the fort serves as the Museo Histórico de Acapulco (Acapulco Historical Museum), which shows the port's history from the pre-Hispanic period until independence. There are temporary exhibits as well. For many years tourists could ride around the city in colorful horse-drawn carriages known as calandrias, but the practice ended in February 2020 due to concerns about mistreatment of the animals. + +The El Rollo Acapulco is a sea-life and aquatic park located on Costera Miguel Aleman. It offers wave pools, water slides and water toboggans. There are also dolphin shows daily and a swim with dolphins program. The center mostly caters to children. Another place that is popular with children is the Parque Papagayo: a large family park which has a life-sized replica of a Spanish galleon, three artificial lakes, an aviary, a skating rink, rides, go-karts and more. + +The Dolores Olmedo House is located in the traditional downtown of Acapulco and is noted for the murals by Diego Rivera that adorn it. Olmedo and Rivera had been friend since Olmedo was a child and Rivera spent the last two years of his life here. During that time, he painted nearly nonstop and created the outside walls with tile mosaics, featuring Aztec deities such as Quetzalcoatl. The interior of the home is covered in murals. The home is not a museum, so only the outside murals can be seen by the public. + +There is a small museum called Casa de la Máscara (House of Masks) which is dedicated to masks, most of them from Mexico, but there are examples from many parts of the world. The collection contains about one thousand examples and is divided into seven rooms called Masks of the World, Mexico across History, The Huichols and the Jaguar, Alebrijes, Dances of Guerrero, Devils and Death, Identity and Fantasy, and Afro-Indian masks. +The Botanical Garden of Acapulco is a tropical garden located on lands owned by the Universidad Loyola del Pacífico. Most of the plants here are native to the region, and many, such as the Peltogyne mexicana or purple stick tree, are in danger of extinction. + +One cultural event that is held yearly in Acapulco is the Festival Internacional de la Nao, which takes place in the Fort of San Diego, located near the Zócalo in downtown of the city. The Festival honors the remembrance of the city's interaction and trades with Oriental territories which started back in the Sixteenth Century. The Nao Festival consists of cultural activities with the support of organizations and embassies from India, China, Japan, Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia and South Korea. The variety of events go from film projections, musical interpretations and theatre to gastronomical classes, some of the events are specifically for kids. + +The annual French Festival takes place throughout Acapulco city and offers a multitude of events that cement cultural links between Mexico and France. The main features are a fashion show and a gourmet food fair. The Cinépolis Galerías Diana and the Teatro Juan Ruíz de Alarcón present French and French literary figures who give talks on their specialised subjects. Even some of the local nightclubs feature French DJs. Other festivals celebrated here include Carnival, the feast of San Isidro Labrador on 15 May, and in November, a crafts and livestock fair called the Nao de China. + +There are a number of golf courses in Acapulco including the Acapulco Princess and the Pierre Marqués course, the latter designed by Robert Trent Jones in 1972 for the World Cup Golf Tournament. The Mayan Palace course was designed by Pedro Guericia and an economical course called the Club de Golf Acapulco is near the convention center. The most exclusive course is that of the Tres Vidas Golf Club, designed by Robert von Hagge. It is located next to the ocean and is home to flocks of ducks and other birds. + +Another famous sport tournament that has been held in Acapulco since 1993 is the Abierto Mexicano Telcel tennis tournament, an ATP 500 event that takes place in the tennis courts of the Princess Mundo Imperial, a resort located in the Diamante zone of Acapulco. Initially it was played in clay courts but it changed to hard court. The event has gained popularity within the passing of the years, attracting some of the top tennis players in the world including Novak Djokovic, Rafael Nadal and Marin Cilic. The total prize money is US$250,000.00 for WTA (women) and US$1,200,000.00 for ATP (men). + +Acapulco also has a bullring, called the Plaza de Toros, near Caletilla Beach. The season runs during the winter and is called the Fiesta Brava. + +Spring break +Before 2010, over 100,000 American teenagers and young adults traveled to resort areas and balnearios throughout Mexico during spring break each year. The main reason students head to Mexico is the drinking age of 18 years (versus 21 for the United States), something that has been marketed by tour operators along with the sun and ocean. This has become attractive since the 1990s, especially since more traditional spring break places such as Daytona Beach, Florida, have enacted restrictions on drinking and other behaviors. This legislation has pushed spring break tourism to various parts of Mexico, with Acapulco as one of the top destinations. + +In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Cancún had been favored as the spring break destination of choice. However, Cancún has taken some steps to control the reckless behavior associated with the event, and students have been looking for someplace new. This led many more to choose Acapulco, in spite of the fact that for many travelers, the flight is longer and more expensive than to Cancún. Many were attracted by the glitzy hotels on the south side and Acapulco's famous nightlife. In 2008, 22,500 students came to Acapulco for spring break. Hotels did not get that many in 2009, due mostly to the economic situation in the United States, and partially because of scares of drug-related violence. + +In February 2009, the US State Department issued a travel alert directed at college students planning spring break trips to Acapulco. The warning—a result of violent activity springing from Mexico's drug cartel débâcle—took college campuses by storm, with some schools going so far as to warn their students about the risks of travel to Mexico over spring break. Bill O'Reilly devoted a segment of his show, The O'Reilly Factor, to urge students to stay away from Acapulco. In June 2009, a number of incidents occurred between the drug cartel and the government. These included coordinated attacks on police headquarters and open battles in the streets, involving large-caliber weapons and grenades. However, no incidents of violence against travelers on spring break were reported. + +Transportation + +Nine passenger airlines, including four international ones, fly to Acapulco International Airport. In the city, there are many buses and taxi services one can take to get from place to place, but most of the locals choose to walk to their destinations. However, an important mode of transportation is the government-subsidized 'Colectivo' cab system. These cabs cost 13 pesos per person to ride, but they are not private. The driver will pick up more passengers as long as seats are available, and will transport them to their destination based on first-come, first-served rules. The colectivos each travel a designated area of the city, the three main ones being Costera, Colosio, Coloso, or a mixture of the three. Coloso cabs travel mainly to old Acapulco. Colosio cabs travel through most of the tourist area of Acapulco. Costera cabs drive up and down the coast of Acapulco, where most of the hotels for visitors are located, but which includes some of old Acapulco. Where a driver will take you is partly his choice. Some are willing to travel to the other designated areas, especially during slow periods of the day. + +The bus system is highly complex and can be rather confusing to an outsider. As far as transportation goes, it is the cheapest form, other than walking, in Acapulco. The most expensive buses have air conditioning, while the cheaper buses do not. For tourists, the Acapulco city government has established a system of yellow buses with Acapulco painted on the side of them. These buses are not for tourists only, but are certainly the nicest and most uniform of the bus systems. These buses travel the tourist section of Acapulco, driving up and down the coast. There are buses with specific routes and destinations, generally written on their windshields or shouted out by a barker riding in the front seat. Perhaps the most unusual thing about the privately operated buses is the fact that they are all highly decorated and personalized, with decals and home-made interior designs that range from comic book scenes, to pornography, and even to "Hello Kitty" themes. + +The conflictive public transportation would be upgraded on 25 June 2016 with the implementation of the . The Acabús infrastructure has a length of , with 16 stations spread throughout the city of Acapulco and has five routes. This project will help organize traffic because the buses now have a specific line on the roads and there would be more control over transportation and passengers. + +International relations + +Consulates + +Twin towns and partner cities + +International + + Manila, 1969 + Netanya, 1980 + Sendai, 1983 + Qingdao, 1985 + Quebec City, 1986 + Naples, 1986 + Beverly Hills, 1988 + Onjuku, 1988 + Cannes, 1994 + McAllen, 1997 + Santa Marta, 2005 + Manta, 2005 + Ordizia, 2008 + Yalta, 2012 + Sosúa, 2012 + Nassau, 2012 + Callao, 2014 + Cartagena, 2017 + Eilat, 2017 + +Domestic + Teocaltiche, 2005 + Dolores Hidalgo, 2009 + Guanajuato City, 2010 + Boca del Río, 2012 + Morelia, 2013 + +UNESCO World Heritage Site nominations + +In 2014, the idea to nominate the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade Route was initiated by the Mexican ambassador to UNESCO with the Filipino ambassador to UNESCO. + +An Experts' Roundtable Meeting was held at the University of Santo Tomas (UST) on April 23, 2015, as part of the preparation of the Philippines for the possible transnational nomination of the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade Route to the World Heritage List. The nomination will be made jointly with Mexico. + +The following are the experts and the topics they discussed during the roundtable meeting: Dr. Celestina Boncan on the Tornaviaje; Dr. Mary Jane A. Bolunia on Shipyards in the Bicol Region; Mr. Sheldon Clyde Jago-on, Bobby Orillaneda, and Ligaya Lacsina on Underwater Archaeology; Dr. Leovino Garcia on Maps and Cartography; Fr. Rene Javellana, S.J. on Fortifications in the Philippines; Felice Sta. Maria on Food; Dr. Fernando Zialcita on Textile; and Regalado Trota Jose on Historical Dimension. The papers presented and discussed during the roundtable meeting will be synthesized into a working document to establish the route's Outstanding Universal Value. + +The Mexican side reiterated that they will also follow suit with the preparations for the route's nomination. + +Spain has also backed the nomination of the Manila-Acapulco Trade Route in the UNESCO World Heritage Site list and has also suggested the Archives of the Manila-Acapulco Galleons to be nominated as part of a separate UNESCO list, the UNESCO Memory of the World Register. + +See also + + Acapulco (municipality) + Triangle of the Sun + Loco in Acapulco + +References + +Bibliography + +External links + + + + +1550 establishments in the Spanish Empire +Populated coastal places in Mexico +Beaches of Guerrero +Populated places established in 1525 +Populated places in Guerrero +Port cities and towns on the Mexican Pacific coast +Seaside resorts in Mexico + + +Events + +Pre-1600 +1 BC – Wang Mang consolidates his power in China and is declared marshal of state. Emperor Ai of Han, who died the previous day, had no heirs. + 942 – Start of the four-day Battle of al-Mada'in, between the Hamdanids of Mosul and the Baridis of Basra over control of the Abbasid capital, Baghdad. + 963 – Nikephoros II Phokas is crowned emperor of the Byzantine Empire. +1328 – The House of Gonzaga seizes power in the Duchy of Mantua, and will rule until 1708. +1513 – Battle of the Spurs (Battle of Guinegate): King Henry VIII of England and his Imperial allies defeat French Forces who are then forced to retreat. +1570 – The Principality of Transylvania is established after John II Zápolya renounces his claim as King of Hungary in the Treaty of Speyer. + +1601–1900 +1652 – Battle of Plymouth: Inconclusive naval action between the fleets of Michiel de Ruyter and George Ayscue in the First Anglo-Dutch War. +1777 – American Revolutionary War: The Americans led by General John Stark rout British and Brunswick troops under Friedrich Baum at the Battle of Bennington in Walloomsac, New York. +1780 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Camden: The British defeat the Americans near Camden, South Carolina. +1792 – Maximilien de Robespierre presents the petition of the Commune of Paris to the Legislative Assembly, which demanded the formation of a revolutionary tribunal. +1793 – French Revolution: A levée en masse is decreed by the National Convention. +1812 – War of 1812: American General William Hull surrenders Fort Detroit without a fight to the British Army. +1819 – Peterloo Massacre: Seventeen people die and over 600 are injured in cavalry charges at a public meeting at St. Peter's Field, Manchester, England. +1841 – U.S. President John Tyler vetoes a bill which called for the re-establishment of the Second Bank of the United States. Enraged Whig Party members riot outside the White House in the most violent demonstration on White House grounds in U.S. history. +1858 – U.S. President James Buchanan inaugurates the new transatlantic telegraph cable by exchanging greetings with Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. However, a weak signal forces a shutdown of the service in a few weeks. +1859 – The Grand Duchy of Tuscany formally deposes the exiled House of Lorraine. +1863 – The Dominican Restoration War begins when Gregorio Luperón raises the Dominican flag in Santo Domingo after Spain had recolonized the country. +1869 – Battle of Acosta Ñu: A Paraguayan battalion largely made up of children is massacred by the Brazilian Army during the Paraguayan War. +1870 – Franco-Prussian War: The Battle of Mars-la-Tour is fought, resulting in a Prussian victory. +1876 – Richard Wagner's Siegfried, the penultimate opera in his Ring cycle, premieres at the Bayreuth Festspielhaus. +1891 – The Basilica of San Sebastian, Manila, the first all-steel church in Asia, is officially inaugurated and blessed. +1896 – Skookum Jim Mason, George Carmack and Dawson Charlie discover gold in a tributary of the Klondike River in Canada, setting off the Klondike Gold Rush. +1900 – The Battle of Elands River during the Second Boer War ends after a 13-day siege is lifted by the British. The battle had begun when a force of between 2,000 and 3,000 Boers had surrounded a force of 500 Australians, Rhodesians, Canadians and British soldiers at a supply dump at Brakfontein Drift. + +1901–present +1906 – The 8.2 Valparaíso earthquake hits central Chile, killing 3,882 people. +1913 – Tōhoku Imperial University of Japan (modern day Tohoku University) becomes the first university in Japan to admit female students. + 1913 – Completion of the Royal Navy battlecruiser . +1916 – The Migratory Bird Treaty between Canada and the United States is signed. +1918 – The Battle of Lake Baikal was fought between the Czechoslovak Legion and the Red Army. +1920 – Ray Chapman of the Cleveland Indians is hit on the head by a fastball thrown by Carl Mays of the New York Yankees. Next day, Chapman will become the second player to die from injuries sustained in a Major League Baseball game. + 1920 – The congress of the Communist Party of Bukhara opens. The congress would call for armed revolution. + 1920 – Polish–Soviet War: The Battle of Radzymin concludes; the Soviet Red Army is forced to turn away from Warsaw. +1923 – The United Kingdom gives the name "Ross Dependency" to part of its claimed Antarctic territory and makes the Governor-General of the Dominion of New Zealand its administrator. +1927 – The Dole Air Race begins from Oakland, California, to Honolulu, Hawaii, during which six out of the eight participating planes crash or disappear. +1929 – The 1929 Palestine riots break out in Mandatory Palestine between Palestinian Arabs and Jews and continue until the end of the month. In total, 133 Jews and 116 Arabs are killed. +1930 – The first color sound cartoon, Fiddlesticks, is released by Ub Iwerks. + 1930 – The first British Empire Games are opened in Hamilton, Ontario, by the Governor General of Canada, the Viscount Willingdon. +1933 – Christie Pits riot takes place in Toronto, Ontario. +1942 – World War II: US Navy L-class blimp L-8 drifts in from the Pacific and eventually crashes in Daly City, California. The two-man crew cannot be found. +1944 – First flight of a jet with forward-swept wings, the Junkers Ju 287. +1945 – The National Representatives' Congress, the precursor of the current National Assembly of Vietnam, convenes in Sơn Dương. +1946 – Mass riots in Kolkata begin; more than 4,000 people would be killed in 72 hours. + 1946 – The All Hyderabad Trade Union Congress is founded in Secunderabad. +1954 – The first issue of Sports Illustrated is published. +1960 – Cyprus gains its independence from the United Kingdom. + 1960 – Joseph Kittinger parachutes from a balloon over New Mexico, United States, at , setting three records that held until 2012: High-altitude jump, free fall, and highest speed by a human without an aircraft. +1964 – Vietnam War: A coup d'état replaces Dương Văn Minh with General Nguyễn Khánh as President of South Vietnam. A new constitution is established with aid from the U.S. Embassy. +1966 – Vietnam War: The House Un-American Activities Committee begins investigations of Americans who have aided the Viet Cong. The committee intends to introduce legislation making these activities illegal. Anti-war demonstrators disrupt the meeting and 50 people are arrested. +1972 – In an unsuccessful coup d'état attempt, the Royal Moroccan Air Force fires upon Hassan II of Morocco's plane while he is traveling back to Rabat. +1975 – Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlam symbolically hands over land to the Gurindji people after the eight-year Wave Hill walk-off, a landmark event in the history of Indigenous land rights in Australia, commemorated in a 1991 song by Paul Kelly and an annual celebration. +1987 – Northwest Airlines Flight 255, a McDonnell Douglas MD-82, crashes after takeoff in Detroit, Michigan, killing 154 of the 155 on board, plus two people on the ground. +1989 – A solar particle event affects computers at the Toronto Stock Exchange, forcing a halt to trading. +1991 – Indian Airlines Flight 257, a Boeing 737-200, crashes during approach to Imphal Airport, killing all 69 people on board. +2005 – West Caribbean Airways Flight 708, a McDonnell Douglas MD-82, crashes in Machiques, Venezuela, killing all 160 people on board. +2008 – The Trump International Hotel and Tower in Chicago is topped off at , at the time becoming the world's highest residence above ground-level. +2010 – AIRES Flight 8250 crashes at Gustavo Rojas Pinilla International Airport in San Andrés, San Andrés y Providencia, Colombia, killing two people. +2012 – South African police fatally shoot 34 miners and wound 78 more during an industrial dispute at Marikana near Rustenburg. +2013 – The ferry St. Thomas Aquinas collides with a cargo ship and sinks at Cebu, Philippines, killing 61 people with 59 others missing. +2015 – More than 96 people are killed and hundreds injured following a series of air-raids by the Syrian Arab Air Force on the rebel-held market town of Douma. + 2015 – Trigana Air Flight 267, an ATR 42, crashes in Oksibl, Bintang Mountains Regency, killing all 54 people on board. +2020 – The August Complex fire in California burns more than one million acres of land. + +Births + +Pre-1600 +1355 – Philippa, 5th Countess of Ulster (d. 1382) +1378 – Hongxi Emperor of China (d. 1425) +1401 – Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut (d. 1436) +1557 – Agostino Carracci, Italian painter and etcher (d. 1602) +1565 – Christina, Grand Duchess of Tuscany (d. 1637) +1573 – Anne of Austria, Queen of Poland (d. 1598) + +1601–1900 +1637 – Countess Emilie Juliane of Barby-Mühlingen (d. 1706) +1645 – Jean de La Bruyère, French philosopher and author (d. 1696) +1650 – Vincenzo Coronelli, Italian monk, cosmographer, and cartographer (d. 1718) +1682 – Louis, Duke of Burgundy (d. 1712) +1744 – Pierre Méchain, French astronomer and surveyor (d. 1804) +1761 – Yevstigney Fomin, Russian pianist and composer (d. 1800) +1815 – John Bosco, Italian priest and educator (d. 1888) +1816 – Octavia Taylor, daughter of Zachary Taylor (d. 1820) +1820 – Andrew Rainsford Wetmore, Canadian lawyer and politician, 1st Premier of New Brunswick (d. 1892) +1821 – Arthur Cayley, English mathematician and academic (d. 1895) +1831 – John Jones Ross, Canadian lawyer and politician, 7th Premier of Quebec (d. 1901) +1832 – Wilhelm Wundt, German physician, psychologist, and physiologist (d. 1920) +1842 – Jakob Rosanes, Ukrainian-German mathematician, chess player, and academic (d. 1922) +1845 – Gabriel Lippmann, Luxembourger-French physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1921) +1848 – Vladimir Sukhomlinov, Russian general (d. 1926) +1855 – James McGowen, Australian politician, 18th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1922) +1856 – Aparicio Saravia, Uruguayan general and politician (d. 1904) +1858 – Arthur Achleitner, German author (d. 1927) +1860 – Martin Hawke, 7th Baron Hawke, English-Scottish cricketer (d. 1938) + 1860 – Jules Laforgue, Uruguayan-French poet and author (d. 1887) +1862 – Amos Alonzo Stagg, American baseball player and coach (d. 1965) +1864 – Elsie Inglis, Scottish surgeon and suffragette (d. 1917) +1865 – Mary Gilmore, Australian socialist, poet and journalist (d. 1962) +1868 – Bernarr Macfadden, American bodybuilder and publisher, founded Macfadden Publications (d. 1955) +1876 – Ivan Bilibin, Russian illustrator and stage designer (d. 1942) +1877 – Roque Ruaño, Spanish priest and engineer (d. 1935) +1882 – Désiré Mérchez, French swimmer and water polo player (d. 1968) +1884 – Hugo Gernsback, Luxembourger-American author and publisher (d. 1967) +1888 – T. E. Lawrence, British colonel, diplomat, writer and archaeologist (d. 1935) + 1888 – Armand J. Piron, American violinist, composer, and bandleader (d. 1943) +1892 – Hal Foster, Canadian-American author and illustrator (d. 1982) + 1892 – Otto Messmer, American cartoonist and animator, co-created Felix the Cat (d. 1983) +1894 – George Meany, American plumber and labor leader (d. 1980) +1895 – Albert Cohen, Greek-Swiss author and playwright (d. 1981) + 1895 – Liane Haid, Austrian-Swiss actress and singer (d. 2000) + 1895 – Arthur Rose Eldred, First Eagle Scout in the Boy Scouts of America (d. 1951) +1900 – Ida Browne, Australian geologist and palaeontologist (d. 1976) + +1901–present +1902 – Georgette Heyer, English author (d. 1974) + 1902 – Wallace Thurman, American author and playwright (d. 1934) +1904 – Minoru Genda, Japanese general, pilot, and politician (d. 1989) + 1904 – Wendell Meredith Stanley, American biochemist and virologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971) +1908 – Orlando Cole, American cellist and educator (d. 2010) + 1908 – William Keepers Maxwell, Jr., American editor, novelist, short story writer, and essayist (d. 2000) +1909 – Paul Callaway, American organist and conductor (d. 1995) +1910 – Gloria Blondell, American actress (d. 1986) + 1910 – Mae Clarke, American actress (d. 1992) +1911 – E. F. Schumacher, German economist and statistician (d. 1977) +1912 – Ted Drake, English footballer and manager (d. 1995) +1913 – Menachem Begin, Belarusian-Israeli politician, Prime Minister of Israel, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1992) +1915 – Al Hibbler, American baritone singer (d. 2001) +1916 – Iggy Katona, American race car driver (d. 2003) +1917 – Matt Christopher, American author (d. 1997) + 1917 – Roque Cordero, Panamanian composer and educator (d. 2008) +1919 – Karl-Heinz Euling, German captain (d. 2014) +1920 – Charles Bukowski, German-American poet, novelist, and short story writer (d. 1994) +1922 – James Casey, English comedian, radio scriptwriter and producer (d. 2011) + 1922 – Ernie Freeman, American pianist and bandleader (d. 2001) +1923 – Millôr Fernandes, Brazilian journalist and playwright (d. 2012) +1924 – Fess Parker, American actor (d. 2010) + 1924 – Inez Voyce, American baseball player (d. 2022) +1925 – Willie Jones, American baseball player (d. 1983) + 1925 – Mal Waldron, American pianist and composer (d. 2002) +1927 – Lois Nettleton, American actress (d. 2008) +1928 – Ann Blyth, American actress and singer + 1928 – Eydie Gormé, American singer (d. 2013) + 1928 – Ara Güler, Turkish photographer and journalist (d. 2018) + 1928 – Eddie Kirkland, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2011) + 1928 – Wyatt Tee Walker, American pastor, theologian, and activist (d. 2018) +1929 – Bill Evans, American pianist and composer (d. 1980) + 1929 – Helmut Rahn, German footballer (d. 2003) + 1929 – Fritz Von Erich, American wrestler and trainer (d. 1997) +1930 – Robert Culp, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2010) + 1930 – Frank Gifford, American football player, sportscaster, and actor (d. 2015) + 1930 – Leslie Manigat, Haitian educator and politician, 43rd President of Haiti (d. 2014) + 1930 – Flor Silvestre, Mexican singer and actress (d. 2020) +1933 – Reiner Kunze, German poet and translator + 1933 – Tom Maschler, English author and publisher (d. 2020) + 1933 – Julie Newmar, American actress + 1933 – Stuart Roosa, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut (d. 1994) +1934 – Angela Buxton, British tennis player (d. 2020) + 1934 – Diana Wynne Jones, English author (d. 2011) + 1934 – Douglas Kirkland, Canadian-American photographer (d. 2022) + 1934 – Ketty Lester, American singer and actress + 1934 – Pierre Richard, French actor, director, and screenwriter + 1934 – John Standing, English actor + 1934 – Sam Trimble, Australian cricketer (d. 2019) +1935 – Cliff Fletcher, Canadian businessman + 1935 – Andreas Stamatiadis, Greek footballer and coach +1936 – Anita Gillette, American actress and singer + 1936 – Alan Hodgkinson, English footballer and coach (d. 2015) +1937 – David Anderson, Canadian journalist, lawyer, and politician + 1937 – David Behrman, American composer and producer + 1937 – Ian Deans, Canadian politician (d. 2016) + 1937 – Boris Rõtov, Estonian chess player (d. 1987) +1939 – Seán Brady, Irish cardinal + 1939 – Trevor McDonald, Trinidadian-English journalist and academic + 1939 – Billy Joe Shaver, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2020) + 1939 – Eric Weissberg, American singer, banjo player, and multi-instrumentalist (d. 2020) +1940 – Bruce Beresford, Australian director and producer +1942 – Lesley Turner Bowrey, Australian tennis player + 1942 – Barbara George, American R&B singer-songwriter (d. 2006) + 1942 – Robert Squirrel Lester, American soul singer (d. 2010) +1943 – Woody Peoples, American football player (d. 2010) +1944 – Kevin Ayers, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2013) +1945 – Bob Balaban, American actor, director, and producer + 1945 – Russell Brookes, English race car driver (d. 2019) + 1945 – Suzanne Farrell, American ballerina and educator + 1945 – Gary Loizzo, American guitarist, singer, recording engineer, and record producer (d. 2016) + 1945 – Nigel Terry, British stage and film actor (d. 2015) +1946 – Masoud Barzani, Iranian-Kurdish politician, President of Iraqi Kurdistan + 1946 – Lesley Ann Warren, American actress +1947 – Carol Moseley Braun, American lawyer and politician, United States Ambassador to New Zealand + 1947 – Katharine Hamnett, English fashion designer +1948 – Earl Blumenauer, American politician, U.S. Representative from Oregon + 1948 – Barry Hay, Indian-born Dutch rock musician + 1948 – Mike Jorgensen, American baseball player and manager + 1948 – Pierre Reid, Canadian educator and politician + 1948 – Joey Spampinato, American singer-songwriter and bass player +1949 – Scott Asheton, American drummer (d. 2014) + 1949 – Paul Pasqualoni, American football player and coach + 1949 – Bill Spooner, American guitarist and songwriter +1950 – Hasely Crawford, Trinidadian runner + 1950 – Marshall Manesh, Iranian-American actor + 1950 – Jeff Thomson, Australian cricketer +1951 – Umaru Musa Yar'Adua, Nigerian businessman and politician, 13th President of Nigeria (d. 2010) +1952 – Reginald VelJohnson, American actor +1953 – Kathie Lee Gifford, American talk show host, singer, and actress + 1953 – James "J.T." Taylor, American R&B singer-songwriter +1954 – James Cameron, Canadian director, producer, and screenwriter + 1954 – George Galloway, Scottish-English politician and broadcaster +1955 – Jeff Perry, American actor + 1955 – James Reilly, Irish surgeon and politician, Minister for Children and Youth Affairs +1956 – Vahan Hovhannisyan, Armenian soldier and politician (d. 2014) +1957 – Laura Innes, American actress and director + 1957 – R. R. Patil, Indian lawyer and politician, Deputy Chief Minister of Maharashtra (d. 2015) +1958 – Madonna, American singer-songwriter, producer, actress, and director + 1958 – Angela Bassett, American actress + 1958 – José Luis Clerc, Argentinian tennis player and coach +1959 – Marc Sergeant, Belgian cyclist and manager +1960 – Rosita Baltazar, Belizean choreographer, dancer, and dance instructor (d. 2015) + 1960 – Timothy Hutton, American actor, producer and director + 1960 – Franz Welser-Möst, Austrian-American conductor and director +1961 – Christian Okoye, American football player +1962 – Steve Carell, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter +1963 – Aloísio Pires Alves, Brazilian footballer and manager + 1963 – Christine Cavanaugh, American voice artist (d. 2014) +1964 – Jimmy Arias, American tennis player and sportscaster +1966 – Eddie Olczyk, American ice hockey player, coach, and commentator +1967 – Mark Coyne, Australian rugby league player + 1967 – Ulrika Jonsson, Swedish journalist, actress, and author +1968 – Arvind Kejriwal, Indian civil servant and politician, 7th Chief Minister of Delhi + 1968 – Andy Milder, American actor + 1968 – Mateja Svet, Slovenian skier + 1968 – Wolfgang Tillmans, German photographer +1970 – Bonnie Bernstein, American journalist and sportscaster + 1970 – Manisha Koirala, Nepalese actress in Indian films + 1970 – Seth Peterson, American actor +1971 – Stefan Klos, German footballer +1972 – Stan Lazaridis, Australian footballer + 1972 – Emily Strayer, American singer and musician +1974 – Shivnarine Chanderpaul, Guyanese cricketer + 1974 – Didier Cuche, Swiss skier + 1974 – Krisztina Egerszegi, Hungarian swimmer + 1974 – Iván Hurtado, Ecuadorian footballer and politician + 1974 – Ryan Longwell, American football player +1975 – Didier Agathe, French footballer + 1975 – Jonatan Johansson, Finnish footballer, coach, and manager + 1975 – George Stults, American actor + 1975 – Taika Waititi, New Zealand director, screenwriter and actor +1979 – Paul Gallacher, Scottish footballer + 1979 – Ian Moran, Australian cricketer +1980 – Vanessa Carlton, American singer-songwriter + 1980 – Bob Hardy, English bass player + 1980 – Emerson Ramos Borges, Brazilian footballer + 1980 – Piet Rooijakkers, Dutch cyclist +1981 – Roque Santa Cruz, Paraguayan footballer +1982 – Cam Gigandet, American actor + 1982 – Joleon Lescott, English footballer +1983 – Nikolaos Zisis, Greek basketball player +1984 – Matteo Anesi, Italian speed skater + 1984 – Candice Dupree, American basketball player + 1984 – Konstantin Vassiljev, Estonian footballer +1985 – Cristin Milioti, American actress +1986 – Yu Darvish, Japanese baseball player + 1986 – Martín Maldonado, Puerto Rican baseball player + 1986 – Shawn Pyfrom, American actor +1987 – Carey Price, Canadian ice hockey player + 1987 – Eri Kitamura, Japanese voice actress and singer. +1988 – Ismaïl Aissati, Moroccan footballer + 1988 – Ryan Kerrigan, American football player + 1988 – Rumer Willis, American actress +1989 – Cedric Alexander, American wrestler + 1989 – Wang Hao, Chinese race walker + 1989 – Moussa Sissoko, French footballer +1990 – Godfrey Oboabona, Nigerian footballer +1991 – José Eduardo de Araújo, Brazilian footballer + 1991 – Evanna Lynch, Irish actress + 1991 – Jeffery Lamar Williams, American rapper, singer and songwriter +1992 – Diego Schwartzman, Argentinian tennis player +1993 – Cameron Monaghan, American actor and model +1996 – Caeleb Dressel, American swimmer +1997 – Greyson Chance, American musician +1999 – Karen Chen, American figure skater + +Deaths + +Pre-1600 +AD 79 – Empress Ma, Chinese Han dynasty consort (b. 40) + 856 – Theutbald I, bishop of Langres + 963 – Marianos Argyros, Byzantine general (b. 944) +1027 – George I of Georgia (b. 998) +1153 – Bernard de Tremelay, fourth Grand Master of the Knights Templar +1225 – Hōjō Masako, Japanese regent and onna-bugeisha (b. 1156) +1258 – Theodore II Laskaris, Byzantine-Greek emperor (b. 1222) +1285 – Philip I, Count of Savoy (b. 1207) +1297 – John II of Trebizond (b. 1262) +1327 – Roch, French saint (b. 1295) +1339 – Azzone Visconti, founder of the state of Milan (b. 1302) +1358 – Albert II, Duke of Austria (b. 1298) +1419 – Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia (b. 1361) +1443 – Ashikaga Yoshikatsu, Japanese shōgun (b. 1434) +1492 – Beatrice of Silva, Dominican nun +1518 – Loyset Compère, French composer (b. 1445) +1532 – John, Elector of Saxony (b. 1468) + +1601–1900 +1661 – Thomas Fuller, English historian and author (b. 1608) +1678 – Andrew Marvell, English poet and author (b. 1621) +1705 – Jacob Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician and theorist (b. 1654) +1733 – Matthew Tindal, English philosopher and author (b. 1657) +1791 – Charles-François de Broglie, marquis de Ruffec, French soldier and diplomat (b. 1719) +1836 – Marc-Antoine Parseval, French mathematician and theorist (b. 1755) +1855 – Henry Colburn, English publisher (b. 1785) +1861 – Ranavalona I, Queen consort of Kingdom of Madagascar and then sovereign (b. 1778) +1878 – Richard Upjohn, English-American architect (b. 1802) +1886 – Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, Indian mystic and philosopher (b. 1836) +1887 – Webster Paulson, English civil engineer (b. 1837) +1888 – John Pemberton, American pharmacist and chemist, invented Coca-Cola (b. 1831) +1893 – Jean-Martin Charcot, French neurologist and academic (b. 1825) +1899 – Robert Bunsen, German chemist and academic (b. 1811) +1900 – José Maria de Eça de Queirós, Portuguese journalist and author (b. 1845) + +1901–present +1904 – Prentiss Ingraham, American soldier and author (b. 1843) +1911 – Patrick Francis Moran, Irish-Australian cardinal (b. 1830) +1914 – Carl Theodor Schulz, German-Norwegian gardener (b. 1835) +1916 – George Scott, English footballer (b. 1885) +1920 – Henry Daglish, Australian politician, 6th Premier of Western Australia (b. 1866) +1921 – Peter I of Serbia (b. 1844) +1938 – Andrej Hlinka, Slovak priest, journalist, and politician (b. 1864) + 1938 – Robert Johnson, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1911) +1945 – Takijirō Ōnishi, Japanese admiral (b. 1891) +1948 – Babe Ruth, American baseball player and coach (b. 1895) +1949 – Margaret Mitchell, American journalist and author (b. 1900) +1952 – Lydia Field Emmet, American painter and academic (b. 1866) +1956 – Bela Lugosi, Hungarian-American actor (b. 1882) +1957 – Irving Langmuir, American chemist and physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1881) +1958 – Jacob M. Lomakin, Soviet Consul General in New York City, journalist and economist (b. 1904) +1959 – William Halsey, Jr., American admiral (b. 1882) + 1959 – Wanda Landowska, Polish-French harpsichord player (b. 1879) +1961 – Abdul Haq, Pakistani linguist and scholar (b. 1870) +1963 – Joan Eardley, British artist (b. 1921) +1971 – Spyros Skouras, Greek-American businessman (b. 1893) +1972 – Pierre Brasseur, French actor and screenwriter (b. 1905) +1973 – Selman Waksman, Ukrainian-American biochemist and microbiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1888) +1977 – Elvis Presley, American singer, guitarist, and actor (b. 1935) +1978 – Alidius Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer, Dutch soldier and politician, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (b. 1888) +1979 – John Diefenbaker, Canadian lawyer and politician, 13th Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1895) +1983 – Earl Averill, American baseball player (b. 1902) +1984 – Duško Radović, Serbian children's writer, poet, journalist, aphorist and TV editor (b. 1922) +1986 – Ronnie Aird, English cricketer and administrator (b. 1902) + 1986 – Jaime Sáenz, Bolivian author and poet (b. 1921) +1989 – Amanda Blake, American actress (b. 1929) +1990 – Pat O'Connor, New Zealand wrestler and trainer (b. 1925) +1991 – Luigi Zampa, Italian director and screenwriter (b. 1905) +1992 – Mark Heard, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1951) +1993 – Stewart Granger, English-American actor (b. 1913) +1997 – Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, Pakistani musician and Qawwali singer (b. 1948) + 1997 – Sultan Ahmad Nanupuri, Bangladeshi Islamic scholar and teacher (b. 1914) +1998 – Phil Leeds, American actor (b. 1916) + 1998 – Dorothy West, American journalist and author (b. 1907) +2002 – Abu Nidal, Palestinian terrorist leader (b. 1937) + 2002 – Jeff Corey, American actor (b. 1914) + 2002 – John Roseboro, American baseball player and coach (b. 1933) +2003 – Idi Amin, Ugandan field marshal and politician, 3rd President of Uganda (b. 1928) +2004 – Ivan Hlinka, Czech ice hockey player and coach (b. 1950) + 2004 – Balanadarajah Iyer, Sri Lankan journalist and poet (b. 1957) + 2004 – Carl Mydans, American photographer and journalist (b. 1907) + 2004 – Robert Quiroga, American boxer (b. 1969) +2005 – Vassar Clements, American fiddler (b. 1928) + 2005 – Tonino Delli Colli, Italian cinematographer (b. 1922) + 2005 – William Corlett, English novelist and playwright (b. 1938) + 2005 – Frère Roger, Swiss monk and mystic (b. 1915) +2006 – Alfredo Stroessner, Paraguayan general and dictator; 46th President of Paraguay (b. 1912) +2007 – Bahaedin Adab, Iranian engineer and politician (b. 1945) +2008 – Dorival Caymmi, Brazilian singer-songwriter and actor (b. 1914) + 2008 – Ronnie Drew, Irish musician, folk singer and actor (b. 1934) + 2008 – Masanobu Fukuoka, Japanese farmer and author (b. 1913) +2010 – Dimitrios Ioannidis, Greek general (b. 1923) +2011 – Mihri Belli, Turkish activist and politician (b. 1916) +2012 – Princess Lalla Amina of Morocco (b. 1954) + 2012 – Martine Franck, Belgian photographer and director (b. 1938) + 2012 – Abune Paulos, Ethiopian patriarch (b. 1935) + 2012 – William Windom, American actor (b. 1923) +2013 – David Rees, Welsh mathematician and academic (b. 1918) +2014 – Patrick Aziza, Nigerian general and politician, Governor of Kebbi State (b. 1947) + 2014 – Vsevolod Nestayko, Ukrainian author (b. 1930) + 2014 – Mario Oriani-Ambrosini, Italian-South African lawyer and politician (b. 1960) + 2014 – Peter Scholl-Latour, German journalist, author, and academic (b. 1924) +2015 – Jacob Bekenstein, Mexican-American physicist, astronomer, and academic (b. 1947) + 2015 – Anna Kashfi, British actress (b. 1934) + 2015 – Shuja Khanzada, Pakistani colonel and politician (b. 1943) + 2015 – Mile Mrkšić, Serb general (b. 1947) +2016 – João Havelange, Brazilian water polo player, lawyer, and businessman (b. 1916) + 2016 – John McLaughlin, American television personality (b. 1927) +2018 – Aretha Franklin, American singer-songwriter (b. 1942) + 2018 – Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Indian prime minister (b. 1924) + 2018 – Wakako Yamauchi, American-Japanese writer (b. 1924) +2019 – Peter Fonda, American actor, director, and screenwriter. (b. 1940) + 2019 – Richard Williams, Canadian-British animator (b. 1933) +2021 – Sean Lock, English comedian and actor (b. 1963) +2023 – Howard S. Becker, American sociologist (b. 1928) + +Holidays and observances +Bennington Battle Day (Vermont, United States) +Children's Day (Paraguay) +Christian feast day: + Ana Petra Pérez Florido + Armel (Armagillus) + Diomedes of Tarsus +Roch +Stephen I of Hungary +Translation of the Acheiropoietos icon from Edessa to Constantinople. (Eastern Orthodox Church) +August 16 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) +Gozan no Okuribi (Kyoto, Japan) +National Airborne Day (United States) +Restoration Day (Dominican Republic) +The first day of the Independence Days, celebrates the independence of Gabon from France in 1960. +Xicolatada (Palau-de-Cerdagne, France) + +References + +External links + + + + + +Days of the year +August +Alan Curtis Kay (born May 17, 1940) is an American computer scientist best known for his pioneering work on object-oriented programming and windowing graphical user interface (GUI) design. At Xerox PARC he led the design and development of the first modern windowed computer desktop interface. There he also led the development of the influential object-oriented programming language Smalltalk, both personally designing most of the early versions of the language and coining the term "object-oriented." +He has been elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Royal Society of Arts. He received the Turing award in 2003. + +Kay is also a former professional jazz guitarist, composer, and theatrical designer. He also is an amateur classical pipe organist. + +Early life and work + +In an interview on education in America with the Davis Group Ltd., Kay said: + +Originally from Springfield, Massachusetts, Kay's family relocated several times due to his father's career in physiology before ultimately settling in the New York metropolitan area. + +He attended Brooklyn Technical High School. Having accumulated enough credits to graduate, he then attended Bethany College in Bethany, West Virginia, where he majored in biology and minored in mathematics. + +Kay then taught guitar in Denver, Colorado for a year. He was drafted in the United States Army, then qualified for officer training in the United States Air Force, where he became a computer programmer after passing an aptitude test. + +After his discharge, he enrolled at the University of Colorado Boulder and earned a Bachelor of Science (B.S.) in mathematics and molecular biology in 1966. + +In the autumn of 1966, he began graduate school at the University of Utah College of Engineering. He earned a Master of Science in electrical engineering in 1968, then a Doctor of Philosophy in computer science in 1969. His doctoral dissertation, FLEX: A Flexible Extendable Language, described the invention of a computer language named FLEX. While there, he worked with "fathers of computer graphics" David C. Evans (who had recently been recruited from the University of California, Berkeley to start Utah's computer science department) and Ivan Sutherland (best known for writing such pioneering programs as Sketchpad). Kay credits Sutherland's 1963 thesis for influencing his views on objects and computer programming. As he grew busier with research for the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), he ended his musical career. + +In 1968, he met Seymour Papert and learned of the programming language Logo, a dialect of Lisp optimized for educational purposes. This led him to learn of the work of Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, Lev Vygotsky, and of constructionist learning, further influencing his professional orientation. + +In 1969, Kay became a visiting researcher at the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory in anticipation of accepting a professorship at Carnegie Mellon University. Instead, in 1970, he joined the Xerox PARC research staff in Palo Alto, California. Through the decade, he developed prototypes of networked workstations using the programming language Smalltalk. + +Along with some colleagues at PARC, Kay is one of the fathers of the idea of object-oriented programming (OOP), which he named. Some original object-oriented concepts, including the use of the words 'object' and 'class', had been developed for Simula 67 at the Norwegian Computing Center. Kay said: + +I'm sorry that I long ago coined the term "objects" for this topic because it gets many people to focus on the lesser idea. The big idea is "messaging". + +While at PARC, Kay conceived the Dynabook concept, a key progenitor of laptop and tablet computers and the e-book. He is also the architect of the modern overlapping windowing graphical user interface (GUI). Because the Dynabook was conceived as an educational platform, he is considered one of the first researchers into mobile learning; many features of the Dynabook concept have been adopted in the design of the One Laptop Per Child educational platform, with which Kay is actively involved. + +Subsequent work +From 1981 to 1984, Kay was Chief Scientist at Atari. In 1984, he became an Apple Fellow. After the closure of the Apple Advanced Technology Group in 1997, he was recruited by his friend Bran Ferren, head of research and development at Disney, to join Walt Disney Imagineering as a Disney Fellow. He remained there until Ferren left to start Applied Minds Inc with Imagineer Danny Hillis, leading to the cessation of the Fellows program. + +In 2001, Kay founded Viewpoints Research Institute, a nonprofit organization dedicated to children, learning, and advanced software development. For their first ten years, Kay and his Viewpoints group were based at Applied Minds in Glendale, California, where he and Ferren worked on various projects. Kay served as president of the Institute until its closure in 2018. + +In 2002 Kay joined HP Labs as a senior fellow, departing when HP disbanded the Advanced Software Research Team on July 20, 2005. +He has been an adjunct professor of computer science at the University of California, Los Angeles, a visiting professor at Kyoto University, and an adjunct professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Kay served on the advisory board of TTI/Vanguard. + +Squeak, Etoys, and Croquet +In December 1995, while still at Apple, Kay collaborated with many others to start the open source Squeak version of Smalltalk. As part of this effort, in November 1996, his team began research on what became the Etoys system. More recently he started, with David A. Smith, David P. Reed, Andreas Raab, Rick McGeer, Julian Lombardi, and Mark McCahill, the Croquet Project, an open-source networked 2D and 3D environment for collaborative work. + +Tweak +In 2001, it became clear that the Etoy architecture in Squeak had reached its limits in what the Morphic interface infrastructure could do. Andreas Raab, a researcher in Kay's group then at Hewlett-Packard, proposed defining a "script process" and providing a default scheduling mechanism that avoided several more general problems. The result was a new user interface, proposed to replace the Squeak Morphic user interface. Tweak added mechanisms of islands, asynchronous messaging, players and costumes, language extensions, projects, and tile scripting. Its underlying object system is class-based, but to users (during programming) it acts as if it were prototype-based. Tweak objects are created and run in Tweak project windows. + +The Children's Machine +In November 2005, at the World Summit on the Information Society, the MIT research laboratories unveiled a new laptop computer for educational use around the world. It has many names, including the $100 Laptop, the One Laptop per Child program, the Children's Machine, and the XO-1. The program was founded and is sustained by Kay's friend Nicholas Negroponte, and is based on Kay's Dynabook ideal. Kay is a prominent co-developer of the computer, focusing on its educational software using Squeak and Etoys. + +Reinventing programming +Kay has lectured extensively on the idea that the computer revolution is very new, and all of the good ideas have not been universally implemented. His lectures at the OOPSLA 1997 conference, and his ACM Turing Award talk, "The Computer Revolution Hasn't Happened Yet", were informed by his experiences with Sketchpad, Simula, Smalltalk, and the bloated code of commercial software. + +On August 31, 2006, Kay's proposal to the United States National Science Foundation (NSF) was granted, funding Viewpoints Research Institute for several years. The proposal title was "STEPS Toward the Reinvention of Programming: A compact and Practical Model of Personal Computing as a Self-exploratorium". A sense of what Kay is trying to do comes from this quote, from the abstract of a seminar at Intel Research Labs, Berkeley: "The conglomeration of commercial and most open source software consumes in the neighborhood of several hundreds of millions of lines of code these days. We wonder: how small could be an understandable practical 'Model T' design that covers this functionality? 1M lines of code? 200K LOC? 100K LOC? 20K LOC?" + +Awards and honors + +Kay has received many awards and honors, including: + UdK 01-Award in Berlin, Germany for pioneering the GUI; J-D Warnier Prix D'Informatique; NEC C&C Prize (2001) + Telluride Tech Festival Award of Technology in Telluride, Colorado (2002) + ACM Turing Award "For pioneering many of the ideas at the root of contemporary object-oriented programming languages, leading the team that developed Smalltalk, and for fundamental contributions to personal computing" (2003) + Kyoto Prize; Charles Stark Draper Prize with Butler W. Lampson, Robert W. Taylor and Charles P. Thacker (2004) + UPE Abacus Award, for individuals who have provided extensive support and leadership for student-related activities in the computing and information disciplines (2012) + Honorary doctorates: +– Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan (Royal Institute of Technology) in Stockholm (2002) +– Georgia Institute of Technology (2005) +– Columbia College Chicago awarded Doctor of Humane Letters, Honoris Causa (2005) +– Laurea Honoris Causa in Informatica, Università di Pisa, Italy (2007) +– University of Waterloo (2008) +– Kyoto University (2009) +– Universidad de Murcia (2010) +– University of Edinburgh (2017) + Honorary Professor, Berlin University of the Arts + Elected fellow of: +– American Academy of Arts and Sciences +– National Academy of Engineering for inventing the concept of portable personal computing. (1997) +– Royal Society of Arts +– Computer History Museum "for his fundamental contributions to personal computing and human-computer interface development." (1999) +– Association for Computing Machinery "For fundamental contributions to personal computing and object-oriented programming." (2008) +– Hasso Plattner Institute (2011) + +His other honors include the J-D Warnier Prix d'Informatique, the ACM Systems Software Award, the NEC Computers & Communication Foundation Prize, the Funai Foundation Prize, the Lewis Branscomb Technology Award, and the ACM SIGCSE Award for Outstanding Contributions to Computer Science Education. + +See also + List of pioneers in computer science + +References + +External links + Viewpoints Research Institute + + "There is no information content in Alan Kay" 2012 + Programming a problem-oriented language, an unpublished book, by Charles H. Moore, June 1970 + +1940 births +American computer programmers +American computer scientists +Apple Inc. employees +Apple Fellows +Atari people +Computer science educators +Draper Prize winners +Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science +Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery +Hewlett-Packard people +Human–computer interaction researchers +Living people +Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty +Open source advocates +People from Springfield, Massachusetts +Programming language designers +Scientists at PARC (company) +Turing Award laureates +University of California, Los Angeles faculty +University of Colorado Boulder alumni +University of Utah alumni +Kyoto laureates in Advanced Technology +Academic staff of the Berlin University of the Arts +APL (named after the book A Programming Language) is a programming language developed in the 1960s by Kenneth E. Iverson. Its central datatype is the multidimensional array. It uses a large range of special graphic symbols to represent most functions and operators, leading to very concise code. It has been an important influence on the development of concept modeling, spreadsheets, functional programming, and computer math packages. It has also inspired several other programming languages. + +History + +Mathematical notation +A mathematical notation for manipulating arrays was developed by Kenneth E. Iverson, starting in 1957 at Harvard University. In 1960, he began work for IBM where he developed this notation with Adin Falkoff and published it in his book A Programming Language in 1962. The preface states its premise: + +This notation was used inside IBM for short research reports on computer systems, such as the Burroughs B5000 and its stack mechanism when stack machines versus register machines were being evaluated by IBM for upcoming computers. + +Iverson also used his notation in a draft of the chapter A Programming Language, written for a book he was writing with Fred Brooks, Automatic Data Processing, which would be published in 1963. + +In 1979, Iverson received the Turing Award for his work on APL. + +Development into a computer programming language +As early as 1962, the first attempt to use the notation to describe a complete computer system happened after Falkoff discussed with William C. Carter his work to standardize the instruction set for the machines that later became the IBM System/360 family. + +In 1963, Herbert Hellerman, working at the IBM Systems Research Institute, implemented a part of the notation on an IBM 1620 computer, and it was used by students in a special high school course on calculating transcendental functions by series summation. Students tested their code in Hellerman's lab. This implementation of a part of the notation was called Personalized Array Translator (PAT). + +In 1963, Falkoff, Iverson, and Edward H. Sussenguth Jr., all working at IBM, used the notation for a formal description of the IBM System/360 series machine architecture and functionality, which resulted in a paper published in IBM Systems Journal in 1964. After this was published, the team turned their attention to an implementation of the notation on a computer system. One of the motivations for this focus of implementation was the interest of John L. Lawrence who had new duties with Science Research Associates, an educational company bought by IBM in 1964. Lawrence asked Iverson and his group to help use the language as a tool to develop and use computers in education. + +After Lawrence M. Breed and Philip S. Abrams of Stanford University joined the team at IBM Research, they continued their prior work on an implementation programmed in FORTRAN IV for a part of the notation which had been done for the IBM 7090 computer running on the IBSYS operating system. This work was finished in late 1965 and later named IVSYS (for Iverson system). The basis of this implementation was described in detail by Abrams in a Stanford University Technical Report, "An Interpreter for Iverson Notation" in 1966. The academic aspect of this was formally supervised by Niklaus Wirth. Like Hellerman's PAT system earlier, this implementation did not include the APL character set but used special English reserved words for functions and operators. The system was later adapted for a time-sharing system and, by November 1966, it had been reprogrammed for the IBM System/360 Model 50 computer running in a time-sharing mode and was used internally at IBM. + +Hardware + +A key development in the ability to use APL effectively, before the wide use of cathode ray tube (CRT) terminals, was the development of a special IBM Selectric typewriter interchangeable typing element with all the special APL characters on it. This was used on paper printing terminal workstations using the Selectric typewriter and typing element mechanism, such as the IBM 1050 and IBM 2741 terminal. Keycaps could be placed over the normal keys to show which APL characters would be entered and typed when that key was struck. For the first time, a programmer could type in and see proper APL characters as used in Iverson's notation and not be forced to use awkward English keyword representations of them. Falkoff and Iverson had the special APL Selectric typing elements, 987 and 988, designed in late 1964, although no APL computer system was available to use them. Iverson cited Falkoff as the inspiration for the idea of using an IBM Selectric typing element for the APL character set. + +Many APL symbols, even with the APL characters on the Selectric typing element, still had to be typed in by over-striking two extant element characters. An example is the grade up character, which had to be made from a delta (shift-H) and a Sheffer stroke (shift-M). This was necessary because the APL character set was much larger than the 88 characters allowed on the typing element, even when letters were restricted to upper-case (capitals). + +Commercial availability +The first APL interactive login and creation of an APL workspace was in 1966 by Larry Breed using an IBM 1050 terminal at the IBM Mohansic Labs near Thomas J. Watson Research Center, the home of APL, in Yorktown Heights, New York. + +IBM was chiefly responsible for introducing APL to the marketplace. The first publicly available version of APL was released in 1968 for the IBM 1130. IBM provided APL\1130 for free but without liability or support. It would run in as little as 8k 16-bit words of memory, and used a dedicated 1 megabyte hard disk. + +APL gained its foothold on mainframe timesharing systems from the late 1960s through the early 1980s, in part because it would support multiple users on lower-specification systems that had no dynamic address translation hardware. Additional improvements in performance for selected IBM System/370 mainframe systems included the APL Assist Microcode in which some support for APL execution was included in the processor's firmware, as distinct from being implemented entirely by higher-level software. Somewhat later, as suitably performing hardware was finally growing available in the mid- to late-1980s, many users migrated their applications to the personal computer environment. + +Early IBM APL interpreters for IBM 360 and IBM 370 hardware implemented their own multi-user management instead of relying on the host services, thus they were their own timesharing systems. First introduced for use at IBM in 1966, the APL\360 system was a multi-user interpreter. The ability to programmatically communicate with the operating system for information and setting interpreter system variables was done through special privileged "I-beam" functions, using both monadic and dyadic operations. + +In 1973, IBM released APL.SV, which was a continuation of the same product, but which offered shared variables as a means to access facilities outside of the APL system, such as operating system files. In the mid-1970s, the IBM mainframe interpreter was even adapted for use on the IBM 5100 desktop computer, which had a small CRT and an APL keyboard, when most other small computers of the time only offered BASIC. In the 1980s, the VSAPL program product enjoyed wide use with Conversational Monitor System (CMS), Time Sharing Option (TSO), VSPC, MUSIC/SP, and CICS users. + +In 1973–1974, Patrick E. Hagerty directed the implementation of the University of Maryland APL interpreter for the 1100 line of the Sperry UNIVAC 1100/2200 series mainframe computers. In 1974, student Alan Stebbens was assigned the task of implementing an internal function. Xerox APL was available from June 1975 for Xerox 560 and Sigma 6, 7, and 9 mainframes running CP-V and for Honeywell CP-6. + +In the 1960s and 1970s, several timesharing firms arose that sold APL services using modified versions of the IBM APL\360 interpreter. In North America, the better-known ones were IP Sharp Associates, Scientific Time Sharing Corporation (STSC), Time Sharing Resources (TSR), and The Computer Company (TCC). CompuServe also entered the market in 1978 with an APL Interpreter based on a modified version of Digital Equipment Corp and Carnegie Mellon's, which ran on DEC's KI and KL 36-bit machines. CompuServe's APL was available both to its commercial market and the consumer information service. With the advent first of less expensive mainframes such as the IBM 4300, and later the personal computer, by the mid-1980s, the timesharing industry was all but gone. + +Sharp APL was available from IP Sharp Associates, first as a timesharing service in the 1960s, and later as a program product starting around 1979. Sharp APL was an advanced APL implementation with many language extensions, such as packages (the ability to put one or more objects into a single variable), a file system, nested arrays, and shared variables. + +APL interpreters were available from other mainframe and mini-computer manufacturers also, notably Burroughs, Control Data Corporation (CDC), Data General, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), Harris, Hewlett-Packard (HP), Siemens, Xerox and others. + +Garth Foster of Syracuse University sponsored regular meetings of the APL implementers' community at Syracuse's Minnowbrook Conference Center in Blue Mountain Lake, New York. In later years, Eugene McDonnell organized similar meetings at the Asilomar Conference Grounds near Monterey, California, and at Pajaro Dunes near Watsonville, California. The SIGAPL special interest group of the Association for Computing Machinery continues to support the APL community. + +Microcomputers +On microcomputers, which became available from the mid-1970s onwards, BASIC became the dominant programming language. Nevertheless, some microcomputers provided APL instead – the first being the Intel 8008-based MCM/70 which was released in 1974 and which was primarily used in education. Another machine of this time was the VideoBrain Family Computer, released in 1977, which was supplied with its dialect of APL called APL/S. + +The Commodore SuperPET, introduced in 1981, included an APL interpreter developed by the University of Waterloo. + +In 1976, Bill Gates claimed in his Open Letter to Hobbyists that Microsoft Corporation was implementing APL for the Intel 8080 and Motorola 6800 but had "very little incentive to make [it] available to hobbyists" because of software piracy. It was never released. + +APL2 +Starting in the early 1980s, IBM APL development, under the leadership of Jim Brown, implemented a new version of the APL language that contained as its primary enhancement the concept of nested arrays, where an array can contain other arrays, and new language features which facilitated integrating nested arrays into program workflow. Ken Iverson, no longer in control of the development of the APL language, left IBM and joined I. P. Sharp Associates, where one of his major contributions was directing the evolution of Sharp APL to be more in accord with his vision. APL2 was first released for CMS and TSO in 1984. The APL2 Workstation edition (Windows, OS/2, AIX, Linux, and Solaris) followed later. + +As other vendors were busy developing APL interpreters for new hardware, notably Unix-based microcomputers, APL2 was almost always the standard chosen for new APL interpreter developments. Even today, most APL vendors or their users cite APL2 compatibility as a selling point for those products. IBM cites its use for problem solving, system design, prototyping, engineering and scientific computations, expert systems, for teaching mathematics and other subjects, visualization and database access. + +Modern implementations +Various implementations of APL by APLX, Dyalog, et al., include extensions for object-oriented programming, support for .NET, XML-array conversion primitives, graphing, operating system interfaces, and lambda calculus expressions. Freeware versions include GNU APL for Linux and NARS2000 for Windows (which runs on Linux under Wine). Both of these are fairly complete versions of APL2 with various language extensions. + +Derivative languages +APL has formed the basis of, or influenced, the following languages: + A and A+, an alternative APL, the latter with graphical extensions. + FP, a functional programming language. +Ivy, an interpreter for an APL-like language developed by Rob Pike, and which uses ASCII as input. + J, which was also designed by Iverson, and which uses ASCII with digraphs instead of special symbols. + K, a proprietary variant of APL developed by Arthur Whitney. + MATLAB, a numerical computation tool. + Nial, a high-level array programming language with a functional programming notation. + Polymorphic Programming Language, an interactive, extensible language with a similar base language. + S, a statistical programming language (usually now seen in the open-source version known as R). + Snap!, a low-code block-based programming language, born as an extended reimplementation of Scratch + Speakeasy, a numerical computing interactive environment. + Wolfram Language, the programming language of Mathematica. + +Language characteristics + +Character set + +APL has been criticized and praised for its choice of a unique, non-standard character set. In the 1960s and 1970s, few terminal devices or even displays could reproduce the APL character set. The most popular ones employed the IBM Selectric print mechanism used with a special APL type element. One of the early APL line terminals (line-mode operation only, not full screen) was the Texas Instruments TI Model 745 () with the full APL character set which featured half and full duplex telecommunications modes, for interacting with an APL time-sharing service or remote mainframe to run a remote computer job, called an RJE. + +Over time, with the universal use of high-quality graphic displays, printing devices and Unicode support, the APL character font problem has largely been eliminated. However, entering APL characters requires the use of input method editors, keyboard mappings, virtual/on-screen APL symbol sets, or easy-reference printed keyboard cards which can frustrate beginners accustomed to other programming languages. With beginners who have no prior experience with other programming languages, a study involving high school students found that typing and using APL characters did not hinder the students in any measurable way. + +In defense of APL, it requires fewer characters to type, and keyboard mappings become memorized over time. Special APL keyboards are also made and in use today, as are freely downloadable fonts for operating systems such as Microsoft Windows. The reported productivity gains assume that one spends enough time working in the language to make it worthwhile to memorize the symbols, their semantics, and keyboard mappings, not to mention a substantial number of idioms for common tasks. + +Design +Unlike traditionally structured programming languages, APL code is typically structured as chains of monadic or dyadic functions, and operators acting on arrays. APL has many nonstandard primitives (functions and operators) that are indicated by a single symbol or a combination of a few symbols. All primitives are defined to have the same precedence, and always associate to the right. Thus, APL is read or best understood from right-to-left. + +Early APL implementations ( or so) had no programming loop-flow control structures, such as do or while loops, and if-then-else constructs. Instead, they used array operations, and use of structured programming constructs was often not necessary, since an operation could be performed on a full array in one statement. For example, the iota function (ι) can replace for-loop iteration: ιN when applied to a scalar positive integer yields a one-dimensional array (vector), 1 2 3 ... N. More recent implementations of APL generally include comprehensive control structures, so that data structure and program control flow can be clearly and cleanly separated. + +The APL environment is called a workspace. In a workspace the user can define programs and data, i.e., the data values exist also outside the programs, and the user can also manipulate the data without having to define a program. In the examples below, the APL interpreter first types six spaces before awaiting the user's input. Its own output starts in column one. + +The user can save the workspace with all values, programs, and execution status. + +APL uses a set of non-ASCII symbols, which are an extension of traditional arithmetic and algebraic notation. Having single character names for single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) vector functions is one way that APL enables compact formulation of algorithms for data transformation such as computing Conway's Game of Life in one line of code. In nearly all versions of APL, it is theoretically possible to express any computable function in one expression, that is, in one line of code. + +Because of the unusual character set, many programmers use special keyboards with APL keytops to write APL code. Although there are various ways to write APL code using only ASCII characters, in practice it is almost never done. (This may be thought to support Iverson's thesis about notation as a tool of thought.) Most if not all modern implementations use standard keyboard layouts, with special mappings or input method editors to access non-ASCII characters. Historically, the APL font has been distinctive, with uppercase italic alphabetic characters and upright numerals and symbols. Most vendors continue to display the APL character set in a custom font. + +Advocates of APL claim that the examples of so-called write-only code (badly written and almost incomprehensible code) are almost invariably examples of poor programming practice or novice mistakes, which can occur in any language. Advocates also claim that they are far more productive with APL than with more conventional computer languages, and that working software can be implemented in far less time and with far fewer programmers than using other technology. + +They also may claim that because it is compact and terse, APL lends itself well to larger-scale software development and complexity, because the number of lines of code can be reduced greatly. Many APL advocates and practitioners also view standard programming languages such as COBOL and Java as being comparatively tedious. APL is often found where time-to-market is important, such as with trading systems. + +Terminology +APL makes a clear distinction between functions and operators. Functions take arrays (variables or constants or expressions) as arguments, and return arrays as results. Operators (similar to higher-order functions) take functions or arrays as arguments, and derive related functions. For example, the sum function is derived by applying the reduction operator to the addition function. Applying the same reduction operator to the maximum function (which returns the larger of two numbers) derives a function which returns the largest of a group (vector) of numbers. In the J language, Iverson substituted the terms verb for function and adverb or conjunction for operator. + +APL also identifies those features built into the language, and represented by a symbol, or a fixed combination of symbols, as primitives. Most primitives are either functions or operators. Coding APL is largely a process of writing non-primitive functions and (in some versions of APL) operators. However a few primitives are considered to be neither functions nor operators, most noticeably assignment. + +Some words used in APL literature have meanings that differ from those in both mathematics and the generality of computer science. + +Syntax + +APL has explicit representations of functions, operators, and syntax, thus providing a basis for the clear and explicit statement of extended facilities in the language, and tools to experiment on them. + +Examples + +Hello, world +This displays "Hello, world": + +'Hello, world'A design theme in APL is to define default actions in some cases that would produce syntax errors in most other programming languages. + +The 'Hello, world' string constant above displays, because display is the default action on any expression for which no action is specified explicitly (e.g. assignment, function parameter). + +Exponentiation +Another example of this theme is that exponentiation in APL is written as , which indicates raising 2 to the power 3 (this would be written as or in some languages, or relegated to a function call such as in others). Many languages use to signify multiplication, as in , but APL chooses to use . However, if no base is specified (as with the statement in APL, or in other languages), most programming languages one would see this as a syntax error. APL, however, assumes the missing base to be the natural logarithm constant e, and interprets as . + +Simple statistics +Suppose that is an array of numbers. Then gives its average. Reading right-to-left, gives the number of elements in X, and since is a dyadic operator, the term to its left is required as well. It is surrounded by parentheses since otherwise X would be taken (so that the summation would be of —each element of X divided by the number of elements in X), and gives the sum of the elements of X. Building on this, the following expression computes standard deviation: + +Naturally, one would define this expression as a function for repeated use rather than rewriting it each time. Further, since assignment is an operator, it can appear within an expression, so the following would place suitable values into T, AV and SD: + +Pick 6 lottery numbers +This following immediate-mode expression generates a typical set of Pick 6 lottery numbers: six pseudo-random integers ranging from 1 to 40, guaranteed non-repeating, and displays them sorted in ascending order: + +x[⍋x←6?40] + +The above does a lot, concisely, although it may seem complex to a new APLer. It combines the following APL functions (also called primitives and glyphs): + The first to be executed (APL executes from rightmost to leftmost) is dyadic function ? (named deal when dyadic) that returns a vector consisting of a select number (left argument: 6 in this case) of random integers ranging from 1 to a specified maximum (right argument: 40 in this case), which, if said maximum ≥ vector length, is guaranteed to be non-repeating; thus, generate/create 6 random integers ranging from 1 to 40. + This vector is then assigned (←) to the variable x, because it is needed later. + This vector is then sorted in ascending order by a monadic ⍋ function, which has as its right argument everything to the right of it up to the next unbalanced close-bracket or close-parenthesis. The result of ⍋ is the indices that will put its argument into ascending order. + Then the output of ⍋ is used to index the variable x, which we saved earlier for this purpose, thereby selecting its items in ascending sequence. + +Since there is no function to the left of the left-most x to tell APL what to do with the result, it simply outputs it to the display (on a single line, separated by spaces) without needing any explicit instruction to do that. + +? also has a monadic equivalent called roll, which simply returns one random integer between 1 and its sole operand [to the right of it], inclusive. Thus, a role-playing game program might use the expression ?20 to roll a twenty-sided die. + +Prime numbers +The following expression finds all prime numbers from 1 to R. In both time and space, the calculation complexity is (in Big O notation). + +(~R∊R∘.×R)/R←1↓⍳R + +Executed from right to left, this means: + Iota ⍳ creates a vector containing integers from 1 to R (if R= 6 at the start of the program, ⍳R is 1 2 3 4 5 6) + Drop first element of this vector (↓ function), i.e., 1. So 1↓⍳R is 2 3 4 5 6 + Set R to the new vector (←, assignment primitive), i.e., 2 3 4 5 6 + The / replicate operator is dyadic (binary) and the interpreter first evaluates its left argument (fully in parentheses): + Generate outer product of R multiplied by R, i.e., a matrix that is the multiplication table of R by R (°.× operator), i.e., + + Build a vector the same length as R with 1 in each place where the corresponding number in R is in the outer product matrix (∈, set inclusion or element of or Epsilon operator), i.e., 0 0 1 0 1 + Logically negate (not) values in the vector (change zeros to ones and ones to zeros) (∼, logical not or Tilde operator), i.e., 1 1 0 1 0 + Select the items in R for which the corresponding element is 1 (/ replicate operator), i.e., 2 3 5 +(Note, this assumes the APL origin is 1, i.e., indices start with 1. APL can be set to use 0 as the origin, so that ι6 is 0 1 2 3 4 5, which is convenient for some calculations.) + +Sorting +The following expression sorts a word list stored in matrix X according to word length: + +X[⍋X+.≠' ';] + +Game of Life +The following function "life", written in Dyalog APL, takes a boolean matrix and calculates the new generation according to Conway's Game of Life. It demonstrates the power of APL to implement a complex algorithm in very little code, but understanding it requires some advanced knowledge of APL (as the same program would in many languages). + +life ← {⊃1 ⍵ ∨.∧ 3 4 = +/ +⌿ ¯1 0 1 ∘.⊖ ¯1 0 1 ⌽¨ ⊂⍵} + +HTML tags removal +In the following example, also Dyalog, the first line assigns some HTML code to a variable txt and then uses an APL expression to remove all the HTML tags (explanation): + + txt←'

This is emphasized text.

' + {⍵ /⍨ ~{⍵∨≠\⍵}⍵∊'<>'} txt +This is emphasized text. + +Naming +APL derives its name from the initials of Iverson's book A Programming Language, even though the book describes Iverson's mathematical notation, rather than the implemented programming language described in this article. The name is used only for actual implementations, starting with APL\360. + +Adin Falkoff coined the name in 1966 during the implementation of APL\360 at IBM: + +APL is occasionally re-interpreted as Array Programming Language or Array Processing Language, thereby making APL into a backronym. + +Logo +There has always been cooperation between APL vendors, and joint conferences were held on a regular basis from 1969 until 2010. At such conferences, APL merchandise was often handed out, featuring APL motifs or collection of vendor logos. Common were apples (as a pun on the similarity in pronunciation of apple and APL) and the code snippet which are the symbols produced by the classic APL keyboard layout when holding the APL modifier key and typing "APL". + +Despite all these community efforts, no universal vendor-agnostic logo for the programming language emerged. As popular programming languages increasingly have established recognisable logos, Fortran getting one in 2020, British APL Association launched a campaign in the second half of 2021, to establish such a logo for APL, and after a community election and multiple rounds of feedback, a logo was chosen in May 2022. + +Use +APL is used for many purposes including financial and insurance applications, artificial intelligence, +neural networks +and robotics. It has been argued that APL is a calculation tool and not a programming language; its symbolic nature and array capabilities have made it popular with domain experts and data scientists who do not have or require the skills of a computer programmer. + +APL is well suited to image manipulation and computer animation, where graphic transformations can be encoded as matrix multiplications. One of the first commercial computer graphics houses, Digital Effects, produced an APL graphics product named Visions, which was used to create television commercials and animation for the 1982 film Tron. Latterly, the Stormwind boating simulator uses APL to implement its core logic, its interfacing to the rendering pipeline middleware and a major part of its physics engine. + +Today, APL remains in use in a wide range of commercial and scientific applications, for example +investment management, +asset management, +health care, +and DNA profiling, +and by hobbyists. + +Notable implementations + +APL\360 +The first implementation of APL using recognizable APL symbols was APL\360 which ran on the IBM System/360, and was completed in November 1966 though at that time remained in use only within IBM. In 1973 its implementors, Larry Breed, Dick Lathwell and Roger Moore, were awarded the Grace Murray Hopper Award from the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). It was given "for their work in the design and implementation of APL\360, setting new standards in simplicity, efficiency, reliability and response time for interactive systems." + +In 1975, the IBM 5100 microcomputer offered APL\360 as one of two built-in ROM-based interpreted languages for the computer, complete with a keyboard and display that supported all the special symbols used in the language. + +Significant developments to APL\360 included CMS/APL, which made use of the virtual storage capabilities of CMS and APLSV, which introduced shared variables, system variables and system functions. It was subsequently ported to the IBM System/370 and VSPC platforms until its final release in 1983, after which it was replaced by APL2. + +APL\1130 +In 1968, APL\1130 became the first publicly available APL system, created by IBM for the IBM 1130. It became the most popular IBM Type-III Library software that IBM released. + +APL*Plus and Sharp APL + +APL*Plus and Sharp APL are versions of APL\360 with added business-oriented extensions such as data formatting and facilities to store APL arrays in external files. They were jointly developed by two companies, employing various members of the original IBM APL\360 development team. + +The two companies were I. P. Sharp Associates (IPSA), an APL\360 services company formed in 1964 by Ian Sharp, Roger Moore and others, and STSC, a time-sharing and consulting service company formed in 1969 by Lawrence Breed and others. Together the two developed APL*Plus and thereafter continued to work together but develop APL separately as APL*Plus and Sharp APL. STSC ported APL*Plus to many platforms with versions being made for the VAX 11, PC and UNIX, whereas IPSA took a different approach to the arrival of the personal computer and made Sharp APL available on this platform using additional PC-XT/360 hardware. In 1993, Soliton Incorporated was formed to support Sharp APL and it developed Sharp APL into SAX (Sharp APL for Unix). , APL*Plus continues as APL2000 APL+Win. + +In 1985, Ian Sharp, and Dan Dyer of STSC, jointly received the Kenneth E. Iverson Award for Outstanding Contribution to APL. + +APL2 +APL2 was a significant re-implementation of APL by IBM which was developed from 1971 and first released in 1984. It provides many additions to the language, of which the most notable is nested (non-rectangular) array support. The entire APL2 Products and Services Team was awarded the Iverson Award in 2007. + +In 2021, IBM sold APL2 to Log-On Software, who develop and sell the product as Log-On APL2. + +APLGOL +In 1972, APLGOL was released as an experimental version of APL that added structured programming language constructs to the language framework. New statements were added for interstatement control, conditional statement execution, and statement structuring, as well as statements to clarify the intent of the algorithm. It was implemented for Hewlett-Packard in 1977. + +Dyalog APL +Dyalog APL was first released by British company Dyalog Ltd. in 1983 and, , is available for AIX, Linux (including on the Raspberry Pi), macOS and Microsoft Windows platforms. It is based on APL2, with extensions to support object-oriented programming, functional programming, and tacit programming. Licences are free for personal/non-commercial use. + +In 1995, two of the development team – John Scholes and Peter Donnelly – were awarded the Iverson Award for their work on the interpreter. Gitte Christensen and Morten Kromberg were joint recipients of the Iverson Award in 2016. + +NARS2000 +NARS2000 is an open-source APL interpreter written by Bob Smith, a prominent APL developer and implementor from STSC in the 1970s and 1980s. NARS2000 contains advanced features and new datatypes and runs natively on Microsoft Windows, and other platforms under Wine. It is named after a development tool from the 1980s, NARS (Nested Arrays Research System). + +APLX + +APLX is a cross-platform dialect of APL, based on APL2 and with several extensions, which was first released by British company MicroAPL in 2002. Although no longer in development or on commercial sale it is now available free of charge from Dyalog. + +York APL + +York APL was developed at the York University, Ontario around 1968, running on IBM 360 mainframes. One notable difference between it and APL\360 was that it defined the "shape" (ρ) of a scalar as 1 whereas APL\360 defined it as the more mathematically correct 0 — this made it easier to write functions that acted the same with scalars and vectors. + +GNU APL +GNU APL is a free implementation of Extended APL as specified in ISO/IEC 13751:2001 and is thus an implementation of APL2. It runs on Linux, macOS, several BSD dialects, and on Windows (either using Cygwin for full support of all its system functions or as a native 64-bit Windows binary with some of its system functions missing). GNU APL uses Unicode internally and can be scripted. It was written by Jürgen Sauermann. + +Richard Stallman, founder of the GNU Project, was an early adopter of APL, using it to write a text editor as a high school student in the summer of 1969. + +Interpretation and compilation of APL +APL is traditionally an interpreted language, having language characteristics such as weak variable typing not well suited to compilation. However, with arrays as its core data structure it provides opportunities for performance gains through parallelism, parallel computing, massively parallel applications, and very-large-scale integration (VLSI), and from the outset APL has been regarded as a high-performance language – for example, it was noted for the speed with which it could perform complicated matrix operations "because it operates on arrays and performs operations like matrix inversion internally". + +Nevertheless, APL is rarely purely interpreted and compilation or partial compilation techniques that are, or have been, used include the following: + +Idiom recognition +Most APL interpreters support idiom recognition and evaluate common idioms as single operations. For example, by evaluating the idiom BV/⍳⍴A as a single operation (where BV is a Boolean vector and A is an array), the creation of two intermediate arrays is avoided. + +Optimised bytecode +Weak typing in APL means that a name may reference an array (of any datatype), a function or an operator. In general, the interpreter cannot know in advance which form it will be and must therefore perform analysis, syntax checking etc. at run-time. However, in certain circumstances, it is possible to deduce in advance what type a name is expected to reference and then generate bytecode which can be executed with reduced run-time overhead. This bytecode can also be optimised using compilation techniques such as constant folding or common subexpression elimination. The interpreter will execute the bytecode when present and when any assumptions which have been made are met. Dyalog APL includes support for optimised bytecode. + +Compilation +Compilation of APL has been the subject of research and experiment since the language first became available; the first compiler is considered to be the Burroughs APL-700 which was released around 1971. In order to be able to compile APL, language limitations have to be imposed. APEX is a research APL compiler which was written by Robert Bernecky and is available under the GNU Public License. + +The STSC APL Compiler is a hybrid of a bytecode optimiser and a compiler – it enables compilation of functions to machine code provided that its sub-functions and globals are declared, but the interpreter is still used as a runtime library and to execute functions which do not meet the compilation requirements. + +Standards +APL has been standardized by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) working group X3J10 and International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 Subcommittee 22 Working Group 3. The Core APL language is specified in ISO 8485:1989, and the Extended APL language is specified in ISO/IEC 13751:2001. + +References + +Further reading + An APL Machine (1970 Stanford doctoral dissertation by Philip Abrams) + A Personal History Of APL (1982 article by Michael S. Montalbano) + + + A Programming Language by Kenneth E. Iverson + APL in Exposition by Kenneth E. Iverson + Brooks, Frederick P.; Kenneth Iverson (1965). Automatic Data Processing, System/360 Edition. . + +Video + – a 1974 talk show style interview with the original developers of APL. + – a 1975 live demonstration of APL by Professor Bob Spence, Imperial College London. + – a 2009 tutorial by John Scholes of Dyalog Ltd. which implements Conway's Game of Life in a single line of APL. + – a 2009 introduction to APL by Graeme Robertson. + +External links + +Online resources + TryAPL.org, an online APL primer + + APL2C, a source of links to APL compilers + +.NET programming languages +APL programming language family +Array programming languages +Command shells +Dynamic programming languages +Dynamically typed programming languages +Functional languages +IBM software +Programming languages created in 1964 +Programming languages with an ISO standard +Programming languages +Homoiconic programming languages +ALGOL (; short for "Algorithmic Language") is a family of imperative computer programming languages originally developed in 1958. ALGOL heavily influenced many other languages and was the standard method for algorithm description used by the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) in textbooks and academic sources for more than thirty years. + +In the sense that the syntax of most modern languages is "Algol-like", it was arguably more influential than three other high-level programming languages among which it was roughly contemporary: FORTRAN, Lisp, and COBOL. It was designed to avoid some of the perceived problems with FORTRAN and eventually gave rise to many other programming languages, including PL/I, Simula, BCPL, B, Pascal, and C. + +ALGOL introduced code blocks and the begin...end pairs for delimiting them. It was also the first language implementing nested function definitions with lexical scope. Moreover, it was the first programming language which gave detailed attention to formal language definition and through the Algol 60 Report introduced Backus–Naur form, a principal formal grammar notation for language design. + +There were three major specifications, named after the years they were first published: + ALGOL 58 – originally proposed to be called IAL, for International Algebraic Language. + ALGOL 60 – first implemented as X1 ALGOL 60 in 1961. Revised 1963. + ALGOL 68 – introduced new elements including flexible arrays, slices, parallelism, operator identification. Revised 1973. + +ALGOL 68 is substantially different from ALGOL 60 and was not well received, so in general "Algol" means ALGOL 60 and its dialects. + +History + +ALGOL was developed jointly by a committee of European and American computer scientists in a meeting in 1958 at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich (cf. ALGOL 58). It specified three different syntaxes: a reference syntax, a publication syntax, and an implementation syntax. The different syntaxes permitted it to use different keyword names and conventions for decimal points (commas vs periods) for different languages. + +ALGOL was used mostly by research computer scientists in the United States and in Europe. Its use in commercial applications was hindered by the absence of standard input/output facilities in its description and the lack of interest in the language by large computer vendors other than Burroughs Corporation. ALGOL 60 did however become the standard for the publication of algorithms and had a profound effect on future language development. + +John Backus developed the Backus normal form method of describing programming languages specifically for ALGOL 58. It was revised and expanded by Peter Naur for ALGOL 60, and at Donald Knuth's suggestion renamed Backus–Naur form. + +Peter Naur: "As editor of the ALGOL Bulletin I was drawn into the international discussions of the language and was selected to be member of the European language design group in November 1959. In this capacity I was the editor of the ALGOL 60 report, produced as the result of the ALGOL 60 meeting in Paris in January 1960." + +The following people attended the meeting in Paris (from 1 to 16 January): + Friedrich Ludwig Bauer, Peter Naur, Heinz Rutishauser, Klaus Samelson, Bernard Vauquois, Adriaan van Wijngaarden, and Michael Woodger (from Europe) + John Warner Backus, Julien Green, Charles Katz, John McCarthy, Alan Jay Perlis, and Joseph Henry Wegstein (from the US). +Alan Perlis gave a vivid description of the meeting: "The meetings were exhausting, interminable, and exhilarating. One became aggravated when one's good ideas were discarded along with the bad ones of others. Nevertheless, diligence persisted during the entire period. The chemistry of the 13 was excellent." + +ALGOL 60 inspired many languages that followed it. Tony Hoare remarked: "Here is a language so far ahead of its time that it was not only an improvement on its predecessors but also on nearly all its successors." The Scheme programming language, a variant of Lisp that adopted the block structure and lexical scope of ALGOL, also adopted the wording "Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme" for its standards documents in homage to ALGOL. + +ALGOL and programming language research +As Peter Landin noted, ALGOL was the first language to combine seamlessly imperative effects with the (call-by-name) lambda calculus. Perhaps the most elegant formulation of the language is due to John C. Reynolds, and it best exhibits its syntactic and semantic purity. Reynolds's idealized ALGOL also made a convincing methodologic argument regarding the suitability of local effects in the context of call-by-name languages, in contrast with the global effects used by call-by-value languages such as ML. The conceptual integrity of the language made it one of the main objects of semantic research, along with Programming Computable Functions (PCF) and ML. + +IAL implementations timeline +To date there have been at least 70 augmentations, extensions, derivations and sublanguages of Algol 60. + +The Burroughs dialects included special Bootstrapping dialects such as ESPOL and NEWP. The latter is still used for Unisys MCP system software. + +Properties +ALGOL 60 as officially defined had no I/O facilities; implementations defined their own in ways that were rarely compatible with each other. In contrast, ALGOL 68 offered an extensive library of transput (input/output) facilities. + +ALGOL 60 allowed for two evaluation strategies for parameter passing: the common call-by-value, and call-by-name. Call-by-name has certain effects in contrast to call-by-reference. For example, without specifying the parameters as value or reference, it is impossible to develop a procedure that will swap the values of two parameters if the actual parameters that are passed in are an integer variable and an array that is indexed by that same integer variable. Think of passing a pointer to swap(i, A[i]) in to a function. Now that every time swap is referenced, it is reevaluated. Say i := 1 and A[i] := 2, so every time swap is referenced it will return the other combination of the values ([1,2], [2,1], [1,2] and so on). A similar situation occurs with a random function passed as actual argument. + +Call-by-name is known by many compiler designers for the interesting "thunks" that are used to implement it. Donald Knuth devised the "man or boy test" to separate compilers that correctly implemented "recursion and non-local references." This test contains an example of call-by-name. + +ALGOL 68 was defined using a two-level grammar formalism invented by Adriaan van Wijngaarden and which bears his name. Van Wijngaarden grammars use a context-free grammar to generate an infinite set of productions that will recognize a particular ALGOL 68 program; notably, they are able to express the kind of requirements that in many other programming language standards are labelled "semantics" and have to be expressed in ambiguity-prone natural language prose, and then implemented in compilers as ad hoc code attached to the formal language parser. + +Examples and portability issues + +Code sample comparisons + +ALGOL 60 +(The way the bold text has to be written depends on the implementation, e.g. 'INTEGER'—quotation marks included—for integer. This is known as stropping.) + + procedure Absmax(a) Size:(n, m) Result:(y) Subscripts:(i, k); + value n, m; array a; integer n, m, i, k; real y; + comment The absolute greatest element of the matrix a, of size n by m, + is copied to y, and the subscripts of this element to i and k; + begin + integer p, q; + y := 0; i := k := 1; + for p := 1 step 1 until n do + for q := 1 step 1 until m do + if abs(a[p, q]) > y then + begin y := abs(a[p, q]); + i := p; k := q + end + end Absmax + +Here is an example of how to produce a table using Elliott 803 ALGOL. + + FLOATING POINT ALGOL TEST' + BEGIN REAL A,B,C,D' + READ D' + FOR A:= 0.0 STEP D UNTIL 6.3 DO + BEGIN + PRINT PUNCH(3),££L??' + B := SIN(A)' + C := COS(A)' + PRINT PUNCH(3),SAMELINE,ALIGNED(1,6),A,B,C' + END + END' + +PUNCH(3) sends output to the teleprinter rather than the tape punch. +SAMELINE suppresses the carriage return + line feed normally printed between arguments. +ALIGNED(1,6) controls the format of the output with one digit before and six after the decimal point. + +ALGOL 68 +The following code samples are ALGOL 68 versions of the above ALGOL 60 code samples. + +ALGOL 68 implementations used ALGOL 60's approaches to stropping. In ALGOL 68's case tokens with the bold typeface are reserved words, types (modes) or operators. + + proc abs max = ([,]real a, ref real y, ref int i, k)real: + comment The absolute greatest element of the matrix a, of size ⌈a by 2⌈a + is transferred to y, and the subscripts of this element to i and k; comment + begin + real y := 0; i := ⌊a; k := 2⌊a; + for p from ⌊a to ⌈a do + for q from 2⌊a to 2⌈a do + if abs a[p, q] > y then + y := abs a[p, q]; + i := p; k := q + fi + od + od; + y + end # abs max # + +Note: lower (⌊) and upper (⌈) bounds of an array, and array slicing, are directly available to the programmer. + + floating point algol68 test: + ( + real a,b,c,d; +   + # printf – sends output to the file stand out. # + # printf($p$); – selects a new page # + printf(($pg$,"Enter d:")); + read(d); +   + for step from 0 while a:=step*d; a <= 2*pi do + printf($l$); # $l$ - selects a new line. # + b := sin(a); + c := cos(a); + printf(($z-d.6d$,a,b,c)) # formats output with 1 digit before and 6 after the decimal point. # + od + ) + +Timeline: Hello world +The variations and lack of portability of the programs from one implementation to another is easily demonstrated by the classic hello world program. + +ALGOL 58 (IAL) + +ALGOL 58 had no I/O facilities. + +ALGOL 60 family + +Since ALGOL 60 had no I/O facilities, there is no portable hello world program in ALGOL. +The next three examples are in Burroughs Extended Algol. The first two direct output at the interactive terminal they are run on. The first uses a character array, similar to C. The language allows the array identifier to be used as a pointer to the array, and hence in a REPLACE statement. + +A simpler program using an inline format: + +An even simpler program using the Display statement. Note that its output would end up at the system console ('SPO'): + +An alternative example, using Elliott Algol I/O is as follows. Elliott Algol used different characters for "open-string-quote" and "close-string-quote", represented here by and . + +Below is a version from Elliott 803 Algol (A104). The standard Elliott 803 used five-hole paper tape and thus only had upper case. The code lacked any quote characters so £ (UK Pound Sign) was used for open quote and ? (Question Mark) for close quote. Special sequences were placed in double quotes (e.g. ££L?? produced a new line on the teleprinter). + + HIFOLKS' + BEGIN + PRINT £HELLO WORLD£L??' + END' + +The ICT 1900 series Algol I/O version allowed input from paper tape or punched card. Paper tape 'full' mode allowed lower case. Output was to a line printer. The open and close quote characters were represented using '(' and ')' and spaces by %. + 'BEGIN' + WRITE TEXT('('HELLO%WORLD')'); + 'END' + +ALGOL 68 + +ALGOL 68 code was published with reserved words typically in lowercase, but bolded or underlined. + begin + printf(($gl$,"Hello, world!")) + end +In the language of the "Algol 68 Report" the input/output facilities were collectively called the "Transput". + +Timeline of ALGOL special characters + +The ALGOLs were conceived at a time when character sets were diverse and evolving rapidly; also, the ALGOLs were defined so that only uppercase letters were required. + +1960: IFIP – The Algol 60 language and report included several mathematical symbols which are available on modern computers and operating systems, but, unfortunately, were unsupported on most computing systems at the time. For instance: ×, ÷, ≤, ≥, ≠, ¬, ∨, ∧, ⊂, ≡, ␣ and ⏨. + +1961 September: ASCII – The ASCII character set, then in an early stage of development, had the \ (Back slash) character added to it in order to support ALGOL's boolean operators /\ and \/. + +1962: ALCOR – This character set included the unusual "᛭" runic cross character for multiplication and the "⏨" Decimal Exponent Symbol for floating point notation. + +1964: GOST – The 1964 Soviet standard GOST 10859 allowed the encoding of 4-bit, 5-bit, 6-bit and 7-bit characters in ALGOL. + +1968: The "Algol 68 Report" – used extant ALGOL characters, and further adopted →, ↓, ↑, □, ⌊, ⌈, ⎩, ⎧, ○, ⊥, and ¢ characters which can be found on the IBM 2741 keyboard with typeball (or golf ball) print heads inserted (such as the APL golf ball). These became available in the mid-1960s while ALGOL 68 was being drafted. The report was translated into Russian, German, French, and Bulgarian, and allowed programming in languages with larger character sets, e.g., Cyrillic alphabet of the Soviet BESM-4. All ALGOL's characters are also part of the Unicode standard and most of them are available in several popular fonts. + +2009 October: Unicode – The ⏨ (Decimal Exponent Symbol) for floating point notation was added to Unicode 5.2 for backward compatibility with historic Buran programme ALGOL software. + +See also + +References + +Further reading + + Brian Randell and L. J. Russell, ALGOL 60 Implementation: The Translation and Use of ALGOL 60 Programs on a Computer. Academic Press, 1964. The design of the Whetstone Compiler. One of the early published descriptions of implementing a compiler. See the related papers: Whetstone Algol Revisited, and The Whetstone KDF9 Algol Translator by Brian Randell + + + Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Algol 60 by Peter Naur, et al. ALGOL definition + "The European Side of the Last Phase of the Development of ALGOL 60" by Peter Naur + +External links + History of ALGOL at the Computer History Museum + Web enabled ALGOL-F compiler for small experiments + An online ALGOL compiler + +ALGOL 60 dialect + +Articles with example ALGOL 60 code +Computer-related introductions in 1958 +Procedural programming languages +Programming languages created in 1958 +Structured programming languages +Systems programming languages +AWK (awk ) is a domain-specific language designed for text processing and typically used as a data extraction and reporting tool. Like sed and grep, it is a filter, and is a standard feature of most Unix-like operating systems. + +The AWK language is a data-driven scripting language consisting of a set of actions to be taken against streams of textual data – either run directly on files or used as part of a pipeline – for purposes of extracting or transforming text, such as producing formatted reports. The language extensively uses the string datatype, associative arrays (that is, arrays indexed by key strings), and regular expressions. While AWK has a limited intended application domain and was especially designed to support one-liner programs, the language is Turing-complete, and even the early Bell Labs users of AWK often wrote well-structured large AWK programs. + +AWK was created at Bell Labs in the 1970s, and its name is derived from the surnames of its authors: Alfred Aho, Peter Weinberger, and Brian Kernighan. The acronym is pronounced the same as the name of the bird species auk, which is illustrated on the cover of The AWK Programming Language. When written in all lowercase letters, as awk, it refers to the Unix or Plan 9 program that runs scripts written in the AWK programming language. + +History +AWK was initially developed in 1977 by Alfred Aho (author of egrep), Peter J. Weinberger (who worked on tiny relational databases), and Brian Kernighan. AWK takes its name from their respective initials. According to Kernighan, one of the goals of AWK was to have a tool that would easily manipulate both numbers and strings. +AWK was also inspired by Marc Rochkind's programming language that was used to search for patterns in input data, and was implemented using yacc. + +As one of the early tools to appear in Version 7 Unix, AWK added computational features to a Unix pipeline besides the Bourne shell, the only scripting language available in a standard Unix environment. It is one of the mandatory utilities of the Single UNIX Specification, and is required by the Linux Standard Base specification. + +AWK was significantly revised and expanded in 1985–88, resulting in the GNU AWK implementation written by Paul Rubin, Jay Fenlason, and Richard Stallman, released in 1988. GNU AWK may be the most widely deployed version because it is included with GNU-based Linux packages. GNU AWK has been maintained solely by Arnold Robbins since 1994. Brian Kernighan's nawk (New AWK) source was first released in 1993 unpublicized, and publicly since the late 1990s; many BSD systems use it to avoid the GPL license. + +AWK was preceded by sed (1974). Both were designed for text processing. They share the line-oriented, data-driven paradigm, and are particularly suited to writing one-liner programs, due to the implicit main loop and current line variables. The power and terseness of early AWK programs – notably the powerful regular expression handling and conciseness due to implicit variables, which facilitate one-liners – together with the limitations of AWK at the time, were important inspirations for the Perl language (1987). In the 1990s, Perl became very popular, competing with AWK in the niche of Unix text-processing languages. + +Structure of AWK programs + +An AWK program is a series of pattern action pairs, written as: + +condition { action } +condition { action } +... + +where condition is typically an expression and action is a series of commands. The input is split into records, where by default records are separated by newline characters so that the input is split into lines. The program tests each record against each of the conditions in turn, and executes the action for each expression that is true. Either the condition or the action may be omitted. The condition defaults to matching every record. The default action is to print the record. This is the same pattern-action structure as sed. + +In addition to a simple AWK expression, such as foo == 1 or /^foo/, the condition can be BEGIN or END causing the action to be executed before or after all records have been read, or pattern1, pattern2 which matches the range of records starting with a record that matches pattern1 up to and including the record that matches pattern2 before again trying to match against pattern1 on subsequent lines. + +In addition to normal arithmetic and logical operators, AWK expressions include the tilde operator, ~, which matches a regular expression against a string. As handy syntactic sugar, /regexp/ without using the tilde operator matches against the current record; this syntax derives from sed, which in turn inherited it from the ed editor, where / is used for searching. This syntax of using slashes as delimiters for regular expressions was subsequently adopted by Perl and ECMAScript, and is now common. The tilde operator was also adopted by Perl. + +Commands + +AWK commands are the statements that are substituted for action in the examples above. AWK commands can include function calls, variable assignments, calculations, or any combination thereof. AWK contains built-in support for many functions; many more are provided by the various flavors of AWK. Also, some flavors support the inclusion of dynamically linked libraries, which can also provide more functions. + +The print command + +The print command is used to output text. The output text is always terminated with a predefined string called the output record separator (ORS) whose default value is a newline. The simplest form of this command is: + + print +This displays the contents of the current record. In AWK, records are broken down into fields, and these can be displayed separately: + print $1 + Displays the first field of the current record + print $1, $3 + Displays the first and third fields of the current record, separated by a predefined string called the output field separator (OFS) whose default value is a single space character + +Although these fields ($X) may bear resemblance to variables (the $ symbol indicates variables in Perl), they actually refer to the fields of the current record. A special case, $0, refers to the entire record. In fact, the commands "print" and "print $0" are identical in functionality. + +The print command can also display the results of calculations and/or function calls: +/regex_pattern/ { + # Actions to perform in the event the record (line) matches the above regex_pattern + print 3+2 + print foobar(3) + print foobar(variable) + print sin(3-2) +} + +Output may be sent to a file: +/regex_pattern/ { + # Actions to perform in the event the record (line) matches the above regex_pattern + print "expression" > "file name" +} + +or through a pipe: +/regex_pattern/ { + # Actions to perform in the event the record (line) matches the above regex_pattern + print "expression" | "command" +} + +Built-in variables + +Awk's built-in variables include the field variables: $1, $2, $3, and so on ($0 represents the entire record). They hold the text or values in the individual text-fields in a record. + +Other variables include: + NR: Number of Records. Keeps a current count of the number of input records read so far from all data files. It starts at zero, but is never automatically reset to zero. + FNR: File Number of Records. Keeps a current count of the number of input records read so far in the current file. This variable is automatically reset to zero each time a new file is started. + NF: Number of Fields. Contains the number of fields in the current input record. The last field in the input record can be designated by $NF, the 2nd-to-last field by $(NF-1), the 3rd-to-last field by $(NF-2), etc. + FILENAME: Contains the name of the current input-file. + FS: Field Separator. Contains the "field separator" used to divide fields in the input record. The default, "white space", allows any sequence of space and tab characters. FS can be reassigned with another character or character sequence to change the field separator. + RS: Record Separator. Stores the current "record separator" character. Since, by default, an input line is the input record, the default record separator character is a "newline". + OFS: Output Field Separator. Stores the "output field separator", which separates the fields when Awk prints them. The default is a "space" character. + ORS: Output Record Separator. Stores the "output record separator", which separates the output records when Awk prints them. The default is a "newline" character. + OFMT: Output Format. Stores the format for numeric output. The default format is "%.6g". + +Variables and syntax + +Variable names can use any of the characters [A-Za-z0-9_], with the exception of language keywords. The operators + - * / represent addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, respectively. For string concatenation, simply place two variables (or string constants) next to each other. It is optional to use a space in between if string constants are involved, but two variable names placed adjacent to each other require a space in between. Double quotes delimit string constants. Statements need not end with semicolons. Finally, comments can be added to programs by using # as the first character on a line. + +User-defined functions + +In a format similar to C, function definitions consist of the keyword function, the function name, argument names and the function body. Here is an example of a function. +function add_three (number) { + return number + 3 +} + +This statement can be invoked as follows: +(pattern) { + print add_three(36) # Outputs '''39''' +} + +Functions can have variables that are in the local scope. The names of these are added to the end of the argument list, though values for these should be omitted when calling the function. It is convention to add some whitespace in the argument list before the local variables, to indicate where the parameters end and the local variables begin. + +Examples + +Hello World + +Here is the customary "Hello, world" program written in AWK: +BEGIN { + print "Hello, world!" + exit +} + +Print lines longer than 80 characters + +Print all lines longer than 80 characters. Note that the default action is to print the current line. +length($0) > 80 + +Count words + +Count words in the input and print the number of lines, words, and characters (like wc): +{ + words += NF + chars += length + 1 # add one to account for the newline character at the end of each record (line) +} +END { print NR, words, chars } + +As there is no pattern for the first line of the program, every line of input matches by default, so the increment actions are executed for every line. Note that words += NF is shorthand for words = words + NF. + +Sum last word + +{ s += $NF } +END { print s + 0 } + +s is incremented by the numeric value of $NF, which is the last word on the line as defined by AWK's field separator (by default, white-space). NF is the number of fields in the current line, e.g. 4. Since $4 is the value of the fourth field, $NF is the value of the last field in the line regardless of how many fields this line has, or whether it has more or fewer fields than surrounding lines. $ is actually a unary operator with the highest operator precedence. (If the line has no fields, then NF is 0, $0 is the whole line, which in this case is empty apart from possible white-space, and so has the numeric value 0.) + +At the end of the input the END pattern matches, so s is printed. However, since there may have been no lines of input at all, in which case no value has ever been assigned to s, it will by default be an empty string. Adding zero to a variable is an AWK idiom for coercing it from a string to a numeric value. (Concatenating an empty string is to coerce from a number to a string, e.g. s "". Note, there's no operator to concatenate strings, they're just placed adjacently.) With the coercion the program prints "0" on an empty input, without it, an empty line is printed. + +Match a range of input lines +NR % 4 == 1, NR % 4 == 3 { printf "%6d %s\n", NR, $0 } +The action statement prints each line numbered. The printf function emulates the standard C printf and works similarly to the print command described above. The pattern to match, however, works as follows: NR is the number of records, typically lines of input, AWK has so far read, i.e. the current line number, starting at 1 for the first line of input. % is the modulo operator. NR % 4 == 1 is true for the 1st, 5th, 9th, etc., lines of input. Likewise, NR % 4 == 3 is true for the 3rd, 7th, 11th, etc., lines of input. The range pattern is false until the first part matches, on line 1, and then remains true up to and including when the second part matches, on line 3. It then stays false until the first part matches again on line 5. + +Thus, the program prints lines 1,2,3, skips line 4, and then 5,6,7, and so on. For each line, it prints the line number (on a 6 character-wide field) and then the line contents. For example, when executed on this input: + Rome + Florence + Milan + Naples + Turin + Venice + +The previous program prints: + 1 Rome + 2 Florence + 3 Milan + 5 Turin + 6 Venice + +Printing the initial or the final part of a file +As a special case, when the first part of a range pattern is constantly true, e.g. 1, the range will start at the beginning of the input. Similarly, if the second part is constantly false, e.g. 0, the range will continue until the end of input. For example, + /^--cut here--$/, 0 +prints lines of input from the first line matching the regular expression ^--cut here--$, that is, a line containing only the phrase "--cut here--", to the end. + +Calculate word frequencies + +Word frequency using associative arrays: +BEGIN { + FS="[^a-zA-Z]+" +} +{ + for (i=1; i<=NF; i++) + words[tolower($i)]++ +} +END { + for (i in words) + print i, words[i] +} + +The BEGIN block sets the field separator to any sequence of non-alphabetic characters. Note that separators can be regular expressions. After that, we get to a bare action, which performs the action on every input line. In this case, for every field on the line, we add one to the number of times that word, first converted to lowercase, appears. Finally, in the END block, we print the words with their frequencies. The line + for (i in words) +creates a loop that goes through the array words, setting i to each subscript of the array. This is different from most languages, where such a loop goes through each value in the array. The loop thus prints out each word followed by its frequency count. tolower was an addition to the One True awk (see below) made after the book was published. + +Match pattern from command line + +This program can be represented in several ways. The first one uses the Bourne shell to make a shell script that does everything. It is the shortest of these methods: +#!/bin/sh + +pattern="$1" +shift +awk '/'"$pattern"'/ { print FILENAME ":" $0 }' "$@" + +The $pattern in the awk command is not protected by single quotes so that the shell does expand the variable but it needs to be put in double quotes to properly handle patterns containing spaces. A pattern by itself in the usual way checks to see if the whole line ($0) matches. FILENAME contains the current filename. awk has no explicit concatenation operator; two adjacent strings concatenate them. $0 expands to the original unchanged input line. + +There are alternate ways of writing this. This shell script accesses the environment directly from within awk: +#!/bin/sh + +export pattern="$1" +shift +awk '$0 ~ ENVIRON["pattern"] { print FILENAME ":" $0 }' "$@" + +This is a shell script that uses ENVIRON, an array introduced in a newer version of the One True awk after the book was published. The subscript of ENVIRON is the name of an environment variable; its result is the variable's value. This is like the getenv function in various standard libraries and POSIX. The shell script makes an environment variable pattern containing the first argument, then drops that argument and has awk look for the pattern in each file. + +~ checks to see if its left operand matches its right operand; !~ is its inverse. Note that a regular expression is just a string and can be stored in variables. + +The next way uses command-line variable assignment, in which an argument to awk can be seen as an assignment to a variable: +#!/bin/sh + +pattern="$1" +shift +awk '$0 ~ pattern { print FILENAME ":" $0 }' "pattern=$pattern" "$@" + +Or You can use the -v var=value command line option (e.g. awk -v pattern="$pattern" ...). + +Finally, this is written in pure awk, without help from a shell or without the need to know too much about the implementation of the awk script (as the variable assignment on command line one does), but is a bit lengthy: +BEGIN { + pattern = ARGV[1] + for (i = 1; i < ARGC; i++) # remove first argument + ARGV[i] = ARGV[i + 1] + ARGC-- + if (ARGC == 1) { # the pattern was the only thing, so force read from standard input (used by book) + ARGC = 2 + ARGV[1] = "-" + } +} +$0 ~ pattern { print FILENAME ":" $0 } + +The BEGIN is necessary not only to extract the first argument, but also to prevent it from being interpreted as a filename after the BEGIN block ends. ARGC, the number of arguments, is always guaranteed to be ≥1, as ARGV[0] is the name of the command that executed the script, most often the string "awk". Also note that ARGV[ARGC] is the empty string, "". # initiates a comment that expands to the end of the line. + +Note the if block. awk only checks to see if it should read from standard input before it runs the command. This means that + awk 'prog' +only works because the fact that there are no filenames is only checked before prog is run! If you explicitly set ARGC to 1 so that there are no arguments, awk will simply quit because it feels there are no more input files. Therefore, you need to explicitly say to read from standard input with the special filename -. + +Self-contained AWK scripts + +On Unix-like operating systems self-contained AWK scripts can be constructed using the shebang syntax. + +For example, a script that prints the content of a given file may be built by creating a file named print.awk with the following content: +#!/usr/bin/awk -f +{ print $0 } + +It can be invoked with: ./print.awk + +The -f tells AWK that the argument that follows is the file to read the AWK program from, which is the same flag that is used in sed. Since they are often used for one-liners, both these programs default to executing a program given as a command-line argument, rather than a separate file. + +Versions and implementations + +AWK was originally written in 1977 and distributed with Version 7 Unix. + +In 1985 its authors started expanding the language, most significantly by adding user-defined functions. The language is described in the book The AWK Programming Language, published 1988, and its implementation was made available in releases of UNIX System V. To avoid confusion with the incompatible older version, this version was sometimes called "new awk" or nawk. This implementation was released under a free software license in 1996 and is still maintained by Brian Kernighan (see external links below). + +Old versions of Unix, such as UNIX/32V, included awkcc, which converted AWK to C. Kernighan wrote a program to turn awk into C++; its state is not known. + + BWK awk, also known as nawk, refers to the version by Brian Kernighan. It has been dubbed the "One True AWK" because of the use of the term in association with the book that originally described the language and the fact that Kernighan was one of the original authors of AWK. FreeBSD refers to this version as one-true-awk. This version also has features not in the book, such as tolower and ENVIRON that are explained above; see the FIXES file in the source archive for details. This version is used by, for example, Android, FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, macOS, and illumos. Brian Kernighan and Arnold Robbins are the main contributors to a source repository for nawk: . + gawk (GNU awk) is another free-software implementation and the only implementation that makes serious progress implementing internationalization and localization and TCP/IP networking. It was written before the original implementation became freely available. It includes its own debugger, and its profiler enables the user to make measured performance enhancements to a script. It also enables the user to extend functionality with shared libraries. Some Linux distributions include gawk as their default AWK implementation. As of version 5.2 (September 2022) gawk includes a persistent memory feature that can remember script-defined variables and functions from one invocation of a script to the next and pass data between unrelated scripts, as described in the Persistent-Memory gawk User Manual: . + gawk-csv. The CSV extension of gawk provides facilities for handling input and output CSV formatted data. + mawk is a very fast AWK implementation by Mike Brennan based on a bytecode interpreter. + libmawk is a fork of mawk, allowing applications to embed multiple parallel instances of awk interpreters. + awka (whose front end is written atop the mawk program) is another translator of AWK scripts into C code. When compiled, statically including the author's libawka.a, the resulting executables are considerably sped up and, according to the author's tests, compare very well with other versions of AWK, Perl, or Tcl. Small scripts will turn into programs of 160–170 kB. + tawk (Thompson AWK) is an AWK compiler for Solaris, DOS, OS/2, and Windows, previously sold by Thompson Automation Software (which has ceased its activities). + Jawk is a project to implement AWK in Java, hosted on SourceForge. Extensions to the language are added to provide access to Java features within AWK scripts (i.e., Java threads, sockets, collections, etc.). + xgawk is a fork of gawk that extends gawk with dynamically loadable libraries. The XMLgawk extension was integrated into the official GNU Awk release 4.1.0. + QSEAWK is an embedded AWK interpreter implementation included in the QSE library that provides embedding application programming interface (API) for C and C++. + libfawk is a very small, function-only, reentrant, embeddable interpreter written in C + BusyBox includes an AWK implementation written by Dmitry Zakharov. This is a very small implementation suitable for embedded systems. + CLAWK by Michael Parker provides an AWK implementation in Common Lisp, based upon the regular expression library of the same author. + +Books + +See also + + Data transformation + Event-driven programming + List of Unix commands + sed + +References + +Further reading + +  – Interview with Alfred V. Aho on AWK + + + + AWK  – Become an expert in 60 minutes + +External links + + The Amazing Awk Assembler by Henry Spencer. + + awklang.org The site for things related to the awk language + +1977 software +Cross-platform software +Domain-specific programming languages +Free compilers and interpreters +Pattern matching programming languages +Plan 9 commands +Programming languages created in 1977 +Scripting languages +Standard Unix programs +Text-oriented programming languages +Unix SUS2008 utilities +Unix text processing utilities +In Nordic mythology, Asgard (Old Norse: Ásgarðr ; "enclosure of the Æsir") is a location associated with the gods. It appears in a multitude of Old Norse sagas and mythological texts. It is described as the fortified home of the Æsir gods, often associated with gold imagery. Many of the best-known Nordic gods are Æsir or live in Asgard such as Odin, Thor, Loki, and Baldr. + +Etymology +The word Ásgarðr is a compound formed from ("god") and ("enclosure"). Possible anglicisations include: Ásgarthr, Ásgard, Ásegard, Ásgardr, Asgardr, Ásgarth, Asgarth, Esageard, and Ásgardhr. + +Attestations + +The Poetic Edda +Asgard is named twice in Eddic poetry. The first case is in Hymiskviða, when Thor and Týr journey from Asgard to Hymir's hall to obtain a cauldron large enough to brew beer for a feast for Ægir and the gods. The second instance is in Þrymskviða when Loki is attempting to convince Thor to dress up as Freyja in order to get back Mjölnir by claiming that without his hammer to protect them, jötnar would soon be living in Asgard. + +Grímnismál contains among its cosmological descriptions, a number of abodes of the gods, such as Álfheim, Nóatún and Valhall, which some scholars have identified as being in Asgard. It is to be noted, however, that Asgard is not mentioned at any point in the poem. Furthermore, Völuspá references Iðavöllr, one of the most common meeting places of Æsir gods, which in Gylfaginning, Snorri locates in the centre of Asgard. + +The Prose Edda + +Prologue +The Prose Edda's euhemeristic prologue portrays the Æsir gods as people that travelled from the East to northern territories. According to Snorri, Asgard represented the town of Troy before Greek warriors overtook it. After the defeat, Trojans moved to northern Europe, where they became a dominant group due to their "advanced technologies and culture". Eventually, other tribes began to perceive the Trojans and their leader Trór (Thor in Old Norse) as gods. + +Gylfaginning +In Gylfaginning, Snorri Sturluson describes how during the creation of the world, the gods made the earth and surrounded it with the sea. They made the sky from the skull of Ymir and settled the on the shores of the earth. They set down the brows of Ymir, forming Midgard, and in the centre of the world they built Asgard, which he identifies as Troy: + +After Asgard is made, the gods then built a hof named Glaðsheimr at Iðavöllr, in the centre of the burg, with a high seat for Odin and twelve seats for other gods. It is described as like gold both on the inside and the outside, and as the best of all buildings in the world. They also built Vingólf for the female gods, which is described as both a hall and a hörgr, and a forge with which they crafted objects from gold. After Ragnarök, some gods such as Váli and Baldr will meet at Iðavöllr where Asgard once stood and discuss matters together. There they will also find in the grass the golden chess pieces that the Æsir had once owned. + +Later, the section describes how an unnamed jötunn came to the gods with his stallion, Svaðilfari and offered help in building a burg for the gods in three winters, asking in return for the sun, moon, and marriage with Freyja. Despite Freyja's opposition, together the gods agree to fulfill his request if he completes his work in just one winter. As time goes on, the gods grow desperate as it becomes apparent that the jötunn will construct the burg on time. To their surprise, his stallion contributes much of the progress, swiftly moving boulders and rocks. To deal with the problem, Loki comes up with a plan whereupon he changes his appearance to that of a mare, and distracts Svaðilfari to slow down construction. Without the help of his stallion, the builder realises he cannot complete his task in time and goes into a rage, revealing his identity as a jötunn. Thor then kills the builder with Mjöllnir, before any harm to the gods is done. The chapter does not explicitly name Asgard as the fortress but they are commonly identified by scholars. + +In Gylfaginning, the central cosmic tree Yggdrasil is described as having three roots that hold it up; one of these goes to the Æsir, which has been interpreted as meaning Asgard. In Grímnismál, this root instead reaches over the realm of men. The bridge Bifröst is told to span from the heavens to the earth and over it the Æsir cross each day to hold council beneath Yggdrasil at the Urðarbrunnr. Based on this, Bifröst is commonly interpreted as the bridge to Asgard. + +Skáldskaparmál +Asgard is mentioned briefly throughout Skáldskaparmál as the name for the home of the Æsir, as in Gylfaginning. In this section, a number of locations are described as lying within Asgard including Valhalla, and in front of its doors, the golden grove Glasir. It also records a name for Thor as 'Defender of Ásgard' (). + +Ynglinga Saga +In the Ynglinga saga, found in Heimskringla, Snorri describes Asgard as a city in Asia, based on a perceived, but erroneous, connection between the words for Asia and Æsir. Odin then leaves to settle in the northern part of the world and leaves his brothers Vili and Vé to rule over the city. When the euhemerised Odin dies, the account states that the Swedes believed he had returned to Asgard and would live there forever. + +Interpretation and discussion +Cosmology in Old Nordic religion is presented in a vague and often contradictory manner when viewed from a naturalistic standpoint. Snorri places Asgard in the centre of the world, surrounded by Midgard and then the lands inhabited by , all of which are finally encircled by the sea. He also locates the homes of the gods in the heavens. This had led to the proposition of a system of concentric circles, centred on Asgard or Yggdrasil, and sometimes with a vertical axis, leading upwards towards the heavens. There is debate between scholars over whether the gods were conceived of as living in the heavens, with some aligning their views with Snorri, and others proposing that he at times presents the system in a Christian framework and that this organisation is not seen in either Eddic or skaldic poetry. The concept of attempting to create a spatial cosmological model has itself been criticised by scholars who argue that the oral traditions did not form a naturalistic, structured system that aimed to be internally geographically consistent. An alternative proposal is that the world should be conceived of as a number of realms connected by passages that cannot be typically traversed. This would explain how Asgard can be located both to the east and west of the realm of men, over the sea and over Bifröst. + +It has been noted that the tendency to link Asgard to Troy is part of a wider European cultural practice of claiming Trojan origins for one's culture, first seen in the Aeneid and also featuring in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia regum Britanniae for the founding of Britain. + +Depictions in popular culture +Thor first appeared in the Marvel Universe within comic series Journey into Mystery in the issues #83 during August 1962. Following this release, he becomes one of the central figures in the comics along with Loki and Odin. In the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Thor and Loki make their first appearance together in the 2011 film Thor. After that, Thor becomes a regular character in the Marvel Cinematic Universe and reappears in several films, including the Avengers series. Asgard becomes the central element of the film Thor: Ragnarok, where it is destroyed following the Old Norse mythos. These and other Norse mythology elements also appear in video games, TV series, and books based in and on the Marvel Universe, although these depictions do not closely follow historical sources. + +Asgard is an explorable realm in the video game God of War: Ragnarök, a sequel to 2018's Norse-themed God of War. + +In the Assassin's Creed Valhalla video game, Asgard is featured as part of a "vision quest". + +See also + Mount Olympus - home of the Olympian gods + +Citations + +Bibliography + +Primary + +Secondary + +External links + MyNDIR (My Norse Digital Image repository) illustrations of Asgard from Victorian and Edwardian retellings of Norse Mythology. Clicking on the thumbnail will give you the full image and information concerning it. + +Locations in Norse mythology +The Apollo program, also known as Project Apollo, was the United States human spaceflight program carried out by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), which succeeded in preparing and landing the first humans on the Moon from 1968 to 1972. It was first conceived in 1960 during President Dwight D. Eisenhower's administration as a three-person spacecraft to follow the one-person Project Mercury, which put the first Americans in space. Apollo was later dedicated to President John F. Kennedy's national goal for the 1960s of "landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth" in an address to Congress on May 25, 1961. It was the third US human spaceflight program to fly, preceded by the two-person Project Gemini conceived in 1961 to extend spaceflight capability in support of Apollo. + +Kennedy's goal was accomplished on the Apollo 11 mission when astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed their Apollo Lunar Module (LM) on July 20, 1969, and walked on the lunar surface, while Michael Collins remained in lunar orbit in the command and service module (CSM), and all three landed safely on Earth in the Pacific Ocean on July 24. Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last, Apollo 17, in December 1972. In these six spaceflights, twelve people walked on the Moon. + +Apollo ran from 1961 to 1972, with the first crewed flight in 1968. It encountered a major setback in 1967 when an Apollo 1 cabin fire killed the entire crew during a prelaunch test. After the first successful landing, sufficient flight hardware remained for nine follow-on landings with a plan for extended lunar geological and astrophysical exploration. Budget cuts forced the cancellation of three of these. Five of the remaining six missions achieved successful landings, but the Apollo 13 landing was prevented by an oxygen tank explosion in transit to the Moon, crippling the CSM. The crew barely returned to Earth safely by using the lunar module as a "lifeboat" on the return journey. Apollo used the Saturn family of rockets as launch vehicles, which were also used for an Apollo Applications Program, which consisted of Skylab, a space station that supported three crewed missions in 1973–1974, and the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project, a joint United States-Soviet Union low Earth orbit mission in 1975. + +Apollo set several major human spaceflight milestones. It stands alone in sending crewed missions beyond low Earth orbit. Apollo 8 was the first crewed spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, and Apollo 11 was the first crewed spacecraft to land humans on one. + +Overall, the Apollo program returned of lunar rocks and soil to Earth, greatly contributing to the understanding of the Moon's composition and geological history. The program laid the foundation for NASA's subsequent human spaceflight capability and funded construction of its Johnson Space Center and Kennedy Space Center. Apollo also spurred advances in many areas of technology incidental to rocketry and human spaceflight, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers. + +Name +The program was named after Apollo, the Greek god of light, music, and the Sun, by NASA manager Abe Silverstein, who later said, "I was naming the spacecraft like I'd name my baby." Silverstein chose the name at home one evening, early in 1960, because he felt "Apollo riding his chariot across the Sun was appropriate to the grand scale of the proposed program". + +The context of this was that the program focused at its beginning mainly on developing an advanced crewed spacecraft, the Apollo command and service module, succeeding the Mercury program. A lunar landing became the focus of the program only in 1961. Thereafter Project Gemini instead followed the Mercury program to test and study advanced crewed spaceflight technology. + +Background + +Origin and spacecraft feasibility studies + +The Apollo program was conceived during the Eisenhower administration in early 1960, as a follow-up to Project Mercury. While the Mercury capsule could support only one astronaut on a limited Earth orbital mission, Apollo would carry three. Possible missions included ferrying crews to a space station, circumlunar flights, and eventual crewed lunar landings. + +In July 1960, NASA Deputy Administrator Hugh L. Dryden announced the Apollo program to industry representatives at a series of Space Task Group conferences. Preliminary specifications were laid out for a spacecraft with a mission module cabin separate from the command module (piloting and reentry cabin), and a propulsion and equipment module. On August 30, a feasibility study competition was announced, and on October 25, three study contracts were awarded to General Dynamics/Convair, General Electric, and the Glenn L. Martin Company. Meanwhile, NASA performed its own in-house spacecraft design studies led by Maxime Faget, to serve as a gauge to judge and monitor the three industry designs. + +Political pressure builds + +In November 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected president after a campaign that promised American superiority over the Soviet Union in the fields of space exploration and missile defense. Up to the election of 1960, Kennedy had been speaking out against the "missile gap" that he and many other senators felt had developed between the Soviet Union and the United States due to the inaction of President Eisenhower. Beyond military power, Kennedy used aerospace technology as a symbol of national prestige, pledging to make the US not "first but, first and, first if, but first period". Despite Kennedy's rhetoric, he did not immediately come to a decision on the status of the Apollo program once he became president. He knew little about the technical details of the space program, and was put off by the massive financial commitment required by a crewed Moon landing. When Kennedy's newly appointed NASA Administrator James E. Webb requested a 30 percent budget increase for his agency, Kennedy supported an acceleration of NASA's large booster program but deferred a decision on the broader issue. + +On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space, reinforcing American fears about being left behind in a technological competition with the Soviet Union. At a meeting of the US House Committee on Science and Astronautics one day after Gagarin's flight, many congressmen pledged their support for a crash program aimed at ensuring that America would catch up. Kennedy was circumspect in his response to the news, refusing to make a commitment on America's response to the Soviets. + +On April 20, Kennedy sent a memo to Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson, asking Johnson to look into the status of America's space program, and into programs that could offer NASA the opportunity to catch up. Johnson responded approximately one week later, concluding that "we are neither making maximum effort nor achieving results necessary if this country is to reach a position of leadership." His memo concluded that a crewed Moon landing was far enough in the future that it was likely the United States would achieve it first. + +On May 25, 1961, twenty days after the first US crewed spaceflight Freedom 7, Kennedy proposed the crewed Moon landing in a Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs: + +NASA expansion +At the time of Kennedy's proposal, only one American had flown in space—less than a month earlier—and NASA had not yet sent an astronaut into orbit. Even some NASA employees doubted whether Kennedy's ambitious goal could be met. By 1963, Kennedy even came close to agreeing to a joint US-USSR Moon mission, to eliminate duplication of effort. + +With the clear goal of a crewed landing replacing the more nebulous goals of space stations and circumlunar flights, NASA decided that, in order to make progress quickly, it would discard the feasibility study designs of Convair, GE, and Martin, and proceed with Faget's command and service module design. The mission module was determined to be useful only as an extra room, and therefore unnecessary. They used Faget's design as the specification for another competition for spacecraft procurement bids in October 1961. On November 28, 1961, it was announced that North American Aviation had won the contract, although its bid was not rated as good as the Martin proposal. Webb, Dryden and Robert Seamans chose it in preference due to North American's longer association with NASA and its predecessor. + +Landing humans on the Moon by the end of 1969 required the most sudden burst of technological creativity, and the largest commitment of resources ($25 billion; $ in US dollars) ever made by any nation in peacetime. At its peak, the Apollo program employed 400,000 people and required the support of over 20,000 industrial firms and universities. + +On July 1, 1960, NASA established the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) in Huntsville, Alabama. MSFC designed the heavy lift-class Saturn launch vehicles, which would be required for Apollo. + +Manned Spacecraft Center + +It became clear that managing the Apollo program would exceed the capabilities of Robert R. Gilruth's Space Task Group, which had been directing the nation's crewed space program from NASA's Langley Research Center. So Gilruth was given authority to grow his organization into a new NASA center, the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC). A site was chosen in Houston, Texas, on land donated by Rice University, and Administrator Webb announced the conversion on September 19, 1961. It was also clear NASA would soon outgrow its practice of controlling missions from its Cape Canaveral Air Force Station launch facilities in Florida, so a new Mission Control Center would be included in the MSC. + +In September 1962, by which time two Project Mercury astronauts had orbited the Earth, Gilruth had moved his organization to rented space in Houston, and construction of the MSC facility was under way, Kennedy visited Rice to reiterate his challenge in a famous speech: + +The MSC was completed in September 1963. It was renamed by the US Congress in honor of Lyndon Johnson soon after his death in 1973. + +Launch Operations Center + +It also became clear that Apollo would outgrow the Canaveral launch facilities in Florida. The two newest launch complexes were already being built for the Saturn I and IB rockets at the northernmost end: LC-34 and LC-37. But an even bigger facility would be needed for the mammoth rocket required for the crewed lunar mission, so land acquisition was started in July 1961 for a Launch Operations Center (LOC) immediately north of Canaveral at Merritt Island. The design, development and construction of the center was conducted by Kurt H. Debus, a member of Wernher von Braun's original V-2 rocket engineering team. Debus was named the LOC's first Director. Construction began in November 1962. Following Kennedy's death, President Johnson issued an executive order on November 29, 1963, to rename the LOC and Cape Canaveral in honor of Kennedy. + +The LOC included Launch Complex 39, a Launch Control Center, and a Vertical Assembly Building (VAB). in which the space vehicle (launch vehicle and spacecraft) would be assembled on a mobile launcher platform and then moved by a crawler-transporter to one of several launch pads. Although at least three pads were planned, only two, designated AandB, were completed in October 1965. The LOC also included an Operations and Checkout Building (OCB) to which Gemini and Apollo spacecraft were initially received prior to being mated to their launch vehicles. The Apollo spacecraft could be tested in two vacuum chambers capable of simulating atmospheric pressure at altitudes up to , which is nearly a vacuum. + +Organization +Administrator Webb realized that in order to keep Apollo costs under control, he had to develop greater project management skills in his organization, so he recruited George E. Mueller for a high management job. Mueller accepted, on the condition that he have a say in NASA reorganization necessary to effectively administer Apollo. Webb then worked with Associate Administrator (later Deputy Administrator) Seamans to reorganize the Office of Manned Space Flight (OMSF). On July 23, 1963, Webb announced Mueller's appointment as Deputy Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, to replace then Associate Administrator D. Brainerd Holmes on his retirement effective September 1. Under Webb's reorganization, the directors of the Manned Spacecraft Center (Gilruth), Marshall Space Flight Center (von Braun), and the Launch Operations Center (Debus) reported to Mueller. + +Based on his industry experience on Air Force missile projects, Mueller realized some skilled managers could be found among high-ranking officers in the U.S. Air Force, so he got Webb's permission to recruit General Samuel C. Phillips, who gained a reputation for his effective management of the Minuteman program, as OMSF program controller. Phillips's superior officer Bernard A. Schriever agreed to loan Phillips to NASA, along with a staff of officers under him, on the condition that Phillips be made Apollo Program Director. Mueller agreed, and Phillips managed Apollo from January 1964, until it achieved the first human landing in July 1969, after which he returned to Air Force duty. + +Charles Fishman, in One Giant Leap, estimated the number of people and organizations involved into the Apollo program as "410,000 men and women at some 20,000 different companies contributed to the effort". + +Choosing a mission mode + +Once Kennedy had defined a goal, the Apollo mission planners were faced with the challenge of designing a spacecraft that could meet it while minimizing risk to human life, cost, and demands on technology and astronaut skill. Four possible mission modes were considered: + Direct Ascent: The spacecraft would be launched as a unit and travel directly to the lunar surface, without first going into lunar orbit. A Earth return ship would land all three astronauts atop a descent propulsion stage, which would be left on the Moon. This design would have required development of the extremely powerful Saturn C-8 or Nova launch vehicle to carry a payload to the Moon. + Earth Orbit Rendezvous (EOR): Multiple rocket launches (up to 15 in some plans) would carry parts of the Direct Ascent spacecraft and propulsion units for translunar injection (TLI). These would be assembled into a single spacecraft in Earth orbit. + Lunar Surface Rendezvous: Two spacecraft would be launched in succession. The first, an automated vehicle carrying propellant for the return to Earth, would land on the Moon, to be followed some time later by the crewed vehicle. Propellant would have to be transferred from the automated vehicle to the crewed vehicle. + Lunar Orbit Rendezvous (LOR): This turned out to be the winning configuration, which achieved the goal with Apollo 11 on July 20, 1969: a single Saturn V launched a spacecraft that was composed of a Apollo command and service module which remained in orbit around the Moon and a two-stage Apollo Lunar Module spacecraft which was flown by two astronauts to the surface, flown back to dock with the command module and was then discarded. Landing the smaller spacecraft on the Moon, and returning an even smaller part () to lunar orbit, minimized the total mass to be launched from Earth, but this was the last method initially considered because of the perceived risk of rendezvous and docking. + +In early 1961, direct ascent was generally the mission mode in favor at NASA. Many engineers feared that rendezvous and docking, maneuvers that had not been attempted in Earth orbit, would be nearly impossible in lunar orbit. LOR advocates including John Houbolt at Langley Research Center emphasized the important weight reductions that were offered by the LOR approach. Throughout 1960 and 1961, Houbolt campaigned for the recognition of LOR as a viable and practical option. Bypassing the NASA hierarchy, he sent a series of memos and reports on the issue to Associate Administrator Robert Seamans; while acknowledging that he spoke "somewhat as a voice in the wilderness", Houbolt pleaded that LOR should not be discounted in studies of the question. + +Seamans's establishment of an ad hoc committee headed by his special technical assistant Nicholas E. Golovin in July 1961, to recommend a launch vehicle to be used in the Apollo program, represented a turning point in NASA's mission mode decision. This committee recognized that the chosen mode was an important part of the launch vehicle choice, and recommended in favor of a hybrid EOR-LOR mode. Its consideration of LOR—as well as Houbolt's ceaseless work—played an important role in publicizing the workability of the approach. In late 1961 and early 1962, members of the Manned Spacecraft Center began to come around to support LOR, including the newly hired deputy director of the Office of Manned Space Flight, Joseph Shea, who became a champion of LOR. The engineers at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), which had much to lose from the decision, took longer to become convinced of its merits, but their conversion was announced by Wernher von Braun at a briefing on June 7, 1962. + +But even after NASA reached internal agreement, it was far from smooth sailing. Kennedy's science advisor Jerome Wiesner, who had expressed his opposition to human spaceflight to Kennedy before the President took office, and had opposed the decision to land people on the Moon, hired Golovin, who had left NASA, to chair his own "Space Vehicle Panel", ostensibly to monitor, but actually to second-guess NASA's decisions on the Saturn V launch vehicle and LOR by forcing Shea, Seamans, and even Webb to defend themselves, delaying its formal announcement to the press on July 11, 1962, and forcing Webb to still hedge the decision as "tentative". + +Wiesner kept up the pressure, even making the disagreement public during a two-day September visit by the President to Marshall Space Flight Center. Wiesner blurted out "No, that's no good" in front of the press, during a presentation by von Braun. Webb jumped in and defended von Braun, until Kennedy ended the squabble by stating that the matter was "still subject to final review". Webb held firm and issued a request for proposal to candidate Lunar Excursion Module (LEM) contractors. Wiesner finally relented, unwilling to settle the dispute once and for all in Kennedy's office, because of the President's involvement with the October Cuban Missile Crisis, and fear of Kennedy's support for Webb. NASA announced the selection of Grumman as the LEM contractor in November 1962. + +Space historian James Hansen concludes that: + +The LOR method had the advantage of allowing the lander spacecraft to be used as a "lifeboat" in the event of a failure of the command ship. Some documents prove this theory was discussed before and after the method was chosen. In 1964 an MSC study concluded, "The LM [as lifeboat]... was finally dropped, because no single reasonable CSM failure could be identified that would prohibit use of the SPS." Ironically, just such a failure happened on Apollo 13 when an oxygen tank explosion left the CSM without electrical power. The lunar module provided propulsion, electrical power and life support to get the crew home safely. + +Spacecraft + +Faget's preliminary Apollo design employed a cone-shaped command module, supported by one of several service modules providing propulsion and electrical power, sized appropriately for the space station, cislunar, and lunar landing missions. Once Kennedy's Moon landing goal became official, detailed design began of a command and service module (CSM) in which the crew would spend the entire direct-ascent mission and lift off from the lunar surface for the return trip, after being soft-landed by a larger landing propulsion module. The final choice of lunar orbit rendezvous changed the CSM's role to the translunar ferry used to transport the crew, along with a new spacecraft, the Lunar Excursion Module (LEM, later shortened to LM (Lunar Module) but still pronounced ) which would take two individuals to the lunar surface and return them to the CSM. + +Command and service module + +The command module (CM) was the conical crew cabin, designed to carry three astronauts from launch to lunar orbit and back to an Earth ocean landing. It was the only component of the Apollo spacecraft to survive without major configuration changes as the program evolved from the early Apollo study designs. Its exterior was covered with an ablative heat shield, and had its own reaction control system (RCS) engines to control its attitude and steer its atmospheric entry path. Parachutes were carried to slow its descent to splashdown. The module was tall, in diameter, and weighed approximately . + +A cylindrical service module (SM) supported the command module, with a service propulsion engine and an RCS with propellants, and a fuel cell power generation system with liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen reactants. A high-gain S-band antenna was used for long-distance communications on the lunar flights. On the extended lunar missions, an orbital scientific instrument package was carried. The service module was discarded just before reentry. The module was long and in diameter. The initial lunar flight version weighed approximately fully fueled, while a later version designed to carry a lunar orbit scientific instrument package weighed just over . + +North American Aviation won the contract to build the CSM, and also the second stage of the Saturn V launch vehicle for NASA. Because the CSM design was started early before the selection of lunar orbit rendezvous, the service propulsion engine was sized to lift the CSM off the Moon, and thus was oversized to about twice the thrust required for translunar flight. Also, there was no provision for docking with the lunar module. A 1964 program definition study concluded that the initial design should be continued as Block I which would be used for early testing, while Block II, the actual lunar spacecraft, would incorporate the docking equipment and take advantage of the lessons learned in Block I development. + +Apollo Lunar Module + +The Apollo Lunar Module (LM) was designed to descend from lunar orbit to land two astronauts on the Moon and take them back to orbit to rendezvous with the command module. Not designed to fly through the Earth's atmosphere or return to Earth, its fuselage was designed totally without aerodynamic considerations and was of an extremely lightweight construction. It consisted of separate descent and ascent stages, each with its own engine. The descent stage contained storage for the descent propellant, surface stay consumables, and surface exploration equipment. The ascent stage contained the crew cabin, ascent propellant, and a reaction control system. The initial LM model weighed approximately , and allowed surface stays up to around 34 hours. An extended lunar module weighed over , and allowed surface stays of more than three days. The contract for design and construction of the lunar module was awarded to Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation, and the project was overseen by Thomas J. Kelly. + +Launch vehicles + +Before the Apollo program began, Wernher von Braun and his team of rocket engineers had started work on plans for very large launch vehicles, the Saturn series, and the even larger Nova series. In the midst of these plans, von Braun was transferred from the Army to NASA and was made Director of the Marshall Space Flight Center. The initial direct ascent plan to send the three-person Apollo command and service module directly to the lunar surface, on top of a large descent rocket stage, would require a Nova-class launcher, with a lunar payload capability of over . The June 11, 1962, decision to use lunar orbit rendezvous enabled the Saturn V to replace the Nova, and the MSFC proceeded to develop the Saturn rocket family for Apollo. + +Since Apollo, like Mercury, used more than one launch vehicle for space missions, NASA used spacecraft-launch vehicle combination series numbers: AS-10x for Saturn I, AS-20x for Saturn IB, and AS-50x for Saturn V (compare Mercury-Redstone 3, Mercury-Atlas 6) to designate and plan all missions, rather than numbering them sequentially as in Project Gemini. This was changed by the time human flights began. + +Little Joe II + +Since Apollo, like Mercury, would require a launch escape system (LES) in case of a launch failure, a relatively small rocket was required for qualification flight testing of this system. A rocket bigger than the Little Joe used by Mercury would be required, so the Little Joe II was built by General Dynamics/Convair. After an August 1963 qualification test flight, four LES test flights (A-001 through 004) were made at the White Sands Missile Range between May 1964 and January 1966. + +Saturn I + +Saturn I, the first US heavy lift launch vehicle, was initially planned to launch partially equipped CSMs in low Earth orbit tests. The S-I first stage burned RP-1 with liquid oxygen (LOX) oxidizer in eight clustered Rocketdyne H-1 engines, to produce of thrust. The S-IV second stage used six liquid hydrogen-fueled Pratt & Whitney RL-10 engines with of thrust. The S-V third stage flew inactively on Saturn I four times. + +The first four Saturn I test flights were launched from LC-34, with only the first stage live, carrying dummy upper stages filled with water. The first flight with a live S-IV was launched from LC-37. This was followed by five launches of boilerplate CSMs (designated AS-101 through AS-105) into orbit in 1964 and 1965. The last three of these further supported the Apollo program by also carrying Pegasus satellites, which verified the safety of the translunar environment by measuring the frequency and severity of micrometeorite impacts. + +In September 1962, NASA planned to launch four crewed CSM flights on the Saturn I from late 1965 through 1966, concurrent with Project Gemini. The payload capacity would have severely limited the systems which could be included, so the decision was made in October 1963 to use the uprated Saturn IB for all crewed Earth orbital flights. + +Saturn IB + +The Saturn IB was an upgraded version of the Saturn I. The S-IB first stage increased the thrust to by uprating the H-1 engine. The second stage replaced the S-IV with the S-IVB-200, powered by a single J-2 engine burning liquid hydrogen fuel with LOX, to produce of thrust. A restartable version of the S-IVB was used as the third stage of the Saturn V. The Saturn IB could send over into low Earth orbit, sufficient for a partially fueled CSM or the LM. Saturn IB launch vehicles and flights were designated with an AS-200 series number, "AS" indicating "Apollo Saturn" and the "2" indicating the second member of the Saturn rocket family. + +Saturn V + +Saturn V launch vehicles and flights were designated with an AS-500 series number, "AS" indicating "Apollo Saturn" and the "5" indicating Saturn V. The three-stage Saturn V was designed to send a fully fueled CSM and LM to the Moon. It was in diameter and stood tall with its lunar payload. Its capability grew to for the later advanced lunar landings. The S-IC first stage burned RP-1/LOX for a rated thrust of , which was upgraded to . The second and third stages burned liquid hydrogen; the third stage was a modified version of the S-IVB, with thrust increased to and capability to restart the engine for translunar injection after reaching a parking orbit. + +Astronauts + +NASA's director of flight crew operations during the Apollo program was Donald K. "Deke" Slayton, one of the original Mercury Seven astronauts who was medically grounded in September 1962 due to a heart murmur. Slayton was responsible for making all Gemini and Apollo crew assignments. + +Thirty-two astronauts were assigned to fly missions in the Apollo program. Twenty-four of these left Earth's orbit and flew around the Moon between December 1968 and December 1972 (three of them twice). Half of the 24 walked on the Moon's surface, though none of them returned to it after landing once. One of the moonwalkers was a trained geologist. Of the 32, Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee were killed during a ground test in preparation for the Apollo 1 mission. + +The Apollo astronauts were chosen from the Project Mercury and Gemini veterans, plus from two later astronaut groups. All missions were commanded by Gemini or Mercury veterans. Crews on all development flights (except the Earth orbit CSM development flights) through the first two landings on Apollo 11 and Apollo 12, included at least two (sometimes three) Gemini veterans. Harrison Schmitt, a geologist, was the first NASA scientist astronaut to fly in space, and landed on the Moon on the last mission, Apollo 17. Schmitt participated in the lunar geology training of all of the Apollo landing crews. + +NASA awarded all 32 of these astronauts its highest honor, the Distinguished Service Medal, given for "distinguished service, ability, or courage", and personal "contribution representing substantial progress to the NASA mission". The medals were awarded posthumously to Grissom, White, and Chaffee in 1969, then to the crews of all missions from Apollo 8 onward. The crew that flew the first Earth orbital test mission Apollo 7, Walter M. Schirra, Donn Eisele, and Walter Cunningham, were awarded the lesser NASA Exceptional Service Medal, because of discipline problems with the flight director's orders during their flight. In October 2008, the NASA Administrator decided to award them the Distinguished Service Medals. For Schirra and Eisele, this was posthumously. + +Lunar mission profile +The first lunar landing mission was planned to proceed: + +Profile variations + + The first three lunar missions (Apollo 8, Apollo 10, and Apollo 11) used a free return trajectory, keeping a flight path coplanar with the lunar orbit, which would allow a return to Earth in case the SM engine failed to make lunar orbit insertion. Landing site lighting conditions on later missions dictated a lunar orbital plane change, which required a course change maneuver soon after TLI, and eliminated the free-return option. + After Apollo 12 placed the second of several seismometers on the Moon, the jettisoned LM ascent stages on Apollo 12 and later missions were deliberately crashed on the Moon at known locations to induce vibrations in the Moon's structure. The only exceptions to this were the Apollo 13 LM which burned up in the Earth's atmosphere, and Apollo 16, where a loss of attitude control after jettison prevented making a targeted impact. + As another active seismic experiment, the S-IVBs on Apollo 13 and subsequent missions were deliberately crashed on the Moon instead of being sent to solar orbit. + Starting with Apollo 13, descent orbit insertion was to be performed using the service module engine instead of the LM engine, in order to allow a greater fuel reserve for landing. This was actually done for the first time on Apollo 14, since the Apollo 13 mission was aborted before landing. + +Development history + +Uncrewed flight tests + +Two Block I CSMs were launched from LC-34 on suborbital flights in 1966 with the Saturn IB. The first, AS-201 launched on February 26, reached an altitude of and splashed down downrange in the Atlantic Ocean. The second, AS-202 on August 25, reached altitude and was recovered downrange in the Pacific Ocean. These flights validated the service module engine and the command module heat shield. + +A third Saturn IB test, AS-203 launched from pad 37, went into orbit to support design of the S-IVB upper stage restart capability needed for the Saturn V. It carried a nose cone instead of the Apollo spacecraft, and its payload was the unburned liquid hydrogen fuel, the behavior of which engineers measured with temperature and pressure sensors, and a TV camera. This flight occurred on July 5, before AS-202, which was delayed because of problems getting the Apollo spacecraft ready for flight. + +Preparation for crewed flight +Two crewed orbital Block I CSM missions were planned: AS-204 and AS-205. The Block I crew positions were titled Command Pilot, Senior Pilot, and Pilot. The Senior Pilot would assume navigation duties, while the Pilot would function as a systems engineer. The astronauts would wear a modified version of the Gemini spacesuit. + +After an uncrewed LM test flight AS-206, a crew would fly the first Block II CSM and LM in a dual mission known as AS-207/208, or AS-278 (each spacecraft would be launched on a separate Saturn IB). The Block II crew positions were titled Commander, Command Module Pilot, and Lunar Module Pilot. The astronauts would begin wearing a new Apollo A6L spacesuit, designed to accommodate lunar extravehicular activity (EVA). The traditional visor helmet was replaced with a clear "fishbowl" type for greater visibility, and the lunar surface EVA suit would include a water-cooled undergarment. + +Deke Slayton, the grounded Mercury astronaut who became director of flight crew operations for the Gemini and Apollo programs, selected the first Apollo crew in January 1966, with Grissom as Command Pilot, White as Senior Pilot, and rookie Donn F. Eisele as Pilot. But Eisele dislocated his shoulder twice aboard the KC135 weightlessness training aircraft, and had to undergo surgery on January 27. Slayton replaced him with Chaffee. NASA announced the final crew selection for AS-204 on March 21, 1966, with the backup crew consisting of Gemini veterans James McDivitt and David Scott, with rookie Russell L. "Rusty" Schweickart. Mercury/Gemini veteran Wally Schirra, Eisele, and rookie Walter Cunningham were announced on September 29 as the prime crew for AS-205. + +In December 1966, the AS-205 mission was canceled, since the validation of the CSM would be accomplished on the 14-day first flight, and AS-205 would have been devoted to space experiments and contribute no new engineering knowledge about the spacecraft. Its Saturn IB was allocated to the dual mission, now redesignated AS-205/208 or AS-258, planned for August 1967. McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart were promoted to the prime AS-258 crew, and Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham were reassigned as the Apollo1 backup crew. + +Program delays +The spacecraft for the AS-202 and AS-204 missions were delivered by North American Aviation to the Kennedy Space Center with long lists of equipment problems which had to be corrected before flight; these delays caused the launch of AS-202 to slip behind AS-203, and eliminated hopes the first crewed mission might be ready to launch as soon as November 1966, concurrently with the last Gemini mission. Eventually, the planned AS-204 flight date was pushed to February 21, 1967. + +North American Aviation was prime contractor not only for the Apollo CSM, but for the SaturnV S-II second stage as well, and delays in this stage pushed the first uncrewed SaturnV flight AS-501 from late 1966 to November 1967. (The initial assembly of AS-501 had to use a dummy spacer spool in place of the stage.) + +The problems with North American were severe enough in late 1965 to cause Manned Space Flight Administrator George Mueller to appoint program director Samuel Phillips to head a "tiger team" to investigate North American's problems and identify corrections. Phillips documented his findings in a December 19 letter to NAA president Lee Atwood, with a strongly worded letter by Mueller, and also gave a presentation of the results to Mueller and Deputy Administrator Robert Seamans. Meanwhile, Grumman was also encountering problems with the Lunar Module, eliminating hopes it would be ready for crewed flight in 1967, not long after the first crewed CSM flights. + +Apollo 1 fire + +Grissom, White, and Chaffee decided to name their flight Apollo1 as a motivational focus on the first crewed flight. They trained and conducted tests of their spacecraft at North American, and in the altitude chamber at the Kennedy Space Center. A "plugs-out" test was planned for January, which would simulate a launch countdown on LC-34 with the spacecraft transferring from pad-supplied to internal power. If successful, this would be followed by a more rigorous countdown simulation test closer to the February 21 launch, with both spacecraft and launch vehicle fueled. + +The plugs-out test began on the morning of January 27, 1967, and immediately was plagued with problems. First, the crew noticed a strange odor in their spacesuits which delayed the sealing of the hatch. Then, communications problems frustrated the astronauts and forced a hold in the simulated countdown. During this hold, an electrical fire began in the cabin and spread quickly in the high pressure, 100% oxygen atmosphere. Pressure rose high enough from the fire that the cabin inner wall burst, allowing the fire to erupt onto the pad area and frustrating attempts to rescue the crew. The astronauts were asphyxiated before the hatch could be opened. + +NASA immediately convened an accident review board, overseen by both houses of Congress. While the determination of responsibility for the accident was complex, the review board concluded that "deficiencies existed in command module design, workmanship and quality control". At the insistence of NASA Administrator Webb, North American removed Harrison Storms as command module program manager. Webb also reassigned Apollo Spacecraft Program Office (ASPO) Manager Joseph Francis Shea, replacing him with George Low. + +To remedy the causes of the fire, changes were made in the Block II spacecraft and operational procedures, the most important of which were use of a nitrogen/oxygen mixture instead of pure oxygen before and during launch, and removal of flammable cabin and space suit materials. The Block II design already called for replacement of the Block I plug-type hatch cover with a quick-release, outward opening door. NASA discontinued the crewed Block I program, using the BlockI spacecraft only for uncrewed SaturnV flights. Crew members would also exclusively wear modified, fire-resistant A7L Block II space suits, and would be designated by the Block II titles, regardless of whether a LM was present on the flight or not. + +Uncrewed Saturn V and LM tests +On April 24, 1967, Mueller published an official Apollo mission numbering scheme, using sequential numbers for all flights, crewed or uncrewed. The sequence would start with Apollo 4 to cover the first three uncrewed flights while retiring the Apollo1 designation to honor the crew, per their widows' wishes. + +In September 1967, Mueller approved a sequence of mission types which had to be successfully accomplished in order to achieve the crewed lunar landing. Each step had to be successfully accomplished before the next ones could be performed, and it was unknown how many tries of each mission would be necessary; therefore letters were used instead of numbers. The A missions were uncrewed Saturn V validation; B was uncrewed LM validation using the Saturn IB; C was crewed CSM Earth orbit validation using the Saturn IB; D was the first crewed CSM/LM flight (this replaced AS-258, using a single Saturn V launch); E would be a higher Earth orbit CSM/LM flight; F would be the first lunar mission, testing the LM in lunar orbit but without landing (a "dress rehearsal"); and G would be the first crewed landing. The list of types covered follow-on lunar exploration to include H lunar landings, I for lunar orbital survey missions, and J for extended-stay lunar landings. + +The delay in the CSM caused by the fire enabled NASA to catch up on human-rating the LM and SaturnV. Apollo4 (AS-501) was the first uncrewed flight of the SaturnV, carrying a BlockI CSM on November 9, 1967. The capability of the command module's heat shield to survive a trans-lunar reentry was demonstrated by using the service module engine to ram it into the atmosphere at higher than the usual Earth-orbital reentry speed. + +Apollo 5 (AS-204) was the first uncrewed test flight of the LM in Earth orbit, launched from pad 37 on January 22, 1968, by the Saturn IB that would have been used for Apollo 1. The LM engines were successfully test-fired and restarted, despite a computer programming error which cut short the first descent stage firing. The ascent engine was fired in abort mode, known as a "fire-in-the-hole" test, where it was lit simultaneously with jettison of the descent stage. Although Grumman wanted a second uncrewed test, George Low decided the next LM flight would be crewed. + +This was followed on April 4, 1968, by Apollo 6 (AS-502) which carried a CSM and a LM Test Article as ballast. The intent of this mission was to achieve trans-lunar injection, followed closely by a simulated direct-return abort, using the service module engine to achieve another high-speed reentry. The Saturn V experienced pogo oscillation, a problem caused by non-steady engine combustion, which damaged fuel lines in the second and third stages. Two S-II engines shut down prematurely, but the remaining engines were able to compensate. The damage to the third stage engine was more severe, preventing it from restarting for trans-lunar injection. Mission controllers were able to use the service module engine to essentially repeat the flight profile of Apollo 4. Based on the good performance of Apollo6 and identification of satisfactory fixes to the Apollo6 problems, NASA declared the SaturnV ready to fly crew, canceling a third uncrewed test. + +Crewed development missions + +Apollo 7, launched from LC-34 on October 11, 1968, was the Cmission, crewed by Schirra, Eisele, and Cunningham. It was an 11-day Earth-orbital flight which tested the CSM systems. + +Apollo 8 was planned to be the D mission in December 1968, crewed by McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart, launched on a SaturnV instead of two Saturn IBs. In the summer it had become clear that the LM would not be ready in time. Rather than waste the Saturn V on another simple Earth-orbiting mission, ASPO Manager George Low suggested the bold step of sending Apollo8 to orbit the Moon instead, deferring the Dmission to the next mission in March 1969, and eliminating the E mission. This would keep the program on track. The Soviet Union had sent two tortoises, mealworms, wine flies, and other lifeforms around the Moon on September 15, 1968, aboard Zond 5, and it was believed they might soon repeat the feat with human cosmonauts. The decision was not announced publicly until successful completion of Apollo 7. Gemini veterans Frank Borman and Jim Lovell, and rookie William Anders captured the world's attention by making ten lunar orbits in 20 hours, transmitting television pictures of the lunar surface on Christmas Eve, and returning safely to Earth. + +The following March, LM flight, rendezvous and docking were successfully demonstrated in Earth orbit on Apollo 9, and Schweickart tested the full lunar EVA suit with its portable life support system (PLSS) outside the LM. The F mission was successfully carried out on Apollo 10 in May 1969 by Gemini veterans Thomas P. Stafford, John Young and Eugene Cernan. Stafford and Cernan took the LM to within of the lunar surface. + +The G mission was achieved on Apollo 11 in July 1969 by an all-Gemini veteran crew consisting of Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins and Buzz Aldrin. Armstrong and Aldrin performed the first landing at the Sea of Tranquility at 20:17:40 UTC on July 20, 1969. They spent a total of 21 hours, 36 minutes on the surface, and spent 2hours, 31 minutes outside the spacecraft, walking on the surface, taking photographs, collecting material samples, and deploying automated scientific instruments, while continuously sending black-and-white television back to Earth. The astronauts returned safely on July 24. + +Production lunar landings +In November 1969, Charles "Pete" Conrad became the third person to step onto the Moon, which he did while speaking more informally than had Armstrong: + +Conrad and rookie Alan L. Bean made a precision landing of Apollo 12 within walking distance of the Surveyor 3 uncrewed lunar probe, which had landed in April 1967 on the Ocean of Storms. The command module pilot was Gemini veteran Richard F. Gordon Jr. Conrad and Bean carried the first lunar surface color television camera, but it was damaged when accidentally pointed into the Sun. They made two EVAs totaling 7hours and 45 minutes. On one, they walked to the Surveyor, photographed it, and removed some parts which they returned to Earth. + +The contracted batch of 15 Saturn Vs was enough for lunar landing missions through Apollo 20. Shortly after Apollo 11, NASA publicized a preliminary list of eight more planned landing sites after Apollo 12, with plans to increase the mass of the CSM and LM for the last five missions, along with the payload capacity of the Saturn V. These final missions would combine the I and J types in the 1967 list, allowing the CMP to operate a package of lunar orbital sensors and cameras while his companions were on the surface, and allowing them to stay on the Moon for over three days. These missions would also carry the Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) increasing the exploration area and allowing televised liftoff of the LM. Also, the Block II spacesuit was revised for the extended missions to allow greater flexibility and visibility for driving the LRV. + +The success of the first two landings allowed the remaining missions to be crewed with a single veteran as commander, with two rookies. Apollo 13 launched Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise in April 1970, headed for the Fra Mauro formation. But two days out, a liquid oxygen tank exploded, disabling the service module and forcing the crew to use the LM as a "lifeboat" to return to Earth. Another NASA review board was convened to determine the cause, which turned out to be a combination of damage of the tank in the factory, and a subcontractor not making a tank component according to updated design specifications. Apollo was grounded again, for the remainder of 1970 while the oxygen tank was redesigned and an extra one was added. + +Mission cutbacks +About the time of the first landing in 1969, it was decided to use an existing Saturn V to launch the Skylab orbital laboratory pre-built on the ground, replacing the original plan to construct it in orbit from several Saturn IB launches; this eliminated Apollo 20. NASA's yearly budget also began to shrink in light of the successful landing, and NASA also had to make funds available for the development of the upcoming Space Shuttle. By 1971, the decision was made to also cancel missions 18 and 19. The two unused Saturn Vs became museum exhibits at the John F. Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida, George C. Marshall Space Center in Huntsville, Alabama, Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans, Louisiana, and Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. + +The cutbacks forced mission planners to reassess the original planned landing sites in order to achieve the most effective geological sample and data collection from the remaining four missions. Apollo 15 had been planned to be the last of the H series missions, but since there would be only two subsequent missions left, it was changed to the first of three J missions. + +Apollo 13's Fra Mauro mission was reassigned to Apollo 14, commanded in February 1971 by Mercury veteran Alan Shepard, with Stuart Roosa and Edgar Mitchell. This time the mission was successful. Shepard and Mitchell spent 33 hours and 31 minutes on the surface, and completed two EVAs totalling 9hours 24 minutes, which was a record for the longest EVA by a lunar crew at the time. + +In August 1971, just after conclusion of the Apollo 15 mission, President Richard Nixon proposed canceling the two remaining lunar landing missions, Apollo 16 and 17. Office of Management and Budget Deputy Director Caspar Weinberger was opposed to this, and persuaded Nixon to keep the remaining missions. + +Extended missions + +Apollo 15 was launched on July 26, 1971, with David Scott, Alfred Worden and James Irwin. Scott and Irwin landed on July 30 near Hadley Rille, and spent just under two days, 19 hours on the surface. In over 18 hours of EVA, they collected about of lunar material. + +Apollo 16 landed in the Descartes Highlands on April 20, 1972. The crew was commanded by John Young, with Ken Mattingly and Charles Duke. Young and Duke spent just under three days on the surface, with a total of over 20 hours EVA. + +Apollo 17 was the last of the Apollo program, landing in the Taurus–Littrow region in December 1972. Eugene Cernan commanded Ronald E. Evans and NASA's first scientist-astronaut, geologist Harrison H. Schmitt. Schmitt was originally scheduled for Apollo 18, but the lunar geological community lobbied for his inclusion on the final lunar landing. Cernan and Schmitt stayed on the surface for just over three days and spent just over 23 hours of total EVA. + +Canceled missions + +Several missions were planned for but were canceled before details were finalized. + +Mission summary + +Source: Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference (Orloff 2004) + +Samples returned + +The Apollo program returned over of lunar rocks and soil to the Lunar Receiving Laboratory in Houston. Today, 75% of the samples are stored at the Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility built in 1979. + +The rocks collected from the Moon are extremely old compared to rocks found on Earth, as measured by radiometric dating techniques. They range in age from about 3.2 billion years for the basaltic samples derived from the lunar maria, to about 4.6 billion years for samples derived from the highlands crust. As such, they represent samples from a very early period in the development of the Solar System, that are largely absent on Earth. One important rock found during the Apollo Program is dubbed the Genesis Rock, retrieved by astronauts David Scott and James Irwin during the Apollo 15 mission. This anorthosite rock is composed almost exclusively of the calcium-rich feldspar mineral anorthite, and is believed to be representative of the highland crust. A geochemical component called KREEP was discovered by Apollo 12, which has no known terrestrial counterpart. KREEP and the anorthositic samples have been used to infer that the outer portion of the Moon was once completely molten (see lunar magma ocean). + +Almost all the rocks show evidence of impact process effects. Many samples appear to be pitted with micrometeoroid impact craters, which is never seen on Earth rocks, due to the thick atmosphere. Many show signs of being subjected to high-pressure shock waves that are generated during impact events. Some of the returned samples are of impact melt (materials melted near an impact crater.) All samples returned from the Moon are highly brecciated as a result of being subjected to multiple impact events. + +From analyses of the composition of the returned lunar samples, it is now believed that the Moon was created through the impact of a large astronomical body with Earth. + +Costs +Apollo cost $25.4 billion (or approximately $ in dollars when adjusted for inflation via the GDP deflator index). + +Of this amount, $20.2 billion ($ adjusted) was spent on the design, development, and production of the Saturn family of launch vehicles, the Apollo spacecraft, spacesuits, scientific experiments, and mission operations. The cost of constructing and operating Apollo-related ground facilities, such as the NASA human spaceflight centers and the global tracking and data acquisition network, added an additional $5.2 billion ($ adjusted). + +The amount grows to $28 billion ($ adjusted) if the costs for related projects such as Project Gemini and the robotic Ranger, Surveyor, and Lunar Orbiter programs are included. + +NASA's official cost breakdown, as reported to Congress in the Spring of 1973, is as follows: + +Accurate estimates of human spaceflight costs were difficult in the early 1960s, as the capability was new and management experience was lacking. Preliminary cost analysis by NASA estimated $7 billion – $12 billion for a crewed lunar landing effort. NASA Administrator James Webb increased this estimate to $20 billion before reporting it to Vice President Johnson in April 1961. + +Project Apollo was a massive undertaking, representing the largest research and development project in peacetime. At its peak, it employed over 400,000 employees and contractors around the country and accounted for more than half of NASA's total spending in the 1960s. After the first Moon landing, public and political interest waned, including that of President Nixon, who wanted to rein in federal spending. NASA's budget could not sustain Apollo missions which cost, on average, $445 million ($ adjusted) each while simultaneously developing the Space Shuttle. The final fiscal year of Apollo funding was 1973. + +Apollo Applications Program + +Looking beyond the crewed lunar landings, NASA investigated several post-lunar applications for Apollo hardware. The Apollo Extension Series (Apollo X) proposed up to 30 flights to Earth orbit, using the space in the Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter (SLA) to house a small orbital laboratory (workshop). Astronauts would continue to use the CSM as a ferry to the station. This study was followed by design of a larger orbital workshop to be built in orbit from an empty S-IVB Saturn upper stage and grew into the Apollo Applications Program (AAP). The workshop was to be supplemented by the Apollo Telescope Mount, which could be attached to the ascent stage of the lunar module via a rack. The most ambitious plan called for using an empty S-IVB as an interplanetary spacecraft for a Venus fly-by mission. + +The S-IVB orbital workshop was the only one of these plans to make it off the drawing board. Dubbed Skylab, it was assembled on the ground rather than in space, and launched in 1973 using the two lower stages of a Saturn V. It was equipped with an Apollo Telescope Mount. Skylab's last crew departed the station on February 8, 1974, and the station itself re-entered the atmosphere in 1979 after development of the Space Shuttle was delayed too long to save it. + +The Apollo–Soyuz program also used Apollo hardware for the first joint nation spaceflight, paving the way for future cooperation with other nations in the Space Shuttle and International Space Station programs. + +Recent observations + +In 2008, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency's SELENE probe observed evidence of the halo surrounding the Apollo 15 Lunar Module blast crater while orbiting above the lunar surface. + +Beginning in 2009, NASA's robotic Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, while orbiting above the Moon, photographed the remnants of the Apollo program left on the lunar surface, and each site where crewed Apollo flights landed. All of the U.S. flags left on the Moon during the Apollo missions were found to still be standing, with the exception of the one left during the Apollo 11 mission, which was blown over during that mission's lift-off from the lunar surface; the degree to which these flags retain their original colors remains unknown. The flags cannot be seen through a telescope from Earth. + +In a November 16, 2009, editorial, The New York Times opined: + +Legacy + +Science and engineering + +The Apollo program has been described as the greatest technological achievement in human history. Apollo stimulated many areas of technology, leading to over 1,800 spinoff products as of 2015, including advances in the development of cordless power tools, fireproof materials, heart monitors, solar panels, digital imaging, and the use of liquid methane as fuel. The flight computer design used in both the lunar and command modules was, along with the Polaris and Minuteman missile systems, the driving force behind early research into integrated circuits (ICs). By 1963, Apollo was using 60 percent of the United States' production of ICs. The crucial difference between the requirements of Apollo and the missile programs was Apollo's much greater need for reliability. While the Navy and Air Force could work around reliability problems by deploying more missiles, the political and financial cost of failure of an Apollo mission was unacceptably high. + +Technologies and techniques required for Apollo were developed by Project Gemini. The Apollo project was enabled by NASA's adoption of new advances in semiconductor electronic technology, including metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) in the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (IMP) and silicon integrated circuit chips in the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC). + +Cultural impact + +The crew of Apollo 8 sent the first live televised pictures of the Earth and the Moon back to Earth, and read from the creation story in the Book of Genesis, on Christmas Eve 1968. An estimated one-quarter of the population of the world saw—either live or delayed—the Christmas Eve transmission during the ninth orbit of the Moon, and an estimated one-fifth of the population of the world watched the live transmission of the Apollo 11 moonwalk. + +The Apollo program also affected environmental activism in the 1970s due to photos taken by the astronauts. The most well known include Earthrise, taken by William Anders on Apollo 8, and The Blue Marble, taken by the Apollo 17 astronauts. The Blue Marble was released during a surge in environmentalism, and became a symbol of the environmental movement as a depiction of Earth's frailty, vulnerability, and isolation amid the vast expanse of space. + +According to The Economist, Apollo succeeded in accomplishing President Kennedy's goal of taking on the Soviet Union in the Space Race by accomplishing a singular and significant achievement, to demonstrate the superiority of the free-market system. The publication noted the irony that in order to achieve the goal, the program required the organization of tremendous public resources within a vast, centralized government bureaucracy. + +Apollo 11 broadcast data restoration project + +Prior to Apollo 11's 40th anniversary in 2009, NASA searched for the original videotapes of the mission's live televised moonwalk. After an exhaustive three-year search, it was concluded that the tapes had probably been erased and reused. A new digitally remastered version of the best available broadcast television footage was released instead. + +Depictions on film + +Documentaries +Numerous documentary films cover the Apollo program and the Space Race, including: + + Footprints on the Moon (1969) + Moonwalk One (1970) + The Greatest Adventure (1978) + For All Mankind (1989) + Moon Shot (1994 miniseries) + "Moon" from the BBC miniseries The Planets (1999) + Magnificent Desolation: Walking on the Moon 3D (2005) + The Wonder of It All (2007) + In the Shadow of the Moon (2007) + When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions (2008 miniseries) + Moon Machines (2008 miniseries) + James May on the Moon (2009) + NASA's Story (2009 miniseries) + Apollo 11 (2019) + Chasing the Moon (2019 miniseries) + +Docudramas +Some missions have been dramatized: + + Apollo 13 (1995) + Apollo 11 (1996) + From the Earth to the Moon (1998) + The Dish (2000) + Space Race (2005) + Moonshot (2009) + First Man (2018) + +Fictional +The Apollo program has been the focus of several works of fiction, including: +Apollo 18 (2011), horror movie which was released to negative reviews. +For All Mankind (2019), TV series depicting an alternate history in which the Soviet Union was the first country to successfully land a man on the Moon. +Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny (2023), fifth movie about Indiana Jones, in which Jürgen Voller, a NASA member and ex-Nazi involved with the Apollo program, wishes to make the world into a better place as he sees fit. + +See also + + Apollo 11 in popular culture + Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package + Exploration of the Moon + Leslie Cantwell collection + List of artificial objects on the Moon + List of crewed spacecraft + Moon landing conspiracy theories + Third-party evidence for Apollo Moon landings + Soviet crewed lunar programs + Stolen and missing Moon rocks + Artemis Program + +Notes + +References + +Citations + +Sources + + + + + + + Chaikin interviewed all the surviving astronauts and others who worked with the program. + +Further reading + +   NASA Report JSC-09423, April 1975 + Astronaut Mike Collins autobiography of his experiences as an astronaut, including his flight aboard Apollo 11. + Although this book focuses on Apollo 13, it provides a wealth of background information on Apollo technology and procedures. + History of the Apollo program from Apollos 1–11, including many interviews with the Apollo astronauts. + Gleick, James, "Moon Fever" [review of Oliver Morton, The Moon: A History of the Future; Apollo's Muse: The Moon in the Age of Photography, an exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, July 3 – September 22, 2019; Douglas Brinkley, American Moonshot: John F. Kennedy and the Great Space Race; Brandon R. Brown, The Apollo Chronicles: Engineering America's First Moon Missions; Roger D. Launius, Reaching for the Moon: A Short History of the Space Race; Apollo 11, a documentary film directed by Todd Douglas Miller; and Michael Collins, Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys (50th Anniversary Edition)], The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 13 (15 August 2019), pp. 54–58. + Factual, from the standpoint of a flight controller during the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo space programs. + Details the flight of Apollo 13. + + + Tells Grumman's story of building the lunar modules. + + History of the crewed space program from 1September 1960, to 5January 1968. + Account of Deke Slayton's life as an astronaut and of his work as chief of the astronaut office, including selection of Apollo crews. +   From origin to November 7, 1962 +   November 8, 1962 – September 30, 1964 +   October 1, 1964 – January 20, 1966 +   January 21, 1966 – July 13, 1974 + The history of lunar exploration from a geologist's point of view. + +External links + + Apollo program history at NASA's Human Space Flight (HSF) website + The Apollo Program at the NASA History Program Office + + The Apollo Program at the National Air and Space Museum + Apollo 35th Anniversary Interactive Feature at NASA (in Flash) + Lunar Mission Timeline at the Lunar and Planetary Institute + Apollo Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections + +NASA reports + Apollo Program Summary Report (PDF), NASA, JSC-09423, April 1975 + NASA History Series Publications + Project Apollo Drawings and Technical Diagrams at the NASA History Program Office + The Apollo Lunar Surface Journal edited by Eric M. Jones and Ken Glover + The Apollo Flight Journal by W. David Woods, et al. + +Multimedia + NASA Apollo Program images and videos + Apollo Image Archive at Arizona State University + Audio recording and transcript of President John F. Kennedy, NASA administrator James Webb, et al., discussing the Apollo agenda (White House Cabinet Room, November 21, 1962) + The Project Apollo Archive by Kipp Teague is a large repository of Apollo images, videos, and audio recordings + The Project Apollo Archive on Flickr + Apollo Image Atlas—almost 25,000 lunar images, Lunar and Planetary Institute + + + + +1960s in the United States +1970s in the United States +Articles containing video clips +Engineering projects +Exploration of the Moon +Human spaceflight programs +NASA programs +Space program of the United States +An assault is the illegal act of causing physical harm or unwanted physical contact to another person, or, in some legal definitions, the threat or attempt to do so. It is both a crime and a tort and, therefore, may result in criminal prosecution, civil liability, or both. Additionally, assault is a criminal act in which a person intentionally causes fear of physical harm or offensive contact to another person. Assault can be committed with or without a weapon and can range from physical violence to threats of violence. Assault is frequently referred to as an attempt to commit battery, which is the deliberate use of physical force against another person. The deliberate inflicting of fear, apprehension, or terror is another definition of assault that can be found in several legal systems. Depending on the severity of the offense, assault may result in a fine, imprisonment, or even death. + +Generally, the common law definition is the same in criminal and tort law. + +Traditionally, common law legal systems have separate definitions for assault and battery. When this distinction is observed, battery refers to the actual bodily contact, whereas assault refers to a credible threat or attempt to cause battery. Some jurisdictions combined the two offenses into a single crime called "assault and battery", which then became widely referred to as "assault". The result is that in many of these jurisdictions, assault has taken on a definition that is more in line with the traditional definition of battery. The legal systems of civil law and Scots law have never distinguished assault from battery. + +Legal systems generally acknowledge that assaults can vary greatly in severity. In the United States, an assault can be charged as either a misdemeanor or a felony. In England and Wales and Australia, it can be charged as either common assault, assault occasioning actual bodily harm (ABH) or grievous bodily harm (GBH). Canada also has a three-tier system: assault, assault causing bodily harm and aggravated assault. Separate charges typically exist for sexual assaults, affray and assaulting a police officer. Assault may overlap with an attempted crime; for example, an assault may be charged as attempted murder if it was done with intent to kill. + +Related definitions + +Battery +Battery is a criminal offense that involves the use of physical force against another person without their consent. It is a type of assault and is considered a serious crime. Battery can include a wide range of actions, from slapping someone to causing serious harm or even death. Depending on the severity of the offense, it can carry a wide range of punishments, including jail time, fines, and probation. + +In jurisdictions that make a distinction between the two, assault usually accompanies battery if the assailant both threatens to make unwanted contact and then carries through with this threat. See common assault. The elements of battery are that it is a volitional act, done for the purpose of causing a harmful or offensive contact with another person or under circumstances that make such contact substantially certain to occur, and which causes such contact. + +Aggravated assault +Aggravated assault is a violent crime that involves violence or the threat of violence. It is generally described as an intentional act that causes another person to fear imminent physical harm or injury. This can include the use of a weapon, or the threat of using a weapon. It is usually considered a felony offense and can carry severe penalties. Aggravated assault is often considered a very serious crime and can lead to long-term prison sentences. + +Aggravated assault is, in some jurisdictions, a stronger form of assault, usually using a deadly weapon. A person has committed an aggravated assault when that person attempts to: + cause serious bodily injury to another person with a deadly weapon + have sexual relations with a person who is under the age of consent + cause bodily harm by recklessly operating a motor vehicle during road rage; often referred to as either vehicular assault or aggravated assault with a motor vehicle. + +Aggravated assault can also be charged in cases of attempted harm against police officers or other public servants. + +Defenses +Although the range and precise application of defenses varies between jurisdictions, the following represents a list of the defenses that may apply to all levels of assault: + +Consent +Exceptions exist to cover unsolicited physical contact which amount to normal social behavior known as de minimis harm. Assault can also be considered in cases involving the spitting on, or unwanted exposure of bodily fluids to others. + +Consent may be a complete or partial defense to assault. In some jurisdictions, most notably England, it is not a defense where the degree of injury is severe, as long as there is no legally recognized good reason for the assault. This can have important consequences when dealing with issues such as consensual sadomasochistic sexual activity, the most notable case being the Operation Spanner case. Legally recognized good reasons for consent include surgery, activities within the rules of a game (mixed martial arts, wrestling, boxing, or contact sports), bodily adornment (R v Wilson [1996] Crim LR 573), or horseplay (R v Jones [1987] Crim LR 123). However, any activity outside the rules of the game is not legally recognized as a defense of consent. In Scottish law, consent is not a defense for assault. + +Arrest and other official acts +Police officers and court officials have a general power to use force for the purpose of performing an arrest or generally carrying out their official duties. Thus, a court officer taking possession of goods under a court order may use force if reasonably necessary. + +Punishment +In some jurisdictions such as Singapore, judicial corporal punishment is part of the legal system. The officers who administer the punishment have immunity from prosecution for assault. + +In the United States, England, Northern Ireland, Australia and Canada, corporal punishment administered to children by their parent or legal guardian is not legally considered to be assault unless it is deemed to be excessive or unreasonable. What constitutes "reasonable" varies in both statutory law and case law. Unreasonable physical punishment may be charged as assault or under a separate statute for child abuse. + +In English law, s. 58 Children Act 2004 limits the availability of the lawful correction defense to common assault. This defence was abolished in Wales in 2022. + +Many countries, including some US states, also permit the use of corporal punishment for children in school. + +Prevention of crime +This may or may not involve self-defense in that, using a reasonable degree of force to prevent another from committing a crime could involve preventing an assault, but it could be preventing a crime not involving the use of personal violence. + +Defense of property +Some jurisdictions allow force to be used in defense of property, to prevent damage either in its own right, or under one or both of the preceding classes of defense in that a threat or attempt to damage property might be considered a crime (in English law, under s5 Criminal Damage Act 1971 it may be argued that the defendant has a lawful excuse to damage property during the defense and a defense under s3 Criminal Law Act 1967) subject to the need to deter vigilantes and excessive self-help. Furthermore, some jurisdictions, such as Ohio, allow residents in their homes to use force when ejecting an intruder. The resident merely needs to assert to the court that they felt threatened by the intruder's presence. + +Regional details + +The following are the countries with the most cases of assault according to the United Nations in 2018. + +Australia +The term 'assault', when used in legislation, commonly refers to both common assault and battery, even though the two offences remain distinct. Common assault involves intentionally or recklessly causing a person to apprehend the imminent infliction of unlawful force, whilst battery refers to the actual infliction of force. + +Each state has legislation relating to the act of assault, and offences against the act that constitute assault are heard in the magistrates' court of that state or indictable offences are heard in a district or supreme court of that state. The legislation that defines assault of each state outline what the elements are that make up the assault, where the assault is sectioned in legislation or criminal codes, and the penalties that apply for the offence of assault. + +In New South Wales, the Crimes Act 1900 defines a range of assault offences deemed more serious than common assault and which attract heavier penalties. These include: + +Assault with further specific intent + Acts done to the person with intent to murder + Wounding or grievous bodily harm + Use or possession of a weapon to resist arrest + +Assault causing certain injuries + Actual bodily harm – the term is not defined in the Crimes Act, but case law indicates actual bodily harm may include injuries such as bruises and scratches, as well as psychological injuries if the injury inflicted is more than merely transient (the injury does not necessarily need to be permanent) + Wounding – where there is breaking of the skin; + Grievous bodily harm – which includes the destruction of a foetus, permanent or serious disfiguring, and transmission of a grievous bodily disease + +Assault causing death + Death + Death when intoxicated (in regards to the offender) + +Canada +Assault is an offence under s. 265 of the Canadian Criminal Code. There is a wide range of the types of assault that can occur. Generally, an assault occurs when a person directly or indirectly applies force intentionally to another person without their consent. It can also occur when a person attempts to apply such force, or threatens to do so, without the consent of the other person. An injury need not occur for an assault to be committed, but the force used in the assault must be offensive in nature with an intention to apply force. It can be an assault to "tap", "pinch", "push", or direct another such minor action toward another, but an accidental application of force is not an assault. + +The potential punishment for an assault in Canada varies depending on the manner in which the charge proceeds through the court system and the type of assault that is committed. The Criminal Code defines assault as a dual offence (indictable or summary offence). Police officers can arrest someone without a warrant for an assault if it is in the public's interest to do so notwithstanding S.495(2)(d) of the Code. This public interest is usually satisfied by preventing a continuation or repetition of the offence on the same victim. + +Some variations on the ordinary crime of assault include: + + Assault: The offence is defined by section 265 of the Code. + Assault with a weapon: Section 267(a) of the Code. + Assault causing bodily harm: See assault causing bodily harm Section 267(b) of the Code. + Aggravated assault: Section 268 of the Code. + Assaulting a peace officer, etc.: Section 270 of the Code. + Sexual assault: Section 271 of the Code. + Sexual assault with a weapon or threats or causing bodily harm: Section 272 of the Code. + Aggravated sexual assault: See aggravated sexual assault. + +An individual cannot consent to an assault with a weapon, assault causing bodily harm, aggravated assault, or any sexual assault. Consent will also be vitiated if two people consent to fight but serious bodily harm is intended and caused (R v Paice; R v Jobidon). A person cannot consent to serious bodily harm. + +Ancient Greece +Assault in Ancient Greece was normally termed hubris. Contrary to modern usage, the term did not have the extended connotation of overweening pride, self-confidence or arrogance, often resulting in fatal retribution. In Ancient Greece, "hubris" referred to actions which, intentionally or not, shamed and humiliated the victim, and frequently the perpetrator as well. It was most evident in the public and private actions of the powerful and rich. + +Violations of the law against hubris included, what would today be termed, assault and battery; sexual crimes ranging from forcible rape of women or children to consensual but improper activities; or the theft of public or sacred property. Two well-known cases are found in the speeches of Demosthenes, a prominent statesman and orator in ancient Greece. These two examples occurred when first, in addition to other acts of violence, Meidias allegedly punched Demosthenes in the face in the theater (Against Meidias), and second (Against Konon), when the defendant allegedly severely beat him. + +Hubris, though not specifically defined, was a legal term and was considered a crime in classical Athens. It was also considered the greatest sin of the ancient Greek world. That was so because it not only was proof of excessive pride, but also resulted in violent acts by or to those involved. The category of acts constituting hubris for the ancient Greeks apparently broadened from the original specific reference to mutilation of a corpse, or a humiliation of a defeated foe, or irreverent, "outrageous treatment", in general. + +The meaning was eventually further generalized in its modern English usage to apply to any outrageous act or exhibition of pride or disregard for basic moral laws. Such an act may be referred to as an "act of hubris", or the person committing the act may be said to be hubristic. Atë, Greek for 'ruin, folly, delusion', is the action performed by the hero, usually because of their hubris, or great pride, that leads to their death or downfall. + +Crucial to this definition are the ancient Greek concepts of honor (timē) and shame. The concept of timē included not only the exaltation of the one receiving honor, but also the shaming of the one overcome by the act of hubris. This concept of honor is akin to a zero-sum game. Rush Rehm simplifies this definition to the contemporary concept of "insolence, contempt, and excessive violence". + +India +The Indian Penal Code covers the punishments and types of assault in Chapter 16, sections 351 through 358. + +The Code further explains that "mere words do not amount to an assault. But the words which a person uses may give to their gestures or preparation such a meaning as may make those gestures or preparations amount to an assault". Assault is in Indian criminal law an attempt to use criminal force (with criminal force being described in s.350). The attempt itself has been made an offence in India, as in other states. + +Nigeria +The Criminal Code Act (chapter 29 of Part V; sections 351 to 365) creates a number of offences of assault. Assault is defined by section 252 of that Act. Assault is a misdemeanor punishable by one year imprisonment; assault with "intent to have carnal knowledge of him or her" or who indecently assaults another, or who commits other more-serious variants of assault (as defined in the Act) are guilty of a felony, and longer prison terms are provided for. + +Pacific Islands +Marshall Islands + +The offence of assault is created by section 113 of the Criminal Code. A person is guilty of this offence if they unlawfully offer or attempt, with force or violence, to strike, beat, wound, or do bodily harm to, another. + +Republic of Ireland +Section 2 of the Non-Fatal Offences against the Person Act 1997 creates the offence of assault, and section 3 of that Act creates the offence of assault causing harm. + +South Africa +South African law does not draw the distinction between assault and battery. Assault is a common law crime defined as "unlawfully and intentionally applying force to the person of another, or inspiring a belief in that other that force is immediately to be applied to him". The law also recognises the crime of assault with intent to cause grievous bodily harm, where grievous bodily harm is defined as "harm which in itself is such as seriously to interfere with health". The common law crime of indecent assault was repealed by the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act, 2007, and replaced by a statutory crime of sexual assault. + +United Kingdom +Piracy with violence Section 2 of the Piracy Act 1837 provides that it is an offence, amongst other things, for a person, with intent to commit or at the time of or immediately before or immediately after committing the crime of piracy in respect of any ship or vessel, to assault, with intent to murder, any person being on board of or belonging to such ship or vessel. +Assault on an officer of Revenue and Customs This offence (relating to officers of HMRC) is created by section 32(1) of the Commissioners for Revenue and Customs Act 2005. +Assaulting an immigration officer This offence is created by section 22(1) of the UK Borders Act 2007. +Assaulting an accredited financial investigator This section is created by section 453A of the Proceeds of Crime Act 2002. +Assaulting a member of an international joint investigation team This offence is created by section 57(2) of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005. +Attacks on internationally protected persons Section 1(1)(a) of the Internationally Protected Persons Act 1978 (c.17) makes provision for assault occasioning actual bodily harm or causing injury on "protected persons" (including Heads of State). +Attacks on UN Staff workers Section 1(2)(a) of the United Nations Personnel Act 1997 (c.13) makes provision for assault causing injury, and section 1(2)(b) makes provision for assault occasioning actual bodily harm, on UN staff. +Assault by person committing an offence under the Night Poaching Act 1828 This offence is created by section 2 of the Night Poaching Act 1828. + +Abolished offences: + +Assault on customs and excise officers, etc. Section 16(1)(a) of the Customs and Excise Management Act 1979 (c.2) provided that it was an offence to, amongst other things, assault any person duly engaged in the performance of any duty or the exercise of any power imposed or conferred on him by or under any enactment relating to an assigned matter, or any person acting in his aid. For the meaning of "assault" in this provision, see Logdon v. DPP [1976] Crim LR 121, DC. This offence was abolished and replaced by the Commissioners for Revenue and Customs Act 2005. +Assaulting a person designated under section 43 of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005 This offence was created by section 51(1) of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005. It related to officers of the Serious Organized Crime Agency and was repealed when that agency was abolished. + +England and Wales + +English law provides for two offences of assault: common assault and battery. Assault (or common assault) is committed if one intentionally or recklessly causes another person to apprehend immediate and unlawful personal violence. Violence in this context means any unlawful touching, though there is some debate over whether the touching must also be hostile. The terms "assault" and "common assault" often encompass the separate offence of battery, even in statutory settings such as s 40(3)(a) of the Criminal Justice Act 1988. + +A common assault is an assault that lacks any of the aggravating features which Parliament has deemed serious enough to deserve a higher penalty. Section 39 of the Criminal Justice Act 1988 provides that common assault, like battery, is triable only in the magistrates' court in England and Wales (unless it is linked to a more serious offence, which is triable in the Crown Court). Additionally, if a defendant has been charged on an indictment with assault occasioning actual bodily harm (ABH), or racially/religiously aggravated assault, then a jury in the Crown Court may acquit the defendant of the more serious offence, but still convict of common assault if it finds common assault has been committed. + +Aggravated assault +An assault which is aggravated by the scale of the injuries inflicted may be charged as offences causing "actual bodily harm" (ABH) or, in the severest cases, "grievous bodily harm" (GBH). +Assault occasioning actual bodily harm This offence is created by section 47 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861. +Inflicting grievous bodily harm Also referred to as "malicious wounding" or "unlawful wounding". This offence is created by section 20 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861. +Causing grievous bodily harm with intent Also referred to as "wounding with intent". This offence is created by section 18 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861. + +Other aggravated assault charges refer to assaults carried out against a specific target or with a specific intent: +Assault with intent to rob The penalty for assault with intent to rob, a common law offence, is provided by section 8(2) of the Theft Act 1968. +Racially or religiously aggravated common assault This offence is created by section 29(1)(c) of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998, defined in terms of the common law offence. +Racially or religiously aggravated assault occasioning actual bodily harm This offence is created by section 29(1)(b) of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998, defined in terms of the common law offence. +Assault with intent to resist arrest This offence is created by section 38 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861. +Assaulting a constable in the execution of his duty Section 89(1) of the Police Act 1996 provides that it is an offence for a person to assault a constable acting in the execution of his duty or a person assisting a constable in the execution of his duty. It is a summary offence with the same maximum penalty as common assault. +Assaulting a traffic officer This offence is created by section/10 section 10(1) of the Traffic Management Act 2004. +Assaulting a person designated or accredited under sections 38 or 39 or 41 or 41A of the Police Reform Act 2002 This offence is created by section/46 section 46(1) of the Police Reform Act 2002. Those sections relate respectively to persons given police powers by a chief police officer, detention contractors retained by police, accredited contractors under a community safety accreditation scheme, and weights and measures inspectors. +Assault on a prison custody officer This offence is created by section 90(1) of the Criminal Justice Act 1991 (c.53). +Assault on a secure training centre custody officer This offence is created by section 13(1) of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 (c.33). +Assault on officer saving wreck This offence is created by section 37 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861. +Assaulting an officer of the court This offence is created by section 14(1)(b) of the County Courts Act 1984. +Cruelty to persons under sixteen This offence is created by section 1(1) of the Children and Young Persons Act 1933 and applies to a person who has responsibility for the child. In England (but not Wales since 2022), common law provides a defence of "reasonable punishment" to battery (i.e. assaults involving touching); the Children Act 2004 limits the defence to exclude, among other offences, cruelty under the 1933 Act, but not battery, which implies that smacking is not always to be considered cruelty. +Sexual assault The offence of sexual assault is created by section 3 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003. It is not defined in terms of the offences of common assault or battery. It instead requires intentional touching and the absence of a reasonable belief in consent. +Assault by penetration This offence is defined by section 2 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003. Whereas rape consists only of penetration with the perpetrator's penis, assault by penetration can be committed with anything, though unlike rape it excludes penetration of the mouth. It carries the same maximum sentence of life imprisonment. + Assault on an emergency worker The Assaults on Emergency Workers (Offences) Act 2018 makes common assault an either way offence (section 1) when committed against an emergency worker (defined in section 3), with a maximum sentence of two years' imprisonment if tried on indictment. The Act did not repeal any enactments, so the existing offence of assault on a constable is still available, but that offence cannot be tried on indictment and is therefore limited to six months. + +Scotland +In Scots law, assault is defined as an "attack upon the person of another". There is no distinction made in Scotland between assault and battery (which is not a term used in Scots law), although, as in England and Wales, assault can be occasioned without a physical attack on another's person, as demonstrated in Atkinson v. HM Advocate wherein the accused was found guilty of assaulting a shop assistant by simply jumping over a counter wearing a ski mask. The court said: + +Scots law also provides for a more serious charge of aggravated assault on the basis of such factors as severity of injury, the use of a weapon, or Hamesucken (to assault a person in their own home). The mens rea for assault is simply "evil intent", although this has been held to mean no more than that assault "cannot be committed accidentally or recklessly or negligently" as upheld in Lord Advocate's Reference No 2 of 1992 where it was found that a "hold-up" in a shop justified as a joke would still constitute an offence. + +It is a separate offence to assault on a constable in the execution of their duty, under Section 90, Police and Fire Reform (Scotland) Act 2012 (previously Section 41 of the Police (Scotland) Act 1967) which provides that it is an offence for a person to, amongst other things, assault a constable in the execution of their duty or a person assisting a constable in the execution of their duty. + +Northern Ireland +Several offences of assault exist in Northern Ireland. The Offences against the Person Act 1861 creates the offences of: + Common assault and battery: a summary offence, under section 42; + Aggravated assault and battery: a summary offence, under section 43 + Common assault: under section 47 + Assault occasioning actual bodily harm: under section 47 +The Criminal Justice (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act (Northern Ireland) 1968 creates the offences of: + Assault with intent to resist arrest: under section 7(1)(b); this offence was formerly created by s.38 of the OAPA 1861. + +That Act formerly created the offence of 'Assault on a constable in the execution of his duty'. under section 7(1)(a), but that section has been superseded by section 66(1) of the Police (Northern Ireland) Act 1998 (c.32) which now provides that it is an offence for a person to, amongst other things, assault a constable in the execution of his duty, or a person assisting a constable in the execution of his duty. + +United States + +In the United States, assault may be defined as an attempt to commit a battery. However, the crime of assault can encompass acts in which no battery is intended, but the defendant's act nonetheless creates reasonable fear in others that a battery will occur. + +Four elements were required at common law: + The apparent, present ability to carry out; + An unlawful attempt; + To commit a violent injury; + Upon another. + +As the criminal law evolved, element one was weakened in most jurisdictions so that a reasonable fear of bodily injury would suffice. These four elements were eventually codified in most states. + +The crime of assault generally requires that both the perpetrator and the victim of an assault be a natural person. Thus, unless the attack is directed by a person, an animal attack does not constitute an assault. However, under limited circumstances the Unborn Victims of Violence Act of 2004 treats a fetus as a separate person for the purposes of assault and other violent crimes. + +Possible examples of defenses, mitigating circumstances, or failures of proof that may be raised in response to an assault charge include: + Lack of intent: A defendant could argue that since they were drunk, they could not form the specific intent to commit assault. This defense would most likely fail, however, since only involuntary intoxication is accepted as a defense in most American jurisdictions. + Mutual consent: A defendant could also argue that they were engaged in mutually consensual behavior. For example, boxers who are fighting in an organized boxing match and do not significantly deviate from the rules of the sport cannot be charged with assault. + +State laws +Laws on assault vary by state. Since each state has its own criminal laws, there is no universal assault law. Acts classified as assault in one state may be classified as battery, menacing, intimidation, reckless endangerment, etc. in another state. Assault is often subdivided into two categories, simple assault and aggravated assault. + Simple assault involves an intentional act that causes another person to be in reasonable fear of an imminent battery. Simple assault may also involve an attempt to cause harm to another person, where that attempt does not succeed. Simple assault is typically classified as a misdemeanor offense, unless the victim is a member of a protected class, such as being a law enforcement officer. Even as a misdemeanor, an assault conviction may still result in incarceration and in a criminal record. + Aggravated assault involves more serious actions, such as an assault that is committed with the intent to cause a serious bodily injury, or an assault that is committed with a deadly weapon such as a firearm. Aggravated assault is typically classified as a felony offense. + +Modern American statutes may define assault as including: + an attempt to cause or purposely, knowingly, or recklessly causing bodily injury to another + negligently causing bodily injury to another with a dangerous weapon (assault with a deadly weapon). + causing bodily harm by reckless operation of a motor vehicle (vehicular assault). + threatening another in a menacing manner. + knowingly causing physical contact with another person knowing the other person will regard the contact as offensive or provocative + causing stupor, unconsciousness or physical injury by intentionally administering a drug or controlled substance without consent +purposely or knowingly causing reasonable apprehension of bodily injury in another +any act which is intended to place another in fear of immediate physical contact which will be painful, injurious, insulting, or offensive, coupled with the apparent ability to execute the act. + +In some states, consent is a complete defense to assault. In other jurisdictions, mutual consent is an incomplete defense to an assault charge such that an assault charge is prosecuted as a less significant offense such as a petty misdemeanor. + +States vary on whether it is possible to commit an "attempted assault" since it can be considered a double inchoate offense. + +Kansas +In Kansas the law on assault states: + +New York +In New York State, assault (as defined in the New York State Penal Code Article 120) requires an actual injury. Other states define this as battery; there is no crime of battery in New York. However, in New York if a person threatens another person with imminent injury without engaging in physical contact, that is called "menacing". A person who engages in that behavior is guilty of aggravated harassment in the second degree (a Class A misdemeanor; punishable with up to one year incarceration, probation for an extended time, and a permanent criminal record) when they threaten to cause physical harm to another person, and guilty of aggravated harassment in the first degree (a Class E felony) if they have a previous conviction for the same offense. New York also has specific laws against hazing, when such threats are made as requirement to join an organization. + +North Dakota +North Dakota law states: + +Pennsylvania +In Pennsylvania, an offender can be charged with simple assault if they: + + injure someone else recklessly, knowingly, or purposefully + accidentally injure someone with a firearm or weapon + cause a needle-stick to an officer or correctional employee during a search or arrest + threaten or intimidate someone causing fear of imminent serious bodily injury + +A person convicted of simple assault can be ordered to up to two years in prison as a second-degree misdemeanor. + +An offender can be charged with aggravated assault if the offender: + + demonstrates extreme indifference to the victim's life + injures or threatens to injure a law enforcement officer, correctional officer, firefighter, police officer, or teacher on duty, or for incapacitating any of these individuals + +A person convicted of aggravated assault can face up to 10 years in prison as a second-degree felony. However, if the crime is perpetrated against a firefighter or police officer, the offender may face first-degree felony charges carrying a penalty of up to 20 years in prison. + +Tennessee +In Tennessee assault is defined as follows: + +See also + Domestic violence + Gay bashing + Hate crime + Mayhem + Offences Against the Person Act 1861 + +Citations + +General and cited references + +External links + + A guide to the non fatal offences against the person + + +Crimes +In Norse cosmology, Álfheimr (Old Norse: , "Land of the Elves" or "Elfland"; anglicized as Alfheim), also called "Ljósálfheimr" ( , "home of the Light Elves"), is home of the Light Elves. + +Attestations +Álfheim as an abode of the Elves is mentioned only twice in Old Norse texts. + +Grímnismál +The Eddic poem Grímnismál describes twelve divine dwellings beginning the stanza 5 with: + +A tooth-gift is a gift given to an infant on the cutting of the first tooth. + +Gylfaginning +In the 12th century Eddic prose Gylfaginning, Snorri Sturluson relates it in the stanza 17 as the first of a series of abodes in heaven: + +Later in the section, in speaking of a hall in the Highest Heaven called Gimlé that shall survive when heaven and earth have died, explains: + +See also + Alfheimbjerg + Fairyland, a folkloric location sometimes referred to as Elfame + Svartálfaheimr + Svartálfar (black elves) + +Citations + +Bibliography + +Primary + +External links + +Locations in Norse mythology +Saga locations +Elves +Freyr +In Norse mythology, Ask and Embla ( )—male and female respectively—were the first two humans, created by the gods. The pair are attested in both the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson. In both sources, three gods, one of whom is Odin, find Ask and Embla and bestow upon them various corporeal and spiritual gifts. A number of theories have been proposed to explain the two figures, and there are occasional references to them in popular culture. + +Etymology + +Old Norse literally means "ash tree" but the etymology of embla is uncertain, and two possibilities of the meaning of embla are generally proposed. The first meaning, "elm tree", is problematic, and is reached by deriving *Elm-la from *Almilōn and subsequently to ("elm"). The second suggestion is "vine", which is reached through *Ambilō, which may be related to the Greek term (), itself meaning "vine, liana". The latter etymology has resulted in a number of theories. + +Linguist Gunlög Josefsson claims that the name Embla comes from the roots "eim" + "la" which would then mean "firemaker(ess)" or "smokebringer(ess)". She connects this to the ancient practice of creating fire through a fire plough which was considered a magical and holy way of fire making in folk belief in Scandinavia long into modern times. She identifies the emergence of fire through the plowing symbolically to the moment of orgasm and hence fertilization and reproductiveness. + +According to Benjamin Thorpe "Grimm says the word embla, emla, signifies a busy woman, from amr, ambr, aml, ambl, assiduous labour; the same relation as Meshia and Meshiane, the ancient Persian names of the first man and woman, who were also formed from trees." + +Attestations +In stanza 17 of the Poetic Edda poem , the seeress reciting the poem states that Hœnir, Lóðurr and Odin once found Ask and Embla on land. The seeress says that the two were capable of very little, lacking in and says that they were given three gifts by the three gods: + +The meaning of these gifts has been a matter of scholarly disagreement and translations therefore vary. + +According to chapter 9 of the Prose Edda book , the three brothers Vili, Vé, and Odin, are the creators of the first man and woman. The brothers were once walking along a beach and found two trees there. They took the wood and from it created the first human beings; Ask and Embla. One of the three gave them the breath of life, the second gave them movement and intelligence, and the third gave them shape, speech, hearing and sight. Further, the three gods gave them clothing and names. Ask and Embla go on to become the progenitors of all humanity and were given a home within the walls of Midgard. + +Theories + +Indo-European origins +A Proto-Indo-European basis has been theorized for the duo based on the etymology of embla meaning "vine." In Indo-European societies, an analogy is derived from the drilling of fire and sexual intercourse. Vines were used as a flammable wood, where they were placed beneath a drill made of harder wood, resulting in fire. Further evidence of ritual making of fire in Scandinavia has been theorized from a depiction on a stone plate on a Bronze Age grave in Kivik, Scania, Sweden. + +Jaan Puhvel comments that "ancient myths teem with trite 'first couples' similar to the type of Adam and his by-product Eve. In Indo-European tradition, these range from the Vedic Yama and Yamī and the Iranian Mašya and Mašyānag to the Icelandic Askr and Embla, with trees or rocks as preferred raw material, and dragon's teeth or other bony substance occasionally thrown in for good measure". + +In his study of the comparative evidence for an origin of mankind from trees in Indo-European society, Anders Hultgård observes that "myths of the origin of mankind from trees or wood seem to be particularly connected with ancient Europe and Indo-Europe and Indo-European-speaking peoples of Asia Minor and Iran. By contrast the cultures of the Near East show almost exclusively the type of anthropogonic stories that derive man's origin from clay, earth or blood by means of a divine creation act". + +Other potential Germanic analogues +Two wooden figures—the Braak Bog Figures—of "more than human height" were unearthed from a peat bog at Braak in Schleswig, Germany. The figures depict a nude male and a nude female. Hilda Ellis Davidson comments that these figures may represent a "Lord and Lady" of the Vanir, a group of Norse gods, and that "another memory of [these wooden deities] may survive in the tradition of the creation of Ask and Embla, the man and woman who founded the human race, created by the gods from trees on the seashore". + +A figure named Æsc (Old English "ash tree") appears as the son of Hengest in the Anglo-Saxon genealogy for the kings of Kent. This has resulted in a number of theories that the figures may have had an earlier basis in pre-Norse Germanic mythology. + +Connections have been proposed between Ask and Embla and the Vandal kings Assi and Ambri, attested in Paul the Deacon's 7th century AD work Origo Gentis Langobardorum. There, the two ask the god Godan (Odin) for victory. The name Ambri, like Embla, likely derives from *Ambilō. + +Catalog of dwarfs +A stanza preceding the account of the creation of Ask and Embla in Völuspá provides a catalog of dwarfs, and stanza 10 has been considered as describing the creation of human forms from the earth. This may potentially mean that dwarfs formed humans, and that the three gods gave them life. Carolyne Larrington theorizes that humans are metaphorically designated as trees in Old Norse works (examples include "trees of jewellery" for women and "trees of battle" for men) due to the origin of humankind stemming from trees; Ask and Embla. + +Modern depictions +Ask and Embla have been the subject of a number of references and artistic depictions. + +A sculpture depicting the two, created by Stig Blomberg in 1948, stands in Sölvesborg in southern Sweden. + +Ask and Embla are depicted on two of the sixteen wooden panels by Dagfin Werenskiold on Oslo City Hall. + +Ask to Embla is the title of a poem, parts of which are quoted, by R. H. Ash, one of the protagonists in A. S. Byatt's novel Possession: A Romance, which won the Booker prize in 1990. + +In the video game Fire Emblem Heroes, the two main warring kingdoms are Askr and Embla, which is where the Summoner, the player, finds themselves in, as the kingdom has been at war with the Emblian Empire when the game starts. It is later revealed both kingdoms are named after a pair of Ancient Dragons; with Askr being male and Embla female. + +See also + Líf and Lífþrasir + Sacred trees and groves in Germanic paganism and mythology + +Notes + +References + + Bellows, Henry Adams (Trans.) (1936). The Poetic Edda. Princeton University Press. New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation. + Byock, Jesse (Trans.) (2006). The Prose Edda. Penguin Classics. + Davidson, H. R. Ellis (1975). Scandinavian Mythology. Paul Hamlyn. + Hultgård, Anders (2006). "The Askr and Embla Myth in a Comparative Perspective". In Andr��n, Anders; Jennbert, Kristina; Raudvere, Catharina (editors).Old Norse Religion in Long-term Perspectives. Nordic Academic Press. + Dronke, Ursula (Trans.) (1997). The Poetic Edda: Volume II: Mythological Poems. Oxford University Press. + Larrington, Carolyne (Trans.) (1999). The Poetic Edda. Oxford World's Classics. + Lindow, John (2001). Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs. Oxford University Press. + Orchard, Andy (1997). Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend. Cassell. + Puhvel, Jaan (1989 [1987]). Comparative Mythology. Johns Hopkins University Press. + Schach, Paul (1985). "Some Thoughts on Völuspá" as collected in Glendinning, R. J. Bessason, Heraldur (Editors). Edda: a Collection of Essays. University of Manitoba Press. + Simek, Rudolf (2007) translated by Angela Hall. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. D.S. Brewer. + Thorpe, Benjamin (Trans.) (1907). The Elder Edda of Saemund Sigfusson. Norrœna Society. + Thorpe, Benjamin (Trans.) (1866). Edda Sæmundar Hinns Frôða: The Edda of Sæmund the Learned. Part I. London: Trübner & Co. + +Fictional couples +Legendary progenitors +Mythological first humans +People in Norse mythology +Mythological duos +Fraxinus excelsior +The Alabama River, in the U.S. state of Alabama, is formed by the Tallapoosa and Coosa rivers, which unite about north of Montgomery, near the town of Wetumpka. + +The river flows west to Selma, then southwest until, about from Mobile, it unites with the Tombigbee, forming the Mobile and Tensaw rivers, which discharge into Mobile Bay. + +Description +The run of the Alabama is highly meandering. Its width varies from , and its depth from . Its length as measured by the United States Geological Survey is , and by steamboat measurement, . + +The river crosses the richest agricultural and timber districts of the state. Railways connect it with the mineral regions of north-central Alabama. + +After the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers, the principal tributary of the Alabama is the Cahaba River, which is about long and joins the Alabama River about below Selma. The Alabama River's main tributary, the Coosa River, crosses the mineral region of Alabama and is navigable for light-draft boats from Rome, Georgia, to about above Wetumpka (about below Rome and below Greensport), and from Wetumpka to its junction with the Tallapoosa. The channel of the river has been considerably improved by the federal government. + +The navigation of the Tallapoosa River – which has its source in Paulding County, Georgia, and is about long – is prevented by shoals and a fall at Tallassee, a few miles north of its junction with the Coosa. The Alabama is navigable throughout the year. + +The river played an important role in the growth of the economy in the region during the 19th century as a source of transportation of goods, which included slaves. The river is still used for transportation of farming produce; however, it is not as important as it once was due to the construction of roads and railways. + +Documented by Europeans first in 1701, the Alabama, Coosa, and Tallapoosa rivers were central to the homeland of the Creek Indians before their removal by United States forces to the Indian Territory in the 1830s. + +Lock and dams +The Alabama River has three lock and dams between Montgomery and the Mobile River. The Robert F. Henry Lock & Dam is located at river mile 236.2, the Millers Ferry Lock & Dam is located at river mile 133.0, and the Claiborne Lock & Dam is located at river mile 72.5. + +Gallery + +See also +List of Alabama rivers +Tallapoosa River +Coosa River +Mobile River + South Atlantic-Gulf Water Resource Region + +References + +External links + +Allrefer.com + + +Alabama placenames of Native American origin +Rivers of Autauga County, Alabama +Rivers of Monroe County, Alabama +Rivers of Montgomery County, Alabama +Rivers of Wilcox County, Alabama +Rivers of Dallas County, Alabama +Rivers of Mobile County, Alabama +Rivers of Elmore County, Alabama +Rivers of Alabama +Alain de Lille (Alan of Lille) (Latin: Alanus ab Insulis; 11281202/03) was a French theologian and poet. He was born in Lille, some time before 1128. His exact date of death remains unclear as well, with most research pointing toward it being between 14 April 1202, and 5 April 1203. He is known for writing a number of works on that are based upon the teachings of the liberal arts, with one of his most renowned poems, De planctu Naturae (The Complaint of Nature), focusing on human nature in regard to sexual conduct. Although, Alain was widely known during his lifetime, there is not a great deal known about his personal life, with the majority of our knowledge of the theologian coming from the content of his works. + +As a theologian, Alain de Lille opposed scholasticism in the second half of the 12th century. His philosophy is characterized by rationalism and mysticism. Alan claimed that reason, guided by prudence, could discover most truths about the physical order without help; but in order to understand religious truth and to know God, the wise must believe in faith. + +Life + +Little is known of his life. Alain entered the schools no earlier than the late 1140s; first attending the school at Paris, and then at Chartres. He probably studied under masters such as Peter Abelard, Gilbert of Poitiers, and Thierry of Chartres. This is known through the writings of John of Salisbury, who is thought to have been a contemporary student of Alain of Lille. His earliest writings were probably written in the 1150s, and probably in Paris. Alain spent many years as a professor of Theology at the University of Paris and he attended the Lateran Council in 1179. Though the only accounts of his lectures seem to show a sort of eccentric style and approach, he was said to have been good friends with many other masters at the school in Paris, and taught there, as well as some time in southern France, into his old age. He afterwards inhabited Montpellier (he is sometimes called Alanus de Montepessulano), lived for a time outside the walls of any cloister, and finally retired to Cîteaux, where he died in 1202. + +He had a very widespread reputation during his lifetime, and his knowledge caused him to be called Doctor Universalis. Many of Alain's writings are unable to be exactly dated, and the circumstances and details surrounding his writing are often unknown as well. However, it does seem clear that his first notable work, Summa Quoniam Homines, was completed somewhere between 1155 and 1165, with the most conclusive date being 1160, and was probably developed through his lectures at the school in Paris. Among his very numerous works two poems entitle him to a distinguished place in the Latin literature of the Middle Ages; one of these, the De planctu Naturae, is an ingenious satire on the vices of humanity. He created the allegory of grammatical "conjugation" which was to have its successors throughout the Middle Ages. The Anticlaudianus, a treatise on morals as allegory, the form of which recalls the pamphlet of Claudian against Rufinus, is agreeably versified and relatively pure in its latinity. + +Theology and philosophy + +As a theologian Alain de Lille shared in the mystic reaction of the second half of the 12th century against the scholastic philosophy. His mysticism, however, is far from being as absolute as that of the Victorines. In the Anticlaudianus he sums up as follows: Reason, guided by prudence, can unaided discover most of the truths of the physical order; for the apprehension of religious truths it must trust to faith. This rule is completed in his treatise, Ars catholicae fidei, as follows: Theology itself may be demonstrated by reason. Alain even ventures an immediate application of this principle, and tries to prove geometrically the dogmas defined in the Creed. This bold attempt is entirely factitious and verbal, and it is only his employment of various terms not generally used in such a connection (axiom, theorem, corollary, etc.) that gives his treatise its apparent originality. + +Alan's philosophy was a sort of mixture of Aristotelian logic and Neoplatonic philosophy. The Platonist seemed to outweigh the Aristotelian in Alan, but he felt strongly that the divine is all intelligibility and argued this notion through much Aristotelian logic combined with Pythagorean mathematics. + +Works and attributions +One of Alain's most notable works was one he modeled after Boethius’ Consolation of Philosophy, to which he gave the title De planctu Naturae, or The Plaint of Nature, and which was most likely written in the late 1160s. In this work, Alan uses prose and verse to illustrate the way in which nature defines its own position as inferior to that of God. He also attempts to illustrate the way in which humanity, through sexual perversion and specifically homosexuality, has defiled itself from nature and God. In Anticlaudianus, another of his notable works, Alan uses a poetical dialogue to illustrate the way in which nature comes to the realization of her failure in producing the perfect man. She has only the ability to create a soulless body, and thus she is "persuaded to undertake the journey to heaven to ask for a soul," and "the Seven Liberal Arts produce a chariot for her... the Five Senses are the horses". The Anticlaudianus was translated into French and German in the following century, and toward 1280 was re-worked into a musical anthology by Adam de la Bassée. One of Alan's most popular and widely distributed works is his manual on preaching, Ars Praedicandi, or The Art of Preaching. This work shows how Alan saw theological education as being a fundamental preliminary step in preaching and strove to give clergyman a manuscript to be "used as a practical manual" when it came to the formation of sermons and art of preaching. + +Alain wrote three very large theological textbooks, one being his first work, Summa Quoniam Homines. Another of his theological textbooks that strove to be more minute in its focus, is his De Fide Catholica, dated somewhere between 1185 and 1200, Alan sets out to refute heretical views, specifically that of the Waldensians and Cathars. In his third theological textbook, Regulae Caelestis Iuris, he presents a set of what seems to be theological rules; this was typical of the followers of Gilbert of Poitiers, of which Alan could be associated. Other than these theological textbooks, and the aforementioned works of the mixture of prose and poetry, Alan of Lille had numerous other works on numerous subjects, primarily including Speculative Theology, Theoretical Moral Theology, Practical Moral Theology, and various collections of poems. + +Alain de Lille has often been confounded with other persons named Alain, in particular with another Alanus (Alain, bishop of Auxerre), Alan, abbot of Tewkesbury, Alain de Podio, etc. Certain facts of their lives have been attributed to him, as well as some of their works: thus the Life of St Bernard should be ascribed to Alain of Auxerre and the Commentary upon Merlin to Alan of Tewkesbury. Alan of Lille was not the author of a Memoriale rerum difficilium, published under his name, nor of Moralium dogma philosophorum, nor of the satirical Apocalypse of Golias once attributed to him; and it is exceedingly doubtful whether the Dicta Alani de lapide philosophico really issued from his pen. On the other hand, it now seems practically demonstrated that Alain de Lille was the author of the Ars catholicae fidei and the treatise Contra haereticos. + +In his sermons on capital sins, Alain argued that sodomy and homicide are the most serious sins, since they call forth the wrath of God, which led to the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. His chief work on penance, the Liber poenitenitalis dedicated to Henry de Sully, exercised great influence on the many manuals of penance produced as a result of the Fourth Lateran Council. Alain's identification of the sins against nature included bestiality, masturbation, oral and anal intercourse, incest, adultery and rape. In addition to his battle against moral decay, Alan wrote a work against Islam, Judaism and Christian heretics dedicated to William VIII of Montpellier. + +List of known works + +Anticlaudianus +Rhythmus de Incarnatione et de Septem Artibus +De Miseria Mundi +Quaestiones Alani Textes +Summa Quoniam Homines +Regulae Theologicae +Hierarchia Alani +De Fide Catholica: Contra Haereticos, Valdenses, Iudaeos et Paganos +De Virtutibus, de Vitiis, de Donis Spiritus Sancti +Liber Parabolarum +Distinctiones Dictionum Theologicalium +Elucidatio in Cantica Canticorum +Glosatura super Cantica +Expositio of the Pater Noster +Expositiones of the Nicene and Apostolic Creeds +Expositio Prosae de Angelis +Quod non-est celebrandum bis in die +Liber Poenitentialis +De Sex Alis Cherubim +Ars Praedicandi +Sermones + +References + +Attribution: + +Translations +Alan of Lille, A Concise Explanation of the Song of Songs in Praise of the Virgin Mary, trans Denys Turner, in Denys Turner, Eros and Allegory: Medieval Exegesis of the Song of Songs, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 1995), 291–308 +The Plaint of Nature, translated by James J Sheridan, (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1980) +Anticlaudian: Prologue, Argument and Nine Books, edited by W. H. Cornog, (Philadelphia, 1935) + +Further reading + Alain de Lille: De planctu Naturae, ed. Nikolaus M. Häring, Studi Medievali 19 (1978), 797–879. Latin edition of the De planctu Naturae. + Dynes, Wayne R. 'Alan of Lille.' in Encyclopedia of Homosexuality, Garland Publishing, 1990. p. 32. + Alanus de insulis, Anticlaudianus, a c. di . M. Sannelli, La Finestra editrice, Lavis, 2004. + Evans, G. R. (1983), Alan of Lille: The Frontiers of Theology in the Later Twelfth Century, Cambridge: Cambridge. . + +External links +(Latin) Alanus ab Insulis, Anticlaudianus sive De officiis viri boni et perfecti +(Latin) [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/alanus/alanus1.html Alanus ab Insulis, Liber de planctu Naturae] +(Latin) Alanus ab Insulis, Omnis mundi creatura +(Latin) Alanus ab Insulis, Distinctiones dictionum theologicalium +(English) Alain of Lille, The Complaint of Nature. Translation of Liber de planctu Naturae'' +Work of Alanus de Insulis at the National Digital Library of Portugal + +1110s births +Year of birth unknown +1200s deaths +Year of death uncertain +Writers from Lille +12th-century writers in Latin +12th-century Christian mystics +Scholastic philosophers +Roman Catholic mystics +12th-century French Catholic theologians +Medieval Latin poets +12th-century French poets +12th-century French philosophers +University of Paris alumni +The Alemanni or Alamanni were a confederation of Germanic tribes on the Upper Rhine River during the first millennium. First mentioned by Cassius Dio in the context of the campaign of Roman emperor Caracalla of 213, the Alemanni captured the in 260, and later expanded into present-day Alsace and northern Switzerland, leading to the establishment of the Old High German language in those regions, which by the eighth century were collectively referred to as Alamannia. + +In 496, the Alemanni were conquered by the Frankish leader Clovis and incorporated into his dominions. Mentioned as still pagan allies of the Christian Franks, the Alemanni were gradually Christianized during the seventh century. The is a record of their customary law during this period. Until the eighth century, Frankish suzerainty over Alemannia was mostly nominal. After an uprising by Theudebald, Duke of Alamannia, however, Carloman executed the Alamannic nobility and installed Frankish dukes. + +During the later and weaker years of the Carolingian Empire, the Alemannic counts became almost independent, and a struggle for supremacy took place between them and the Bishopric of Constance. The chief family in Alamannia was that of the counts of , who were sometimes called margraves, and one of whom, Burchard II, established the Duchy of Swabia, which was recognized by Henry the Fowler in 919 and became a stem duchy of the Holy Roman Empire. + +The area settled by the Alemanni corresponds roughly to the area where Alemannic German dialects remain spoken, including German Swabia and Baden, French Alsace, German-speaking Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Austrian Vorarlberg. The French-language name of Germany, , is derived from their name, from Old French aleman(t), and from French was loaned into a number of other languages, including Middle English, which commonly used the term Almains for Germans. Likewise, the Arabic name for Germany is (Almania), the Turkish is Almanya, the Spanish is Alemania, the Portuguese is Alemanha, the Welsh is Yr Almaen and the Persian is (Alman). + +Name + +According to Gaius Asinius Quadratus (quoted in the mid-sixth century by Byzantine historian Agathias), the name Alamanni (Ἀλαμανοι) means "all men". It indicates that they were a conglomeration drawn from various Germanic tribes. The Romans and the Greeks called them as such (Alamanni, all men, in the sense of a group composed of men of all groups in the region). This derivation was accepted by Edward Gibbon, in his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire and by the anonymous contributor of notes assembled from the papers of Nicolas Fréret, published in 1753. +This etymology has remained the standard derivation of the name. +An alternative suggestion proposes derivation from *alah "sanctuary". + +Walafrid Strabo in the ninth century remarked, in discussing the people of Switzerland and the surrounding regions, that only foreigners called them the Alemanni, but that they gave themselves the name of Suebi. +The Suebi are given the alternative name of Ziuwari (as Cyuuari) in an Old High German gloss, interpreted by Jacob Grimm as Martem colentes ("worshippers of Mars"). Annio da Viterbo a scholar and historian of the 15th century claimed the Alemanni had their name from the Hebrew language, as in Hebrew the river Rhine was translated into Mannum and the people who live at its shores were called Alemannus. This was refuted by Beatus Rhenanus, a humanist of the 16th century. Rhenanus argued the term Alemanni was meant for the whole Germanic people only in late antiquity and before it was only meant to designate the population of an island in the North Sea. + +First appearance in historical record + +Early Roman writers did not mention the Alemanni, and it is likely that they had not yet come to exist. In his Germania Tacitus (AD 90) does not mention the Alemanni. He uses the term Agri Decumates to describe the region between the Rhine, Main and Danube rivers. He says that it had once been the home of the Helvetians, who had moved westwards into Gaul in the time of Julius Caesar. The people living there in Caesar's time are not Germanic. Instead, "Reckless adventurers from Gaul, emboldened by want, occupied this land of questionable ownership. After a while, our frontier having been advanced, and our military positions pushed forward, it was regarded as a remote nook of our empire and a part of a Roman province." + +The Alemanni were first mentioned by Cassius Dio describing the campaign of Caracalla in 213. At that time, they apparently dwelt in the basin of the Main, to the south of the Chatti. + +Cassius Dio portrays the Alemanni as victims of this treacherous emperor. They had asked for his help, according to Dio, but instead he colonized their country, changed their place names, and executed their warriors under a pretext of coming to their aid. When he became ill, the Alemanni claimed to have put a hex on him. Caracalla, it was claimed, tried to counter this influence by invoking his ancestral spirits. + +In retribution, Caracalla then led the Legio II Traiana Fortis against the Alemanni, who lost and were pacified for a time. The legion was as a result honored with the name Germanica. The fourth-century fictional Historia Augusta, Life of Antoninus Caracalla, relates (10.5) that Caracalla then assumed the name Alemannicus, at which Helvius Pertinax jested that he should really be called Geticus Maximus, because in the year before he had murdered his brother, Geta. + +Through much of his short reign, Caracalla was known for unpredictable and arbitrary operations launched by surprise after a pretext of peace negotiations. If he had any reasons of state for such actions, they remained unknown to his contemporaries. Whether or not the Alemanni had been previously neutral, they were certainly further influenced by Caracalla to become thereafter notoriously implacable enemies of Rome. + +This mutually antagonistic relationship is perhaps the reason why the Roman writers persisted in calling the Alemanni ”barbari," meaning "savages." The archaeology, however, shows that they were largely Romanized, lived in Roman-style houses and used Roman artifacts, the Alemannic women having adopted the Roman fashion of the tunica even earlier than the men. + +Most of the Alemanni were probably at the time, in fact, resident in or close to the borders of Germania Superior. Although Dio is the earliest writer to mention them, Ammianus Marcellinus used the name to refer to Germans on the Limes Germanicus in the time of Trajan's governorship of the province shortly after it was formed, around 98-99 AD. At that time, the entire frontier was being fortified for the first time. Trees from the earliest fortifications found in Germania Inferior are dated by dendrochronology to 99-100 AD. + +Ammianus relates (xvii.1.11) that much later the Emperor Julian undertook a punitive expedition against the Alemanni, who by then were in Alsace, and crossed the Main (Latin Menus), entering the forest, where the trails were blocked by felled trees. As winter was upon them, they reoccupied a +"fortification which was founded on the soil of the Alemanni that Trajan wished to be called with his own name". + +In this context, the use of Alemanni is possibly an anachronism, but it reveals that Ammianus believed they were the same people, which is consistent with the location of the Alemanni of Caracalla's campaigns. + +Conflicts with the Roman Empire + +The Alemanni were continually engaged in conflicts with the Roman Empire in the third and fourth centuries. They launched a major invasion of Gaul and northern Italy in 268, when the Romans were forced to denude much of their German frontier of troops in response to a massive invasion of the Goths from the east. Their raids throughout the three parts of Gaul were traumatic: Gregory of Tours (died ca 594) mentions their destructive force at the time of Valerian and Gallienus (253–260), when the Alemanni assembled under their "king", whom he calls Chrocus, who acted "by the advice, it is said, of his wicked mother, and overran the whole of the Gauls, and destroyed from their foundations all the temples which had been built in ancient times. And coming to Clermont he set on fire, overthrew and destroyed that shrine which they call Vasso Galatae in the Gallic tongue," martyring many Christians (Historia Francorum Book I.32–34). Thus sixth-century Gallo-Romans of Gregory's class, surrounded by the ruins of Roman temples and public buildings, attributed the destruction they saw to the plundering raids of the Alemanni. + +In the early summer of 268, the Emperor Gallienus halted their advance into Italy, but then had to deal with the Goths. When the Gothic campaign ended in Roman victory at the Battle of Naissus in September, Gallienus' successor Claudius Gothicus turned north to deal with the Alemanni, who were swarming over all Italy north of the Po River. + +After efforts to secure a peaceful withdrawal failed, Claudius forced the Alemanni to battle at the Battle of Lake Benacus in November. The Alemanni were routed, forced back into Germany, and did not threaten Roman territory for many years afterwards. + +Their most famous battle against Rome took place in Argentoratum (Strasbourg), in 357, where they were defeated by Julian, later Emperor of Rome, and their king Chnodomarius was taken prisoner to Rome. + +On January 2, 366, the Alemanni yet again crossed the frozen Rhine in large numbers, to invade the Gallic provinces, this time being defeated by Valentinian (see Battle of Solicinium). In the great mixed invasion of 406, the Alemanni appear to have crossed the Rhine river a final time, conquering and then settling what is today Alsace and a large part of the Swiss Plateau. The crossing is described in Wallace Breem's historical novel Eagle in the Snow. The Chronicle of Fredegar gives the account. At Alba Augusta (Alba-la-Romaine) the devastation was so complete, that the Christian bishop retired to Viviers, but in Gregory's account at Mende in Lozère, also deep in the heart of Gaul, bishop Privatus was forced to sacrifice to idols in the very cave where he was later venerated. It is thought this detail may be a generic literary ploy to epitomize the horrors of barbarian violence. + +List of battles between Romans and Alemanni + + 259, Battle of MediolanumEmperor Gallienus defeats the Alemanni to rescue Rome + 268, Battle of Lake BenacusRomans under Emperor Claudius II defeat the Alemanni. + 271 + Battle of PlacentiaEmperor Aurelian is defeated by the Alemanni forces invading Italy + Battle of FanoAurelian defeats the Alemanni, who begin to retreat from Italy + Battle of PaviaAurelian destroys the retreating Alemanni army. + 298 + Battle of LingonesCaesar Constantius Chlorus defeats the Alemanni + Battle of VindonissaConstantius defeats the Alemanni. + 356, Battle of ReimsCaesar Julian is defeated by the Alemanni + 357, Battle of StrasbourgJulian expels the Alemanni from the Rhineland + 368, Battle of SoliciniumRomans under Emperor Valentinian I defeat an Alemanni incursion. + 378, Battle of ArgentovariaWestern Emperor Gratianus is victorious over the Alemanni. + 451, Battle of the Catalaunian FieldsRoman General Aetius and his army of Romans and barbarian allies defeat Attila's army of Huns and other Germanic allies, including the Alemanni. + 457, Battle of Campi CanniniAlemanni invade Italy and are defeated near Lake Maggiore by Majorian + 554, Battle of the VolturnusByzantine General Narses defeats a combined force of Franks and Alemanni in southern Italy. + +Subjugation by the Franks + +The kingdom of Alamannia between Strasbourg and Augsburg lasted until 496, when the Alemanni were conquered by Clovis I at the Battle of Tolbiac. The war of Clovis with the Alemanni forms the setting for the conversion of Clovis, briefly treated by Gregory of Tours. (Book II.31) After their defeat in 496, the Alemanni bucked the Frankish yoke and put themselves under the protection of Theodoric the Great of the Ostrogoths but after his death they were again subjugated by the Franks under Theudebert I in 536. Subsequently, the Alemanni formed part of the Frankish dominions and were governed by a Frankish duke. + +In 746, Carloman ended an uprising by summarily executing all Alemannic nobility at the blood court at Cannstatt, and for the following century, Alemannia was ruled by Frankish dukes. Following the treaty of Verdun of 843, Alemannia became a province of the eastern kingdom of Louis the German, the precursor of the Holy Roman Empire. The duchy persisted until 1268. + +Culture + +Language + +The German spoken today over the range of the former Alemanni is termed Alemannic German, and is recognised among the subgroups of the High German languages. Alemannic runic inscriptions such as those on the Pforzen buckle are among the earliest testimonies of Old High German. +The High German consonant shift is thought to have originated around the fifth century either in Alemannia or among the Lombards; before that the dialect spoken by Alemannic tribes was little different from that of other West Germanic peoples. + +Alemannia lost its distinct jurisdictional identity when Charles Martel absorbed it into the Frankish empire, early in the eighth century. Today, Alemannic is a linguistic term, referring to Alemannic German, encompassing the dialects of the southern two thirds of Baden-Württemberg (German State), in western Bavaria (German State), in Vorarlberg (Austrian State), Swiss German in Switzerland and the Alsatian language of the Alsace (France). + +Political organization +The Alemanni established a series of territorially defined pagi (cantons) on the east bank of the Rhine. The exact number and extent of these pagi is unclear and probably changed over time. + +Pagi, usually pairs of pagi combined, formed kingdoms (regna) which, it is generally believed, were permanent and hereditary. Ammianus describes Alemanni rulers with various terms: reges excelsiores ante alios ("paramount kings"), reges proximi ("neighbouring kings"), reguli ("petty kings") and regales ("princes"). This may be a formal hierarchy, or they may be vague, overlapping terms, or a combination of both. In 357, there appear to have been two paramount kings (Chnodomar and Westralp) who probably acted as presidents of the confederation and seven other kings (reges). Their territories were small and mostly strung along the Rhine (although a few were in the hinterland). It is possible that the reguli were the rulers of the two pagi in each kingdom. Underneath the royal class were the nobles (called optimates by the Romans) and warriors (called armati by the Romans). The warriors consisted of professional warbands and levies of free men. Each nobleman could raise an average of c. 50 warriors. + +Religion + +The Christianization of the Alemanni took place during Merovingian times (sixth to eighth centuries). We know that in the sixth century, the Alemanni were predominantly pagan, and in the eighth century, they were predominantly Christian. The intervening seventh century was a period of genuine syncretism during which Christian symbolism and doctrine gradually grew in influence. + +Some scholars have speculated that members of the Alemannic elite such as king Gibuld due to Visigothic influence may have been converted to Arianism even in the later fifth century. + +In the mid-6th century, the Byzantine historian Agathias records, in the context of the wars of the Goths and Franks against Byzantium, that the Alemanni fighting among the troops of Frankish king Theudebald were like the Franks in all respects except religion, since + +He also spoke of the particular ruthlessness of the Alemanni in destroying Christian sanctuaries and plundering churches while the genuine Franks were respectful towards those sanctuaries. Agathias expresses his hope that the Alemanni would assume better manners through prolonged contact with the Franks, which is by all appearances, in a manner of speaking, what eventually happened. + +Apostles of the Alemanni were Columbanus and his disciple Saint Gall. Jonas of Bobbio records that Columbanus was active in Bregenz, where he disrupted a beer sacrifice to Wodan. Despite these activities, for some time, the Alemanni seem to have continued their pagan cult activities, with only superficial or syncretistic Christian elements. In particular, there is no change in burial practice, and tumulus warrior graves continued to be erected throughout Merovingian times. Syncretism of traditional Germanic animal-style with Christian symbolism is also present in artwork, but Christian symbolism becomes more and more prevalent during the seventh century. Unlike the later Christianization of the Saxons and of the Slavs, the Alemanni seem to have adopted Christianity gradually, and voluntarily, spread in emulation of the Merovingian elite. + +From c. the 520s to the 620s, there was a surge of Alemannic Elder Futhark inscriptions. About 70 specimens have survived, roughly half of them on fibulae, others on belt buckles (see Pforzen buckle, Bülach fibula) and other jewelry and weapon parts. Use of runes subsides with the advance of Christianity. +The Nordendorf fibula (early seventh century) clearly records pagan theonyms, logaþorewodanwigiþonar read as "Wodan and Donar are magicians/sorcerers", but this may be interpreted as either a pagan invocation of the powers of these deities, or a Christian protective charm against them. +A runic inscription on a fibula found at Bad Ems reflects Christian pious sentiment (and is also explicitly marked with a Christian cross), reading god fura dih deofile ᛭ ("God for/before you, Theophilus!", or alternatively "God before you, Devil!"). Dated to between AD 660 and 690, it marks the end of the native Alemannic tradition of runic literacy. Bad Ems is in Rhineland-Palatinate, on the northwestern boundary of Alemannic settlement, where Frankish influence would have been strongest. + +The establishment of the bishopric of Konstanz cannot be dated exactly and was possibly undertaken by Columbanus himself (before 612). In any case, it existed by 635, when Gunzo appointed John of Grab bishop. Constance was a missionary bishopric in newly converted lands, and did not look back on late Roman church history unlike the Raetian bishopric of Chur (established 451) and Basel (an episcopal seat from 740, and which continued the line of Bishops of Augusta Raurica, see Bishop of Basel). The establishment of the church as an institution recognized by worldly rulers is also visible in legal history. In the early seventh century Pactus Alamannorum hardly ever mentions the special privileges of the church, while Lantfrid's Lex Alamannorum of 720 has an entire chapter reserved for ecclesial matters alone. + +Genetics + +A genetic study published in Science Advances in September 2018 examined the remains of eight individuals buried at a seventh-century Alemannic graveyard in Niederstotzingen, Germany. This is the richest and most complete Alemannic graveyard ever found. The highest ranking individual at the graveyard was a male with Frankish grave goods. Four males were found to be closely related to him. They were all carriers of types of the paternal haplogroup R1b1a2a1a1c2b2b. A sixth male was a carrier of the paternal haplogroup R1b1a2a1a1c2b2b1a1 and the maternal haplogroup U5a1a1. Along with the five closely related individuals, he displayed close genetic links to northern and eastern Europe, particularly Lithuania and Iceland. Two individuals buried at the cemetery were found to be genetically different from both the others and each other, displaying genetic links to Southern Europe, particularly northern Italy and Spain. Along with the sixth male, they might have been adoptees or slaves. + +See also +Annales Alamannici +List of rulers of Alamannia +List of confederations of Germanic tribes +Armalausi +Varisci +Helvetii +Charietto + +References + +Sources + + Ammianus Marcellinus, passim + O. Bremer in H. Paul, Grundriss der germanischen Philologie (2nd ed., Strassburg, 1900), vol. iii. pp. 930 ff. + Dio Cassius lxvii. ff. + + Ian Wood (ed.), Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective (Studies in Historical Archaeoethnology), Boydell & Brewer Ltd, 2003, . + Melchior Goldast, Rerum Alamannicarum scriptores (1606, 2nd ed. Senckenburg 1730) + Gregory of Tours, Historia Francorum, book ii. + + C. Zeuss, Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstämme (Munich, 1837), pp. 303 ff. + +External links + +The Agri Decumates +The Alemanni +The Military Orientation of the Roman Emperors Septimius Severus to Gallienus (146–268 C.E.) +Brauchtum und Masken Alemannic Fastnacht + + +Early Germanic peoples +German tribes +NYSE American, formerly known as the American Stock Exchange (AMEX), and more recently as NYSE MKT, is an American stock exchange situated in New York City. AMEX was previously a mutual organization, owned by its members. Until 1953, it was known as the New York Curb Exchange. + +NYSE Euronext acquired AMEX on October 1, 2008, with AMEX integrated with the Alternext European small-cap exchange and renamed the NYSE Alternext U.S. In March 2009, NYSE Alternext U.S. was changed to NYSE Amex Equities. On May 10, 2012, NYSE Amex Equities changed its name to NYSE MKT LLC. + +Following the SEC approval of competing stock exchange IEX in 2016, NYSE MKT rebranded as NYSE American and introduced a 350-microsecond delay in trading, referred to as a "speed bump", which is also present on the IEX. + +History + +The Curb market + +The exchange grew out of the loosely organized curb market of curbstone brokers on Broad Street in Manhattan. Efforts to organize and standardize the market started early in the 20th century under Emanuel S. Mendels and Carl H. Pforzheimer. The curb brokers had been kicked out of the Mills Building front by 1907, and had moved to the pavement outside the Blair Building where cabbies lined up. There they were given a "little domain of asphalt" fenced off by the police on Broad Street between Exchange Place and Beaver Street. As of 1907, the curb market operated starting at 10 AM, each day except Sundays, until a gong at 3 PM. Orders for the purchase and sale of securities were shouted down from the windows of nearby brokerages, with the execution of the sale then shouted back up to the brokerage. + +Organizing and 'Curb list' +As of 1907, E. S. Mendels gave the brokers rules "by right of seniority", but the curb brokers intentionally avoided organizing. According to the Times, this came from a general belief that if a curb exchange was organized, the exchange authorities would force members to sell their other exchange memberships. However, in 1908 the New York Curb Market Agency was established, which developed appropriate trading rules for curbstone brokers, organized by Mendels. The informal Curb Association formed in 1910 to weed out undesirables. The curb exchange was for years at odds with the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), or "Big Board", operating several buildings away. Explained the New York Times in 1910, the Big Board looked at the curb as "a trading place for 'cats and dogs.'" On April 1, 1910, however, when the NYSE abolished its unlisted department, the NYSE stocks "made homeless by the abolition" were "refused domicile" by the curb brokers on Broad Street until they had complied with the "Curb list" of requirements. In 1911, Mendels and his advisers drew up a constitution and formed the New York Curb Market Association, which can be considered the first formal constitution of American Stock Exchange. + +1920s-1940s: Move indoors + +In 1920, journalist Edwin C. Hill wrote that the curb exchange on lower Broad Street was a "roaring, swirling whirlpool" that "tears control of a gold-mine from an unlucky operator, and pauses to auction a puppy-dog. It is like nothing else under the astonished sky that is its only roof." After a group of Curb brokers formed a real estate company to design a building, Starrett & Van Vleck designed the new exchange building on Greenwich Street in Lower Manhattan between Thames and Rector, at 86 Trinity Place. It opened in 1921, and the curbstone brokers moved indoors on June 27, 1921. In 1929, the New York Curb Market changed its name to the New York Curb Exchange. The Curb Exchange soon became the leading international stock market, and according to historian Robert Sobel, "had more individual foreign issues on its list than [...] all other American securities markets combined." + +Edward Reid McCormick was the first president of the New York Curb Market Association and is credited with moving the market indoors. George Rea was approached about the position of president of the New York Curb Exchange in 1939. He was unanimously elected as the first paid president in the history of the Curb Exchange. He was paid $25,000 per year (equivalent to $ today) and held the position for three years before offering his resignation in 1942. He left the position having "done such a good job that there is virtually no need for a full-time successor." + +Modernization as the American Stock Exchange +In 1953 the Curb Exchange was renamed the American Stock Exchange. The exchange was shaken by a scandal in 1961, and in 1962 began a reorganization. Its reputation recently damaged by charges of mismanagement, in 1962 the American Stock Exchange named Edwin Etherington its president. Writes CNN, he and executive vice president Paul Kolton were "tapped in 1962 to clean up and reinvigorate the scandal-plagued American Stock Exchange." + +As of 1971, it was the second largest stock exchange in the United States. Paul Kolton succeeded Ralph S. Saul as AMEX president on June 17, 1971, making him the first person to be selected from within the exchange to serve as its leader, succeeding Ralph S. Saul, who announced his resignation in March 1971. In November 1972, Kolton was named as the exchange's first chief executive officer and its first salaried top executive. As chairman, Kolton oversaw the introduction of options trading. Kolton opposed the idea of a merger with the New York Stock Exchange while he headed the exchange saying that "two independent, viable exchanges are much more likely to be responsive to new pressures and public needs than a single institution". Kolton announced in July 1977 that he would be leaving his position at the American Exchange in November of that year. + +In 1977, Thomas Peterffy purchased a seat on the American Stock Exchange. Peterffy created a major stir among traders by introducing handheld computers onto the trading floor in the early 1980s. + +Introducing ETFs +ETFs or exchange-traded funds had their genesis in 1989 with Index Participation Shares, an S&P 500 proxy that traded on the American Stock Exchange and the Philadelphia Stock Exchange. This product was short-lived after a lawsuit by the Chicago Mercantile Exchange was successful in stopping sales in the United States. + +In 1990, a similar product, Toronto Index Participation Shares, which tracked the TSE 35 and later the TSE 100 indices, started trading on the Toronto Stock Exchange (TSE) in 1990. The popularity of these products led the American Stock Exchange to try to develop something that would satisfy regulations by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. + +Nathan Most and Steven Bloom, under the direction of Ivers Riley, designed and developed Standard & Poor's Depositary Receipts (NYSE Arca: SPY), which were introduced in January 1993. Known as SPDRs or "Spiders", the fund became the largest ETF in the world. In May 1995, State Street Global Advisors introduced the S&P 400 MidCap SPDRs (NYSE Arca: MDY). + +Barclays, in conjunction with MSCI and Funds Distributor Inc., entered the market in 1996 with World Equity Benchmark Shares (WEBS), which became iShares MSCI Index Fund Shares. WEBS originally tracked 17 MSCI country indices managed by the funds' index provider, Morgan Stanley. WEBS were particularly innovative because they gave casual investors easy access to foreign markets. While SPDRs were organized as unit investment trusts, WEBS were set up as a mutual fund, the first of their kind. + +In 1998, State Street Global Advisors introduced "Sector Spiders", separate ETFs for each of the sectors of the S&P 500 Index. Also in 1998, the "Dow Diamonds" (NYSE Arca: DIA) were introduced, tracking the Dow Jones Industrial Average. In 1999, the influential "cubes" (Nasdaq: QQQ), were launched, with the goal of replicate the price movement of the NASDAQ-100. + +The iShares line was launched in early 2000. By 2005, it had a 44% market share of ETF assets under management. Barclays Global Investors was sold to BlackRock in 2009. + +NYSE merger +As of 2003, AMEX was the only U.S. stock market to permit the transmission of buy and sell orders through hand signals. + +In October 2008 NYSE Euronext completed acquisition of the AMEX for $260 million in stock. Before the closing of the acquisition, NYSE Euronext announced that the AMEX would be integrated with the Alternext European small-cap exchange and renamed the NYSE Alternext U.S. The American Stock Exchange merged with the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE Euronext) on October 1, 2008. Post merger, the Amex equities business was branded "NYSE Alternext US". As part of the re-branding exercise, NYSE Alternext US was re-branded as NYSE Amex Equities. On December 1, 2008, the Curb Exchange building at 86 Trinity Place was closed, and the Amex Equities trading floor was moved to the NYSE Trading floor at 11 Wall Street. 90 years after its 1921 opening, the old New York Curb Market building was empty but remained standing. In March 2009, NYSE Alternext U.S. was changed to NYSE Amex Equities. On May 10, 2012, NYSE Amex Equities changed its name to NYSE MKT LLC. + +In June 2016, a competing stock exchange IEX (which operated with a 350-microsecond delay in trading), gained approval from the SEC, despite lobbying protests by the NYSE and other exchanges and trading firms. +On July 24, 2017, the NYSE renamed NYSE MKT to NYSE American, and announced plans to introduce its own 350-microsecond "speed bump" in trading on the small and mid-cap company exchange. + +Products +Intellidex +Stocks +Options +Exchange-traded funds (ETFs) +Structured Products +Warrants + +Management +Past presidents of the American Stock Exchange include: + + John L. McCormack (1911–1914) + Edward R. McCormick (1914–1923) + John W. Curtis (1923–1925) + David U. Page (1925–1928) + William S. Muller (1928–1932) + Howard C. Sykes (1932–1934) + E. Burd Grubb (1934–1935) + Fred C. Moffatt (1935–1939; 1942–1945) + George P. Rea (1939–1942) + Edwin Posner (1945–1947; January–September, 1962) + Edward C. Werle (February–March, 1947) + Francis Adams Truslow (1947–1951) + Edward T. McCormick (1951–1961) + Joseph F. Reilly (1961–1962) + Edwin D. Etherington (1962–1966) + Ralph S. Saul (1966–1971) + Paul Kolton (1971–1973) + Richard M. Burdge (1973–1977) + Robert J. Birnbaum (1977–1986) + Kenneth R. Leibler (1986–1990) + +Past chairmen of the American Stock Exchange include: + + Clarence A. Bettman (1939–1941) + Fred C. Moffatt (1941–1945) + Edwin Posner (1945–1947; 1962–1965) + Edward C. Werle (1947–1950) + Mortimer Landsberg (1950–1951) + John J. Mann (1951–1956) + James R. Dyer (1956–1960) + Joseph E. Reilly (1960–1962) + David S. Jackson (1965–1968) + Macrae Sykes (1968–1969) + Frank C. Graham, Jr. (1969–1973) + Paul Kolton (1973–1978) + Arthur Levitt, Jr. (1978–1989) + James R. Jones (1989–1993) + +Gallery + +See also + + NYSE Arca Major Market Index +Microcap stock + Economy of New York City + List of stock exchanges in the Americas + List of stock exchange mergers in the Americas + Consolidated Tape System +Hal S. Scott +Michael J. Meehan + +References + +Further reading + +External links + + NYSE American + +Financial services companies established in 1908 +Intercontinental Exchange +Self-regulatory organizations in the United States +Stock exchanges in the United States +2008 mergers and acquisitions + + +Events + +Pre-1600 + 310 – Pope Eusebius dies, possibly from a hunger strike, shortly after being banished by the Emperor Maxentius to Sicily. + 682 – Pope Leo II begins his pontificate. + 986 – Byzantine–Bulgarian wars: Battle of the Gates of Trajan: The Bulgarians under the Comitopuli Samuel and Aron defeat the Byzantine forces at the Gate of Trajan, with Byzantine Emperor Basil II barely escaping. +1186 – Georgenberg Pact: Ottokar IV, Duke of Styria and Leopold V, Duke of Austria sign a heritage agreement in which Ottokar gives his duchy to Leopold and to his son Frederick under the stipulation that Austria and Styria would henceforth remain undivided. +1386 – Karl Topia, the ruler of Princedom of Albania forges an alliance with the Republic of Venice, committing to participate in all wars of the Republic and receiving coastal protection against the Ottomans in return. +1424 – Hundred Years' War: Battle of Verneuil: An English force under John, Duke of Bedford defeats a larger French army under Jean II, Duke of Alençon, John Stewart, and Earl Archibald of Douglas. +1488 – Konrad Bitz, the Bishop of Turku, marks the date of his preface to Missale Aboense, the oldest known book of Finland. +1498 – Cesare Borgia, son of Pope Alexander VI, becomes the first person in history to resign the cardinalate; later that same day, King Louis XII of France names him Duke of Valentinois. +1549 – Battle of Sampford Courtenay: The Prayer Book Rebellion is quashed in England. +1560 – The Catholic Church is overthrown and Protestantism is established as the national religion in Scotland. +1585 – Eighty Years' War: Siege of Antwerp: Antwerp is captured by Spanish forces under Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, who orders Protestants to leave the city and as a result over half of the 100,000 inhabitants flee to the northern provinces. + 1585 – A first group of colonists sent by Sir Walter Raleigh under the charge of Ralph Lane lands in the New World to create Roanoke Colony on Roanoke Island, off the coast of present-day North Carolina. +1597 – Islands Voyage: Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, and Sir Walter Raleigh set sail on an expedition to the Azores. + +1601–1900 +1668 – The magnitude 8.0 North Anatolia earthquake causes 8,000 deaths in northern Anatolia, Ottoman Empire. +1717 – Austro-Turkish War of 1716–18: The month-long Siege of Belgrade ends with Prince Eugene of Savoy's Austrian troops capturing the city from the Ottoman Empire. +1723 – Ioan Giurgiu Patachi becomes Bishop of Făgăraș and is festively installed in his position at the St. Nicolas Cathedral in Făgăraș, after being formally confirmed earlier by Pope Clement XI. +1740 – Pope Benedict XIV, previously known as Prospero Lambertini, succeeds Clement XII as the 247th Pope. +1784 – Classical composer Luigi Boccherini receives a pay rise of 12,000 reals from his employer, the Infante Luis, Count of Chinchón. +1798 – The Vietnamese Catholics report a Marian apparition in Quảng Trị, an event which is called Our Lady of La Vang. +1807 – Robert Fulton's North River Steamboat leaves New York City for Albany, New York, on the Hudson River, inaugurating the first commercial steamboat service in the world. +1808 – The Finnish War: The Battle of Alavus is fought. +1827 – Dutch King William I and Pope Leo XII sign concord. +1836 – British parliament accepts registration of births, marriages and deaths. +1862 – American Indian Wars: The Dakota War of 1862 begins in Minnesota as Dakota warriors attack white settlements along the Minnesota River. + 1862 – American Civil War: Major General J. E. B. Stuart is assigned command of all the cavalry of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia. +1863 – American Civil War: In Charleston, South Carolina, Union batteries and ships bombard Confederate-held Fort Sumter. +1864 – American Civil War: Battle of Gainesville: Confederate forces defeat Union troops near Gainesville, Florida. +1866 – The Grand Duchy of Baden announces its withdrawal from the German Confederation and signs a treaty of peace and alliance with Prussia. +1876 – Richard Wagner's Götterdämmerung, the last opera in his Ring cycle, premieres at the Bayreuth Festspielhaus. +1883 – The first public performance of the Dominican Republic's national anthem, Himno Nacional. +1896 – Bridget Driscoll became the first recorded case of a pedestrian killed in a collision with a motor car in the United Kingdom. + +1901–present +1914 – World War I: Battle of Stallupönen: The German army of General Hermann von François defeats the Russian force commanded by Paul von Rennenkampf near modern-day Nesterov, Russia. +1915 – Jewish American Leo Frank is lynched in Marietta, Georgia, USA after his death sentence is commuted by Governor John Slaton. + 1915 – A Category 4 hurricane hits Galveston, Texas with winds at . +1916 – World War I: Romania signs a secret treaty with the Entente Powers. According to the treaty, Romania agreed to join the war on the Allied side. +1918 – Bolshevik revolutionary leader Moisei Uritsky is assassinated. +1942 – World War II: U.S. Marines raid the Japanese-held Pacific island of Makin. +1943 – World War II: The U.S. Eighth Air Force suffers the loss of 60 bombers on the Schweinfurt–Regensburg mission. + 1943 – World War II: The U.S. Seventh Army under General George S. Patton arrives in Messina, Italy, followed several hours later by the British 8th Army under Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery, thus completing the Allied conquest of Sicily. + 1943 – World War II: First Québec Conference of Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and William Lyon Mackenzie King begins. + 1943 – World War II: The Royal Air Force begins Operation Hydra, the first air raid of the Operation Crossbow strategic bombing campaign against Germany's V-weapon program. +1945 – Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta proclaim the independence of Indonesia, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire. + 1945 – The novella Animal Farm by George Orwell is first published. + 1945 – Evacuation of Manchukuo: At Talitzou by the Sino-Korean border, Puyi, then the Kangde Emperor of Manchukuo, formally renounces the imperial throne, dissolves the state, and cedes its territory to the Republic of China. +1947 – The Radcliffe Line, the border between the Dominions of India and Pakistan, is revealed. +1949 – The 6.7 Karlıova earthquake shakes eastern Turkey with a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme), leaving 320–450 dead. +1949 – Matsukawa derailment: Unknown saboteurs cause a passenger train to derail and overturn in Fukushima Prefecture, Japan, killing three crew members and igniting a political firestorm between the Japanese Communist Party and the government of Occupied Japan that will eventually lead to the Japanese Red Purge. +1953 – First meeting of Narcotics Anonymous takes place, in Southern California. +1955 – Hurricane Diane made landfall near Wilmington, North Carolina, and it went on to cause major floods and kill more than 184 people. +1958 – Pioneer 0, America's first attempt at lunar orbit, is launched using the first Thor-Able rocket and fails. Notable as one of the first attempted launches beyond Earth orbit by any country. +1959 – Quake Lake is formed by the magnitude 7.2 1959 Hebgen Lake earthquake near Hebgen Lake in Montana. +1960 – Aeroflot Flight 036 crashes in Soviet Ukraine, killing 34. +1962 – Peter Fechter is shot and bleeds to death while trying to cross the new Berlin Wall. +1969 – Category 5 Hurricane Camille hits the U.S. Gulf Coast, killing 256 and causing $1.42 billion in damage. +1970 – Soviet Union Venera program: Venera 7 launched. It will become the first spacecraft to successfully transmit data from the surface of another planet (Venus). +1976 – A magnitude 7.9 earthquake hits off the coast of Mindanao, Philippines, triggering a destructive tsunami, killing between 5,000-8,000 people and leaving more than 90,000 homeless. +1977 – The Soviet icebreaker Arktika becomes the first surface ship to reach the North Pole. +1978 – Double Eagle II becomes first balloon to cross the Atlantic Ocean when it lands in Miserey, France near Paris, 137 hours after leaving Presque Isle, Maine. +1985 – The 1985–86 Hormel strike begins in Austin, Minnesota. +1988 – President of Pakistan Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq and U.S. Ambassador Arnold Raphel are killed in a plane crash. +1991 – Strathfield massacre: In Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, taxi driver Wade Frankum shoots seven people and injures six others before turning the gun on himself. +1998 – Lewinsky scandal: US President Bill Clinton admits in taped testimony that he had an "improper physical relationship" with White House intern Monica Lewinsky; later that same day he admits before the nation that he "misled people" about the relationship. +1999 – The 7.6 İzmit earthquake shakes northwestern Turkey with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), leaving 17,118–17,127 dead and 43,953–50,000 injured. +2004 – The National Assembly of Serbia unanimously adopts new state symbols for Serbia: Bože pravde becomes the new anthem and the coat of arms is adopted for the whole country. +2005 – The first forced evacuation of settlers, as part of Israeli disengagement from Gaza, starts. + 2005 – Over 500 bombs are set off by terrorists at 300 locations in 63 out of the 64 districts of Bangladesh. +2008 – American swimmer Michael Phelps becomes the first person to win eight gold medals at one Olympic Games. +2009 – An accident at the Sayano-Shushenskaya Dam in Khakassia, Russia, kills 75 and shuts down the hydroelectric power station, leading to widespread power failure in the local area. +2015 – A bomb explodes near the Erawan Shrine in Bangkok, Thailand, killing at least 19 people and injuring 123 others. +2017 – Barcelona attacks: A van is driven into pedestrians in La Rambla, killing 14 and injuring at least 100. +2019 – A bomb explodes at a wedding in Kabul killing 63 people and leaving 182 injured. + +Births + +Pre-1600 +1153 – William IX, Count of Poitiers (d. 1156) +1465 – Philibert I, Duke of Savoy (d. 1482) +1473 – Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York (d. 1483) +1501 – Philipp II, Count of Hanau-Münzenberg (d. 1529) +1556 – Alexander Briant, English martyr and saint (d. 1581) +1578 – Francesco Albani, Italian painter (d. 1660) + 1578 – Johann, Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, first prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (d. 1638) +1582 – John Matthew Rispoli, Maltese philosopher (d. 1639) +1586 – Johann Valentin Andrea, German theologian (d. 1654) + +1601–1900 +1603 – Lennart Torstensson, Swedish Field Marshal, Privy Councillour and Governor-General (d. 1651) +1629 – John III Sobieski, Polish–Lithuanian king (d. 1696) +1686 – Nicola Porpora, Italian composer and educator (d. 1768) +1753 – Josef Dobrovský, Bohemian philologist and historian (d. 1828) +1768 – Louis Desaix, French general (d. 1800) +1786 – Davy Crockett, American soldier and politician (d. 1836) + 1786 – Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (d. 1861) +1801 – Fredrika Bremer, Swedish writer and feminist (d. 1865) +1828 – Jules Bernard Luys, French neurologist and physician (d. 1897) +1840 – Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, English poet and activist (d. 1922) +1845 – Henry Cadwalader Chapman, American physician and naturalist (d. 1909) +1849 – William Kidston, Scottish-Australian politician, 17th Premier of Queensland (d. 1919) +1863 – Gene Stratton-Porter, American author and photographer (d. 1924) +1865 – Julia Marlowe, English-American actress (d. 1950) +1866 – Mahbub Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VI, Indian 6th Nizam of Hyderabad (d. 1911) +1873 – John A. Sampson, American gynecologist and academic (d. 1946) +1877 – Ralph McKittrick, American golfer and tennis player (d. 1923) +1878 – Reggie Duff, Australian cricketer (d. 1911) +1880 – Percy Sherwell, South African cricketer and tennis player (d. 1948) +1887 – Charles I of Austria (d. 1922) + 1887 – Marcus Garvey, Jamaican journalist and activist, founded Black Star Line (d. 1940) +1888 – Monty Woolley, American actor, raconteur, and pundit (d. 1963) +1890 – Stefan Bastyr, Polish soldier and pilot (d. 1920) + 1890 – Harry Hopkins, American politician and diplomat, 8th United States Secretary of Commerce (d. 1946) +1893 – John Brahm, German-American director and production manager (d. 1982) + 1893 – Mae West, American stage and film actress (d. 1980) +1894 – William Rootes, 1st Baron Rootes, English businessman, founded Rootes Group (d. 1964) +1896 – Leslie Groves, American general and engineer (d. 1970) + 1896 – Tõnis Kint, Estonian lieutenant and politician, Prime Minister of Estonia in exile (d. 1991) + 1896 – Oliver Waterman Larkin, American historian and author (d. 1970) +1899 – Janet Lewis, American poet and novelist (d. 1998) +1900 – Vivienne de Watteville, British travel writer and adventurer (d. 1957) + 1900 – Pauline A. Young, American teacher, historian, aviator and activist (d. 1991) + +1901–present +1904 – Mary Cain, American journalist and politician (d. 1984) + 1904 – Leopold Nowak, Austrian composer and musicologist (d. 1991) +1909 – Larry Clinton, American trumpet player and bandleader (d. 1985) + 1909 – Wilf Copping, English footballer (d. 1980) +1911 – Mikhail Botvinnik, Russian chess player and engineer (d. 1995) + 1911 – Martin Sandberger, German colonel and lawyer (d. 2010) +1913 – Mark Felt (aka 'Deep Throat'), American lawyer and agent, 2nd Deputy Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (d. 2008) + 1913 – Oscar Alfredo Gálvez, Argentinian race car driver (d. 1989) + 1913 – Rudy York, American baseball player and manager (d. 1970) +1914 – Bill Downs, American journalist (d. 1978) + 1914 – Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr., American lawyer and politician (d. 1988) +1916 – Moses Majekodunmi, Nigerian physician and politician (d. 2012) +1918 – Evelyn Ankers, British-American actress (d. 1985) + 1918 – Ike Quebec, American saxophonist and pianist (d. 1963) + 1918 – Michael John Wise, English geographer and academic (d. 2015) +1919 – Georgia Gibbs, American singer (d. 2006) +1920 – Maureen O'Hara, Irish-American actress and singer (d. 2015) + 1920 – Lida Moser, American photographer and author (d. 2014) +1921 – Geoffrey Elton, German-English historian and academic (d. 1994) +1922 – Roy Tattersall, English cricketer (d. 2011) +1923 – Carlos Cruz-Diez, Venezuelan artist (d. 2019) + 1923 – Larry Rivers, American painter and sculptor (d. 2002) +1924 – Evan S. Connell, American novelist, poet, and short story writer (d. 2013) +1926 – Valerie Eliot, English businesswoman (d. 2012) + 1926 – Jiang Zemin, Chinese engineer and politician, former General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (paramount leader) and 5th President of China (d. 2022) +1927 – Sam Butera, American saxophonist and bandleader (d. 2009) + 1927 – F. Ray Keyser Jr., American lawyer and politician, 72nd Governor of Vermont (d. 2015) +1928 – T. J. Anderson, American composer, conductor, and educator + 1928 – Willem Duys, Dutch tennis player, sportscaster, and producer (d. 2011) +1929 – Francis Gary Powers, American captain and pilot (d. 1977) +1930 – Harve Bennett, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2015) + 1930 – Ted Hughes, English poet and playwright (d. 1998) +1931 – Tony Wrigley, English historian, demographer, and academic (d. 2022) +1932 – V. S. Naipaul, Trinidadian-English novelist and essayist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2018) + 1932 – Duke Pearson, American pianist and composer (d. 1980) + 1932 – Jean-Jacques Sempé, French cartoonist (d. 2022) +1933 – Mark Dinning, American pop singer (d. 1986) +1934 – João Donato, Brazilian pianist and composer (d. 2023) + 1934 – Ron Henry, English footballer (d. 2014) +1936 – Seamus Mallon, Irish educator and politician, Deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland (d. 2020) + 1936 – Margaret Heafield Hamilton, American computer scientist, systems engineer, and business owner. +1938 – Theodoros Pangalos, Greek lawyer and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Greece (d. 2023) +1939 – Luther Allison, American blues guitarist and singer (d. 1997) +1940 – Eduardo Mignogna, Argentinian director and screenwriter (d. 2006) + 1940 – Barry Sheerman, English academic and politician +1941 – Lothar Bisky, German businessman and politician (d. 2013) + 1941 – Jean Pierre Lefebvre, Canadian director and screenwriter + 1941 – Boog Powell, American baseball player +1942 – Shane Porteous, Australian actor, animator, and screenwriter +1943 – Edward Cowie, English composer, painter, and author + 1943 – Robert De Niro, American actor, entrepreneur, director, and producer + 1943 – John Humphrys, Welsh journalist and author + 1943 – Dave "Snaker" Ray, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2002) +1944 – Larry Ellison, American businessman, co-founded the Oracle Corporation + 1944 – Jean-Bernard Pommier, French pianist and conductor +1945 – Rachel Pollack, American author, poet, and educator +1946 – Hugh Baiocchi, South African golfer + 1946 – Martha Coolidge, American director, producer, and screenwriter + 1946 – Patrick Manning, Trinidadian-Tobagonian politician, 4th Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago (d. 2016) +1947 – Mohamed Abdelaziz, President of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (d. 2016) + 1947 – Gary Talley, American guitarist, singer-songwriter, and author +1948 – Alexander Ivashkin, Russian-English cellist and conductor (d. 2014) +1949 – Norm Coleman, American lawyer and politician, 52nd Mayor of St. Paul + 1949 – Sue Draheim, American fiddler and composer (d. 2013) + 1949 – Julian Fellowes, English actor, director, screenwriter, and politician + 1949 – Sib Hashian, American rock drummer (d. 2017) +1951 – Richard Hunt, American Muppet performer (d. 1992) + 1951 – Robert Joy, Canadian actor +1952 – Aleksandr Maksimenkov, Russian footballer and coach (d. 2012) + 1952 – Nelson Piquet, Brazilian race car driver and businessman + 1952 – Mario Theissen, German engineer and businessman + 1952 – Guillermo Vilas, Argentinian tennis player +1953 – Mick Malthouse, Australian footballer and coach + 1953 – Herta Müller, Romanian-German poet and author, Nobel Prize laureate + 1953 – Korrie Layun Rampan, Indonesian author, poet, and critic (d. 2015) + 1953 – Kevin Rowland, English singer-songwriter and guitarist +1954 – Eric Johnson, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer + 1954 – Andrés Pastrana Arango, Colombian lawyer and politician, 38th President of Colombia +1955 – Colin Moulding, English singer-songwriter and bassist +1956 – Gail Berman, American businessman, co-founded BermanBraun + 1956 – Álvaro Pino, Spanish cyclist +1957 – Ken Kwapis, American director and screenwriter + 1957 – Laurence Overmire, American poet, author, and actor + 1957 – Robin Cousins, British competitive figure skater +1958 – Belinda Carlisle, American singer-songwriter + 1958 – Fred Goodwin, Scottish banker and accountant + 1958 – Maurizio Sandro Sala, Brazilian race car driver +1959 – Jonathan Franzen, American novelist and essayist + 1959 – Jacek Kazimierski, Polish footballer + 1959 – Eric Schlosser, American journalist and author + 1959 – David Koresh, American cult leader (d. 1993) +1960 – Stephan Eicher, Swiss singer-songwriter + 1960 – Sean Penn, American actor, director, and political activist +1962 – Gilby Clarke, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer + 1962 – Dan Dakich, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster +1963 – Jon Gruden, American football player, coach, and sportscaster + 1963 – Jackie Walorski, American politician (d. 2022) +1964 – Colin James, Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer + 1964 – Maria McKee, American singer-songwriter + 1964 – Dave Penney, English footballer and manager +1965 – Steve Gorman, American drummer + 1965 – Dottie Pepper, American golfer +1966 – Jüri Luik, Estonian politician and diplomat, 18th Estonian Minister of Defense + 1966 – Rodney Mullen, American skateboarder and stuntman + 1966 – Don Sweeney, Canadian ice hockey player and manager +1967 – David Conrad, American actor + 1967 – Michael Preetz, German footballer and manager +1968 – Andriy Kuzmenko, Ukrainian singer-songwriter (d. 2015) + 1968 – Ed McCaffrey, American football player and sportscaster + 1968 – Helen McCrory, English actress (d. 2021) +1969 – Christian Laettner, American basketball player and coach + 1969 – Kelvin Mercer, American rapper, songwriter and producer + 1969 – Donnie Wahlberg, American singer-songwriter, actor and producer +1970 – Jim Courier, American tennis player and sportscaster + 1970 – Andrus Kivirähk, Estonian author + 1970 – Øyvind Leonhardsen, Norwegian footballer and coach +1971 – Uhm Jung-hwa, South Korean singer and actress + 1971 – Jorge Posada, Puerto Rican-American baseball player + 1971 – Shaun Rehn, Australian footballer and coach +1972 – Habibul Bashar, Bangladeshi cricketer +1974 – Giuliana Rancic, Italian-American journalist and television personality + 1974 – Johannes Maria Staud, Austrian composer +1976 – Eric Boulton, Canadian ice hockey player + 1976 – Geertjan Lassche, Dutch journalist and director + 1976 – Serhiy Zakarlyuka, Ukrainian footballer and manager (d. 2014) +1977 – Nathan Deakes, Australian race walker + 1977 – William Gallas, French footballer + 1977 – Thierry Henry, French footballer + 1977 – Mike Lewis, Welsh guitarist + 1977 – Tarja Turunen, Finnish singer-songwriter and producer +1979 – Antwaan Randle El, American football player and journalist +1980 – Keith Dabengwa, Zimbabwean cricketer + 1980 – Daniel Güiza, Spanish footballer + 1980 – Jan Kromkamp, Dutch footballer + 1980 – Lene Marlin, Norwegian singer-songwriter +1982 – Phil Jagielka, English footballer + 1982 – Cheerleader Melissa, American wrestler and manager + 1982 – Mark Salling, American actor and musician (d. 2018) +1983 – Dustin Pedroia, American baseball player +1984 – Dee Brown, American basketball player + 1984 – Oksana Domnina, Russian ice dancer + 1984 – Liam Heath, British sprint canoeist + 1984 – Garrett Wolfe, American football player +1985 – Yū Aoi, Japanese actress and model +1986 – Rudy Gay, American basketball player + 1986 – Tyrus Thomas, American basketball player +1988 – Brady Corbet, American actor and director + 1988 – Jihadi John, Kuwaiti-British member of ISIS (d. 2015) + 1988 – Natalie Sandtorv, Norwegian singer-songwriter + 1988 – Erika Toda, Japanese actress +1989 – Lil B, American rapper + 1989 – Rachel Corsie, Scottish footballer +1991 – Austin Butler, American actor +1992 – Saraya Bevis, English wrestler + 1992 – Alex Elisala, New Zealand-Australian rugby player (d. 2013) + 1992 – Chanel Mata'utia, Australian rugby league player +1993 – Ederson Moraes, Brazilian footballer + 1993 – Sarah Sjöström, Swedish swimmer + 1993 – Xie Zhenye, Chinese athlete +1994 – Phoebe Bridgers, American singer/songwriter + 1994 – Jack Conklin, American football player + 1994 – Taissa Farmiga, American actress +1995 – Gracie Gold, American figure skater + 1995 – Dallin Watene-Zelezniak, New Zealand rugby league player +1996 – Jake Virtanen, Canadian ice hockey player +2000 – Lil Pump, American rapper and songwriter +2003 – Nastasja Schunk, German tennis player + 2003 – The Kid Laroi, Australian rapper and songwriter + +Deaths + +Pre-1600 + 754 – Carloman, mayor of the palace of Austrasia + 949 – Li Shouzhen, Chinese general and governor +1153 – Eustace IV, Count of Boulogne (b. 1130) +1304 – Emperor Go-Fukakusa of Japan (b. 1243) +1324 – Irene of Brunswick (b. 1293) +1338 – Nitta Yoshisada, Japanese samurai (b. 1301) +1424 – John Stewart, Earl of Buchan (b. c. 1381) +1510 – Edmund Dudley, English politician, Speaker of the House of Commons (b. 1462) + 1510 – Richard Empson, English statesman +1547 – Katharina von Zimmern, Swiss sovereign abbess (b. 1478) + +1601–1900 +1673 – Regnier de Graaf, Dutch physician and anatomist (b. 1641) +1676 – Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen, German author (b. 1621) +1720 – Anne Dacier, French scholar and translator (b. 1654) +1723 – Joseph Bingham, English scholar and academic (b. 1668) +1768 – Vasily Trediakovsky, Russian poet and playwright (b. 1703) +1785 – Jonathan Trumbull, English-American merchant and politician, 16th Governor of Connecticut (b. 1710) +1786 – Frederick the Great, Prussian king (b. 1712) +1809 – Matthew Boulton, English businessman and engineer, co-founded Boulton and Watt (b. 1728) +1814 – John Johnson, English architect and surveyor (b. 1732) +1834 – Husein Gradaščević, Ottoman general (b. 1802) +1838 – Lorenzo Da Ponte, Italian playwright and poet (b. 1749) +1850 – José de San Martín, Argentinian general and politician, 1st President of Peru (b. 1778) +1861 – Alcée Louis la Branche, American politician and diplomat, 1st United States Ambassador to Texas (b. 1806) +1870 – Perucho Figueredo, Cuban poet and activist (b. 1818) +1875 – Wilhelm Bleek, German linguist and anthropologist (b. 1827) +1897 – William Jervois, English engineer and diplomat, 10th Governor of South Australia (b. 1821) + +1901–present +1901 – Edmond Audran, French organist and composer (b. 1842) +1903 – Hans Gude, Norwegian-German painter and academic (b. 1825) +1908 – Radoje Domanović, Serbian satirist and journalist (b. 1873) +1909 – Madan Lal Dhingra, Indian activist (b. 1883) +1918 – Moisei Uritsky, Russian activist and politician (b. 1873) +1920 – Ray Chapman, American baseball player (b. 1891) +1924 – Tom Kendall, English-Australian cricketer and journalist (b. 1851) +1925 – Ioan Slavici, Romanian journalist and author (b. 1848) +1935 – Adam Gunn, American decathlete (b. 1872) + 1935 – Charlotte Perkins Gilman, American sociologist and author (b. 1860) +1936 – José María of Manila, Spanish-Filipino priest and martyr (b. 1880) +1940 – Billy Fiske, American soldier and pilot (b. 1911) +1945 – Reidar Haaland, Norwegian police officer and soldier (b. 1919) +1949 – Gregorio Perfecto, Filipino journalist, jurist, and politician (b. 1891) +1958 – Arthur Fox, English-American fencer (b. 1878) +1966 – Ken Miles, English race car driver and engineer (b. 1918) +1969 – Otto Stern, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1888) +1970 – Rattana Pestonji, Thai director and producer (b. 1908) +1971 – Maedayama Eigorō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 39th Yokozuna (b. 1914) + 1971 – Wilhelm List, German field marshal (b. 1880) +1973 – Conrad Aiken, American novelist, short story writer, critic, and poet (b. 1889) + 1973 – Jean Barraqué, French pianist and composer (b. 1928) + 1973 – Paul Williams, American singer and choreographer (b. 1939) +1977 – Delmer Daves, American screenwriter, director and producer (b. 1904) +1979 – John C. Allen, American roller coaster designer (b. 1907) + 1979 – Vivian Vance, American actress and singer (b. 1909) +1983 – Ira Gershwin, American songwriter (b. 1896) +1987 – Gary Chester, Italian drummer and educator (b. 1924) + 1987 – Rudolf Hess, German soldier and politician (b. 1894) + 1987 – Shaike Ophir, Israeli actor and screenwriter (b. 1929) +1988 – Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, Pakistani general and politician, 6th President of Pakistan (b. 1924) + 1988 – Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr., American lawyer and politician (b. 1914) + 1988 – Victoria Shaw, Australian-American actress (b. 1935) +1990 – Pearl Bailey, American actress and singer (b. 1918) +1993 – Feng Kang, Chinese mathematician and academic (b. 1920) +1994 – Luigi Chinetti, Italian-American race car driver and businessman (b. 1901) + 1994 – Jack Sharkey, American boxer and referee (b. 1902) +1995 – Howard E. Koch, American playwright and screenwriter (b. 1902) + 1995 – Ted Whitten, Australian footballer and coach (b. 1933) +1998 – Władysław Komar, Polish shot putter and actor (b. 1940) + 1998 – Tadeusz Ślusarski, Polish pole vaulter (b. 1950) +2000 – Jack Walker, English businessman (b. 1929) +2004 – Thea Astley, Australian author and educator (b. 1925) +2005 – John N. Bahcall, American astrophysicist and academic (b. 1934) +2006 – Shamsur Rahman, Bangladeshi poet and journalist (b. 1929) +2007 – Bill Deedes, English journalist and politician (b. 1913) + 2007 – Eddie Griffin, American basketball player (b. 1982) +2008 – Franco Sensi, Italian businessman and politician (b. 1926) +2010 – Francesco Cossiga, Italian lawyer and politician, 8th President of Italy (b. 1928) +2012 – Aase Bjerkholt, Norwegian politician, Minister of Children, Equality and Social Inclusion (b. 1915) + 2012 – Victor Poor, American engineer, developed the Datapoint 2200 (b. 1933) + 2012 – Patrick Ricard, French businessman (b. 1945) + 2012 – John Lynch-Staunton, Canadian lawyer and politician (b. 1930) +2013 – Odilia Dank, American educator and politician (b. 1938) + 2013 – Jack Harshman, American baseball player (b. 1927) + 2013 – John Hollander, American poet and critic (b. 1929) + 2013 – David Landes, Jewish-American historian and economist (b. 1924) + 2013 – Frank Martínez, American painter (b. 1924) + 2013 – Gus Winckel, Dutch lieutenant and pilot (b. 1912) +2014 – Børre Knudsen, Norwegian minister and activist (b. 1937) + 2014 – Wolfgang Leonhard, German historian and author (b. 1921) + 2014 – Sophie Masloff, American civil servant and politician, 56th Mayor of Pittsburgh (b. 1917) + 2014 – Miodrag Pavlović, Serbian poet and critic (b. 1928) + 2014 – Pierre Vassiliu, French singer-songwriter (b. 1937) +2015 – Yvonne Craig, American ballet dancer and actress (b. 1937) + 2015 – Gerhard Mayer-Vorfelder, German businessman (b. 1933) + 2015 – László Paskai, Hungarian cardinal (b. 1927) +2016 – Arthur Hiller, Canadian actor, director, and producer (b. 1923) + +Holidays and observances +Christian feast day: +Saint Beatrice of Silva +Saint Clare of Montefalco +Saint Hyacinth of Poland +Saint Jeanne Delanoue +Saint Mammes of Caesarea +Samuel Johnson, Timothy Cutler, and Thomas Bradbury Chandler (Episcopal Church) +August 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) +Engineer's Day (Colombia) +Flag Day (Bolivia) +Independence Day, celebrates the independence proclamation of Indonesia from Japan in 1945. +Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Gabon from France in 1960. +Marcus Garvey Day (Jamaica) +Prekmurje Union Day (Slovenia) +San Martin Day (Argentina) +Black Cat Appreciation Day (United States) + +References + +External links + + + + + +Days of the year +August + + +Events + +Pre-1600 +1099 – First Crusade: Battle of Ascalon Crusaders under the command of Godfrey of Bouillon defeat Fatimid forces led by Al-Afdal Shahanshah. This is considered the last engagement of the First Crusade. +1121 – Battle of Didgori: The Georgian army under King David IV wins a decisive victory over the famous Seljuk commander Ilghazi. +1164 – Battle of Harim: Nur ad-Din Zangi defeats the Crusader armies of the County of Tripoli and the Principality of Antioch. +1323 – The Treaty of Nöteborg between Sweden and Novgorod Republic is signed, regulating the border between the two countries for the first time. +1492 – Christopher Columbus arrives in the Canary Islands on his first voyage to the New World. +1499 – First engagement of the Battle of Zonchio between Venetian and Ottoman fleets. + +1601–1900 +1624 – Charles de La Vieuville is arrested and replaced by Cardinal Richelieu as the French king's chief advisor. +1676 – Praying Indian John Alderman shoots and kills Metacomet, the Wampanoag war chief, ending King Philip's War. +1687 – Battle of Mohács: Charles of Lorraine defeats the Ottoman Empire. +1765 – Treaty of Allahabad is signed. The Treaty marks the political and constitutional involvement and the beginning of Company rule in India. +1788 – The Anjala conspiracy is signed. +1793 – The Rhône and Loire départments are created when the former département of Rhône-et-Loire is split into two. +1806 – Santiago de Liniers, 1st Count of Buenos Aires re-takes the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina after the first British invasion. +1831 – French intervention forces William I of the Netherlands to abandon his attempt to suppress the Belgian Revolution. +1851 – Isaac Singer is granted a patent for his sewing machine. +1865 – Joseph Lister, British surgeon and scientist, performs the first antiseptic surgery. +1883 – The last quagga dies at the Natura Artis Magistra, a zoo in Amsterdam, Netherlands. +1898 – The Hawaiian flag is lowered from ʻIolani Palace in an elaborate annexation ceremony and replaced with the flag of the United States to signify the transfer of sovereignty from the Republic of Hawaii to the United States where it is formally recognized as Hawaii. + +1901–present +1914 – World War I: The United Kingdom and the British Empire declare war on Austria-Hungary. + 1914 – World War I: The Battle of Halen a.k.a. Battle of the Silver Helmets a clash between large Belgian and German cavalry formations at Halen, Belgium. +1944 – Waffen-SS troops massacre 560 people in Sant'Anna di Stazzema. + 1944 – Nazi German troops end the week-long Wola massacre, during which time at least 40,000 people are killed indiscriminately or in mass executions. + 1944 – Alençon is liberated by General Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque, the first city in France to be liberated from the Nazis by French forces. +1948 – Between 15 and 150 unarmed members of the Khudai Khidmatgar movement are killed by Pakistani police. +1950 – Korean War: Bloody Gulch massacre: Seventy-five American POWs are massacred by the North Korean Army. +1952 – The Night of the Murdered Poets: Thirteen prominent Jewish intellectuals are murdered in Moscow, Russia, Soviet Union. +1953 – First thermonuclear bomb test: The Soviet atomic bomb project continues with the detonation of "RDS-6s" (Joe 4) using a "layered" scheme. + 1953 – The 7.2 Ionian earthquake shakes the southern Ionian Islands with a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme). Between 445 and 800 people are killed. +1960 – Echo 1A, NASA's first successful communications satellite, is launched. +1964 – South Africa is banned from the Olympic Games due to the country's racist policies. +1969 – Violence erupts after the Apprentice Boys of Derry march in Derry, Northern Ireland, resulting in a three-day communal riot known as the Battle of the Bogside. +1976 – Between 1,000 and 3,500 Palestinians are killed in the Tel al-Zaatar massacre, one of the bloodiest events of the Lebanese Civil War. +1977 – The first free flight of the . + 1977 – The Sri Lanka Riots: Targeting the minority Sri Lankan Tamils, begin, less than a month after the United National Party came to power. Over 300 Tamils are killed. +1981 – The IBM Personal Computer is released. +1985 – Japan Airlines Flight 123 crashes into Osutaka ridge in Gunma Prefecture, Japan, killing 520, to become the worst single-plane air disaster. +1990 – Sue, the largest and most complete Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton found to date, is discovered by Sue Hendrickson in South Dakota. +1992 – Canada, Mexico and the United States announce completion of negotiations for the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). +1994 – Major League Baseball players go on strike, eventually forcing the cancellation of the 1994 World Series. +2000 – The Russian Navy submarine explodes and sinks in the Barents Sea during a military exercise, killing her entire 118-man crew. +2015 – At least two massive explosions kill 173 people and injure nearly 800 more in Tianjin, China. +2016 – Syrian civil war: The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) capture the city of Manbij from the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). +2018 – Thirty-nine civilians, including a dozen children, are killed in an explosion at a weapons depot in Sarmada, Syria. +2021 – Six people, five victims and the perpetrator are killed in Keyham, Plymouth in the worst mass shooting in the UK since 2010. + +Births + +Pre-1600 +1452 – Abraham Zacuto, Jewish astronomer, astrologer, mathematician, rabbi and historian (d. 1515) +1503 – Christian III of Denmark (d. 1559) +1506 – Franciscus Sonnius, Dutch counter-Reformation theologian (d. 1576) +1591 – Louise de Marillac, co-founder of the Daughters of Charity (d. 1660) +1599 – Sir William Curtius FRS, German magistrate, English baronet (d. 1678) + +1601–1900 +1604 – Tokugawa Iemitsu, Japanese shōgun (d. 1651) +1626 – Giovanni Legrenzi, Italian composer (d. 1690) +1629 – Archduchess Isabella Clara of Austria, Austrian archduchess (d. 1685) +1644 – Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber, Bohemian-Austrian violinist and composer (d. 1704) +1686 – John Balguy, English philosopher and author (d. 1748) +1696 – Maurice Greene, English organist and composer (d. 1755) +1762 – George IV of the United Kingdom (d. 1830) +1773 – Karl Faber, Prussian historian and academic (d. 1853) +1774 – Robert Southey, English poet and author (d. 1843) +1831 – Helena Blavatsky, Russian theosophist and scholar (d. 1891) +1852 – Michael J. McGivney, American priest and founder of the Knights of Columbus (d. 1890) +1856 – Diamond Jim Brady, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1917) +1857 – Ernestine von Kirchsberg, Austrian painter and educator (d. 1924) +1859 – Katharine Lee Bates, American poet and author (d. 1929) +1860 – Klara Hitler, Austrian mother of Adolf Hitler (d. 1907) +1866 – Jacinto Benavente, Spanish playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1954) + 1866 – Henrik Sillem, Dutch target shooter, mountaineer, and jurist (d. 1907) +1867 – Edith Hamilton, German-American author and educator (d. 1963) +1870 – Henry Reuterdahl, Swedish-American artist (d. 1925) +1871 – Gustavs Zemgals, Latvian politician, 2nd President of Latvia (d. 1939) +1876 – Mary Roberts Rinehart, American author and playwright (d. 1958) +1877 – Albert Bartha, Hungarian general and politician, Hungarian Minister of Defence (d. 1960) +1880 – Radclyffe Hall, English poet, author, and activist (d. 1943) + 1880 – Christy Mathewson, American baseball player and manager (d. 1925) +1881 – Cecil B. DeMille, American director and producer (d. 1959) +1883 – Martha Hedman, Swedish-American actress and playwright (d. 1974) + 1883 – Marion Lorne, American actress (d. 1968) +1885 – Jean Cabannes, French physicist and academic (d. 1959) + 1885 – Keith Murdoch, Australian journalist (d. 1952) + 1885 – Juhan Simm, Estonian composer and conductor (d. 1959) +1887 – Erwin Schrödinger, Austrian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1961) +1889 – Zerna Sharp, American author and educator (d. 1981) +1891 – C. E. M. Joad, English philosopher and academic (d. 1953) + 1891 – John McDermott, American golfer (d. 1971) +1892 – Alfred Lunt, American actor and director (d. 1977) +1897 – Maurice Fernandes, Guyanese cricketer (d. 1981) +1899 – Ben Sealey, Trinidadian cricketer (d. 1963) + +1901–present +1902 – Mohammad Hatta, Indonesian statesman, 1st Vice President of Indonesia (d. 1980) +1904 – Idel Jakobson, Latvian-Estonian NKVD officer (d. 1997) + 1904 – Tamás Lossonczy, Hungarian painter (d. 2009) + 1904 – Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia (d. 1918) +1906 – Harry Hopman, Australian tennis player and coach (d. 1985) + 1906 – Tedd Pierce, American animator, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1972) +1907 – Gladys Bentley, American blues singer (d. 1960) + 1907 – Joe Besser, American actor (d. 1988) + 1907 – Boy Charlton, Australian swimmer (d. 1975) + 1907 – Benjamin Sheares, Singaporean physician and politician, 2nd President of Singapore (d. 1981) +1909 – Bruce Matthews, Canadian general and businessman (d. 1991) +1910 – Yusof bin Ishak, Singaporean journalist and politician, 1st President of Singapore (d. 1970) + 1910 – Jane Wyatt, American actress (d. 2006) +1911 – Cantinflas, Mexican actor, screenwriter, and producer (d. 1993) +1912 – Samuel Fuller, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1997) +1913 – Richard L. Bare, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2015) +1914 – Gerd Buchdahl, German-English philosopher and author (d. 2001) + 1914 – Ruth Lowe, Canadian pianist and songwriter (d. 1981) +1915 – Michael Kidd, American dancer and choreographer (d. 2007) +1916 – Ioan Dicezare, Romanian general and pilot (d. 2012) + 1916 – Edward Pinkowski, American writer, journalist and Polonia historian (d. 2020) +1917 – Oliver Crawford, American screenwriter and author (d. 2008) +1918 – Sid Bernstein, American record producer (d. 2013) + 1918 – Guy Gibson, Anglo-Indian commander and pilot, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1944) +1919 – Margaret Burbidge, English-American astrophysicist and academic (d. 2020) + 1919 – Vikram Sarabhai, Indian physicist and academic (d. 1971) +1920 – Charles Gibson, American ethnohistorian (d. 1985) + 1920 – Percy Mayfield, American R&B singer-songwriter (d. 1984) +1922 – Fulton Mackay, Scottish actor and playwright (d. 1987) + 1922 – Miloš Jakeš, Czech communist politician (d. 2020) +1923 – John Holt, Jamaican cricketer (d. 1997) +1924 – Derek Shackleton, English cricketer, coach, and umpire (d. 2007) + 1924 – Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, Pakistani general and politician, 6th President of Pakistan (d. 1988) +1925 – Dale Bumpers, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 38th Governor of Arkansas (d. 2016) + 1925 – Guillermo Cano Isaza, Colombian journalist (d. 1986) + 1925 – Donald Justice, American poet and writing teacher (d. 2004) + 1925 – Norris McWhirter, Scottish publisher and activist co-founded the Guinness World Records (d. 2004) + 1925 – Ross McWhirter, Scottish publisher and activist, co-founded the Guinness World Records (d. 1975) + 1925 – George Wetherill, American physicist and academic (d. 2006) +1926 – Douglas Croft, American child actor (d. 1963) + 1926 – John Derek, American actor, director, and cinematographer (d. 1998) + 1926 – Joe Jones, American R&B singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2005) +1927 – Porter Wagoner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2007) +1928 – Charles Blackman, Australian painter and illustrator (d. 2018) + 1928 – Bob Buhl, American baseball player (d. 2001) + 1928 – Dan Curtis, American director and producer (d. 2006) +1929 – Buck Owens, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2006) +1930 – George Soros, Hungarian-American businessman and investor, founded the Soros Fund Management + 1930 – Kanagaratnam Sriskandan, Sri Lankan engineer and civil servant (d. 2010) + 1930 – Jacques Tits, Belgian-French mathematician and academic (d. 2021) +1931 – William Goldman, American author, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 2018) +1932 – Dallin H. Oaks, American lawyer, jurist, and religious leader + 1932 – Charlie O'Donnell, American radio and television announcer (d. 2010) + 1932 – Sirikit, Queen mother of Thailand +1933 – Parnelli Jones, American race car driver and businessman + 1933 – Frederic Lindsay, Scottish author and educator (d. 2013) +1934 – Robin Nicholson, English metallurgist and academic +1935 – John Cazale, American actor (d. 1978) +1936 – Kjell Grede, Swedish director and screenwriter (d. 2017) +1937 – Walter Dean Myers, American author and poet (d. 2014) +1938 – Jean-Paul L'Allier, Canadian journalist and politician, 38th Mayor of Quebec City (d. 2016) +1939 – George Hamilton, American actor + 1939 – David Jacobs, American television writer and producer (d. 2023) + 1939 – S. Jayakumar, Singaporean politician, 4th Senior Minister of Singapore + 1939 – Pam Kilborn, Australian track and field athlete + 1939 – David King, South African chemist and academic + 1939 – Sushil Koirala, Nepalese politician, 37th Prime Minister of Nepal (d. 2016) + 1939 – Roy Romanow, Canadian lawyer and politician, 12th Premier of Saskatchewan +1940 – Eddie Barlow, South African cricketer and coach (d. 2005) + 1940 – John Waller, English historical European martial arts (HEMA) revival pioneer and fight director (d. 2018) +1941 – L. M. Kit Carson, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2014) + 1941 – Réjean Ducharme, Canadian author and playwright (d. 2017) + 1941 – Dana Ivey, American actress +1942 – Hans-Wilhelm Müller-Wohlfahrt, German physician and author +1943 – Javeed Alam, Indian academician (d. 2016) +1945 – Dorothy E. 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Houlton, American baseball player + 1979 – Ian Hutchinson, English motorcycle racer + 1979 – Cindy Klassen, Canadian speed skater + 1979 – Austra Skujytė, Lithuanian pentathlete +1980 – Javier Chevantón, Uruguayan footballer + 1980 – Maggie Lawson, American actress + 1980 – Dominique Swain, American actress + 1980 – Matt Thiessen, Canadian-American singer-songwriter and guitarist +1981 – Tony Capaldi, Norwegian-Northern Irish footballer + 1981 – Djibril Cissé, French footballer +1982 – Boban Grnčarov, Macedonian footballer + 1982 – Alexandros Tzorvas, Greek footballer +1983 – Klaas-Jan Huntelaar, Dutch footballer + 1983 – Kléber Giacomance de Souza Freitas, Brazilian footballer + 1983 – Manoa Vosawai, Italian rugby player +1984 – Bryan Pata, American football player (d. 2006) +1985 – Danny Graham, English footballer + 1985 – Franck Moutsinga, German rugby player +1986 – Andrei Agius, Maltese footballer + 1986 – Kyle Arrington, American football player +1987 – Vanessa Watts, West Indian cricketer +1988 – Tyson Fury, English boxer + 1988 – Matt Gillett, Australian rugby league player +1989 – Tom Cleverley, English footballer + 1989 – Hong Jeong-ho, South Korean footballer + 1989 – Sunye, South Korean singer +1990 – Mario Balotelli, Italian footballer + 1990 – Marvin Zeegelaar, Dutch footballer + 1990 – Martin Zurawsky, German footballer +1991 – Jesinta Campbell, Australian model + 1991 – Sam Hoare, Australian rugby league player + 1991 – LaKeith Stanfield, American actor and musician +1992 – Cara Delevingne, English model and actress + 1992 – Jacob Loko, Australian rugby player + 1992 – Teo Gheorghiu, Swiss pianist and actor +1993 – Ewa Farna, Czech singer-songwriter + 1993 – Luna, South Korean singer, actress and presenter +1996 – Choi Yu-jin, South Korean singer and actress + 1996 – Julio Urías, Mexican baseball player + 1996 – Arthur Melo, Brazilian footballer + 1996 – Samuel Moutoussamy, Congolese footballer +1998 – Stefanos Tsitsipas, Greek tennis player +1999 – Matthijs de Ligt, Dutch footballer + 1999 – Dream, American YouTuber + 1999 – Jule Niemeier, German tennis player +2000 – Tristan Charpentier, French racing driver +2001 – Dixie D'Amelio, American social media personality and singer + +Deaths + +Pre-1600 +30 BC – Cleopatra, Egyptian queen (b. 69 BC) + 792 – Jænberht, archbishop of Canterbury + 875 – Louis II, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 825) + 960 – Li Gu, chancellor of Later Zhou (b. 903) + 961 – Yuan Zong, emperor of Southern Tang (b. 916) +1222 – Vladislaus III, duke of Bohemia +1295 – Charles Martel, king of Hungary (b. 1271) +1319 – Rudolf I, duke of Bavaria (b. 1274) +1315 – Guy de Beauchamp, 10th Earl of Warwick, English nobleman +1335 – Prince Moriyoshi, Japanese shōgun (b. 1308) +1399 – Demetrius I Starshy, Prince of Trubczewsk (in battle) (b. 1327) +1424 – Yongle, emperor of the Ming Empire (b. 1360) +1484 – Sixtus IV, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 1414) +1546 – Francisco de Vitoria, Spanish theologian (b. 1492) +1577 – Thomas Smith, English scholar and diplomat (b. 1513) +1588 – Alfonso Ferrabosco the elder, Italian-English composer (b. 1543) + +1601–1900 +1602 – Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, Mughal vizier and historian (b. 1551) +1612 – Giovanni Gabrieli, Italian organist and composer (b. 1557) +1638 – Johannes Althusius, German jurist and philosopher (b. 1557) +1674 – Philippe de Champaigne, Belgian-French painter and educator (b. 1602) +1689 – Pope Innocent XI (b. 1611) +1778 – Peregrine Bertie, 3rd Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Lincolnshire (b. 1714) +1809 – Mikhail Kamensky, Russian field marshal (b. 1738) +1810 – Étienne Louis Geoffroy, French pharmacist and entomologist (b. 1725) +1822 – Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, Irish-English politician, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (b. 1769) +1827 – William Blake, English poet and painter (b. 1757) +1829 – Charles Sapinaud de La Rairie, French general (b. 1760) +1848 – George Stephenson, English engineer and academic (b. 1781) +1849 – Albert Gallatin, Swiss-American ethnologist, linguist, and politician, 4th United States Secretary of the Treasury (b. 1761) +1861 – Eliphalet Remington, American inventor and businessman, founded Remington Arms (b. 1793) +1864 – Sakuma Shōzan, Japanese scholar and politician (b. 1811) +1865 – William Jackson Hooker, English botanist and academic (b. 1785) +1891 – James Russell Lowell, American poet and critic (b. 1819) +1896 – Thomas Chamberlain, American colonel (b. 1841) +1900 – Wilhelm Steinitz, Austrian chess player and theoretician (b. 1836) + +1901–present +1901 – Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, Finnish-Swedish botanist, geologist, mineralogist, and explorer (b. 1832) +1904 – William Renshaw, English tennis player (b. 1861) +1914 – John Philip Holland, Irish engineer, designed (b. 1840) +1918 – William Thompson, American archer (b. 1848) +1921 – Pyotr Boborykin, Russian playwright and journalist (b. 1836) +1922 – Arthur Griffith, Irish journalist and politician, 3rd President of Dáil Éireann (b. 1871) +1924 – Sándor Bródy, Hungarian journalist and author (b. 1863) +1928 – Leoš Janáček, Czech composer and educator (b. 1854) +1934 – Hendrik Petrus Berlage, Dutch architect, designed the Beurs van Berlage (b. 1856) +1935 – Friedrich Schottky, German mathematician and academic (b. 1851) +1940 – Nikolai Triik, Estonian painter, illustrator, and academic (b. 1884) +1941 – Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon, English soldier and politician, 56th Governor General of Canada (b. 1866) + 1941 – Bobby Peel, English cricketer and umpire (b. 1857) +1943 – Vittorio Sella, Italian photographer and mountaineer (b. 1859) +1944 – Joseph P. Kennedy Jr., American lieutenant and pilot (b. 1915) +1952 – David Bergelson, Ukrainian author and playwright (b. 1884) +1955 – Thomas Mann, German author and critic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1875) + 1955 – James B. Sumner, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1887) +1959 – Mike O'Neill, Irish-American baseball player and manager (b. 1877) +1964 – Ian Fleming, English spy, journalist, and author (b. 1908) +1966 – Artur Alliksaar, Estonian poet and author (b. 1923) +1967 – Esther Forbes, American historian and author (b. 1891) +1973 – Walter Rudolf Hess, Swiss physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1881) + 1973 – Karl Ziegler, German chemist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1898) +1976 – Tom Driberg, British politician/journalist (b. 1905) +1978 – John Williams, English motorcycle racer (b. 1946) +1979 – Ernst Boris Chain, German-Irish biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1906) +1982 – Henry Fonda, American actor (b. 1905) + 1982 – Salvador Sánchez, Mexican boxer (b. 1959) +1983 – Theodor Burchardi, German admiral (b. 1892) +1984 – Ladi Kwali, Nigerian potter (b. 1925) +1985 – Kyu Sakamoto, Japanese singer-songwriter (b. 1941) + 1985 – Manfred Winkelhock, German race car driver (b. 1951) +1986 – Evaline Ness, American author and illustrator (b. 1911) +1988 – Jean-Michel Basquiat, American painter (b. 1960) +1989 – Aimo Koivunen, Finnish soldier and corporal (b. 1917) + 1989 – William Shockley, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1910) +1990 – Dorothy Mackaill, English-American actress (b. 1903) +1992 – John Cage, American composer and theorist (b. 1912) +1996 – Victor Ambartsumian, Georgian-Armenian astrophysicist and academic (b. 1908) + 1996 – Mark Gruenwald, American author and illustrator (b. 1953) +1997 – Jack Delano, American photographer and composer (b. 1914) +1999 – Jean Drapeau, Canadian lawyer and politician, 37th Mayor of Montreal (b. 1916) +2000 – Gennady Lyachin, Russian captain (b. 1955) + 2000 – Loretta Young, American actress (b. 1913) +2002 – Enos Slaughter, American baseball player and manager (b. 1916) +2004 – Godfrey Hounsfield, English biophysicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1919) +2005 – John Loder, English sound engineer and producer, founded Southern Studios (b. 1946) +2006 – Victoria Gray Adams, American civil rights activist (b. 1926) +2007 – Merv Griffin, American actor, singer, and producer, created Jeopardy! and Wheel of Fortune (b. 1925) + 2007 – Mike Wieringo, American author and illustrator (b. 1963) +2008 – Christie Allen, English-Australian singer (b. 1954) + 2008 – Helge Hagerup, Norwegian playwright, poet and novelist (b. 1933) +2009 – Les Paul, American guitarist and songwriter (b. 1915) +2010 – Isaac Bonewits, American Druid, author, and activist; founded Ár nDraíocht Féin (b. 1949) + 2010 – Guido de Marco, Maltese lawyer and politician, 6th President of Malta (b. 1931) + 2010 – Richie Hayward, American drummer and songwriter (b. 1946) + 2010 – André Kim, South Korean fashion designer (b. 1935) +2011 – Robert Robinson, English journalist and author (b. 1927) +2012 – Jimmy Carr, American football player and coach (b. 1933) + 2012 – Jerry Grant, American race car driver (b. 1935) + 2012 – Joe Kubert, Polish-American illustrator, founded The Kubert School (b. 1926) + 2012 – Édgar Morales Pérez, Mexican engineer and politician + 2012 – Alf Morris, English politician and activist (b. 1928) +2013 – Tereza de Arriaga, Portuguese painter (b. 1915) + 2013 – Hans-Ekkehard Bob, German soldier and pilot (b. 1917) + 2013 – Pauline Maier, American historian and academic (b. 1938) + 2013 – David McLetchie, Scottish lawyer and politician (b. 1952) + 2013 – Vasiliy Mihaylovich Peskov, Russian ecologist and journalist (b. 1930) +2014 – Lauren Bacall, American model, actress, and singer (b. 1924) + 2014 – Futatsuryū Jun'ichi, Japanese sumo wrestler (b. 1950) + 2014 – Kongō Masahiro, Japanese sumo wrestler (b. 1948) +2015 – Jaakko Hintikka, Finnish philosopher and academic (b. 1929) + 2015 – Stephen Lewis, English actor and screenwriter (b. 1926) + 2015 – Meshulim Feish Lowy, Hungarian-Canadian rabbi and author (b. 1921) + 2015 – John Scott, English organist and conductor (b. 1956) +2016 – Juan Pedro de Miguel, Spanish handball player (b. 1958) +2017 – Bryan Murray, Canadian ice hockey coach (b. 1942) +2019 – DJ Arafat, Ivorian DJ and singer (b. 1986) +2020 – Bill Yeoman, American college football player and coach (b. 1927) +2021 – Una Stubbs, English actress, TV personality, and dancer (b. 1937) + +Holidays and observances + Christian feast day: + Euplius + Eusebius of Milan + Herculanus of Brescia + Pope Innocent XI + Jænberht + Jane Frances de Chantal + Muiredach (or Murtagh) + Porcarius II + August 12 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) + Glorious Twelfth (United Kingdom) + HM the Queen Mother's Birthday and National Mother's Day (Thailand) + International Youth Day (United Nations) + Russian Air Force Day (Russia) + Russian Railway Troops Day (Russia) + Sea Org Day (Scientology) + World Elephant Day (International) + +References + +External links + + + + + +Days of the year +August +Alfred Russel Wallace (8 January 1823 – 7 November 1913) was an English naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist, biologist and illustrator. He independently conceived the theory of evolution through natural selection; his 1858 paper on the subject was published that year alongside extracts from Charles Darwin's earlier writings on the topic. It spurred Darwin to set aside the "big species book" he was drafting and quickly write an abstract of it, which was published in 1859 as On the Origin of Species. + +Wallace did extensive fieldwork, starting in the Amazon River basin. He then did fieldwork in the Malay Archipelago, where he identified the faunal divide now termed the Wallace Line, which separates the Indonesian archipelago into two distinct parts: a western portion in which the animals are largely of Asian origin, and an eastern portion where the fauna reflect Australasia. He was considered the 19th century's leading expert on the geographical distribution of animal species, and is sometimes called the "father of biogeography", or more specifically of zoogeography. + +Wallace was one of the leading evolutionary thinkers of the 19th century, working on warning coloration in animals and reinforcement (sometimes known as the Wallace effect), a way that natural selection could contribute to speciation by encouraging the development of barriers against hybridisation. Wallace's 1904 book Man's Place in the Universe was the first serious attempt by a biologist to evaluate the likelihood of life on other planets. He was one of the first scientists to write a serious exploration of whether there was life on Mars. + +Aside from scientific work, he was a social activist, critical of what he considered to be an unjust social and economic system in 19th-century Britain. His advocacy of spiritualism and his belief in a non-material origin for the higher mental faculties of humans strained his relationship with other scientists. He was one of the first prominent scientists to raise concerns over the environmental impact of human activity. He wrote prolifically on both scientific and social issues; his account of his adventures and observations during his explorations in Southeast Asia, The Malay Archipelago, was first published in 1869. It continues to be both popular and highly regarded. + +Biography + +Early life +Alfred Russel Wallace was born on 8 January 1823 in Llanbadoc, Monmouthshire. He was the eighth of nine children born to Mary Anne Wallace () and Thomas Vere Wallace. His mother was English, while his father was of Scottish ancestry. His family claimed a connection to William Wallace, a leader of Scottish forces during the Wars of Scottish Independence in the 13th century. + +Wallace's father graduated in law but never practised it. He owned some income-generating property, but bad investments and failed business ventures resulted in a steady deterioration of the family's financial position. Wallace's mother was from a middle-class family of Hertford, to which place his family moved when Wallace was five years old. He attended Hertford Grammar School until 1837, when he reached the age of 14, the normal leaving age for a pupil not going on to university. + +Wallace then moved to London to board with his older brother John, a 19-year-old apprentice builder. This was a stopgap measure until William, his oldest brother, was ready to take him on as an apprentice surveyor. While in London, Alfred attended lectures and read books at the London Mechanics Institute. Here he was exposed to the radical political ideas of the Welsh social reformer Robert Owen and of the English-born political theorist Thomas Paine. He left London in 1837 to live with William and work as his apprentice for six years. They moved repeatedly to different places in Mid-Wales. Then at the end of 1839, they moved to Kington, Herefordshire, near the Welsh border, before eventually settling at Neath in Wales. Between 1840 and 1843, Wallace worked as a land surveyor in the countryside of the west of England and Wales. The natural history of his surroundings aroused his interest; from 1841 he collected flowers and plants as an amateur botanist. + +One result of Wallace's early travels is a modern controversy about his nationality. Since he was born in Monmouthshire, some sources have considered him to be Welsh. Other historians have questioned this because neither of his parents were Welsh, his family only briefly lived in Monmouthshire, the Welsh people Wallace knew in his childhood considered him to be English, and because he consistently referred to himself as English rather than Welsh. One Wallace scholar has stated that the most reasonable interpretation is therefore that he was an Englishman born in Wales. + +In 1843 Wallace's father died, and a decline in demand for surveying meant William's business no longer had work available. For a short time Wallace was unemployed, then early in 1844 he was engaged by the Collegiate School in Leicester to teach drawing, mapmaking, and surveying. He had already read George Combe's The Constitution of Man, and after Spencer Hall lectured on mesmerism, Wallace as well as some of the older pupils tried it out. Wallace spent many hours at the town library in Leicester; he read An Essay on the Principle of Population by Thomas Robert Malthus, Alexander von Humboldt's Personal Narrative, Darwin's Journal (The Voyage of the Beagle), and Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology. One evening Wallace met the entomologist Henry Bates, who was 19 years old, and had published an 1843 paper on beetles in the journal Zoologist. He befriended Wallace and started him collecting insects. + +When Wallace's brother William died in March 1845, Wallace left his teaching position to assume control of his brother's firm in Neath, but his brother John and he were unable to make the business work. After a few months, he found work as a civil engineer for a nearby firm that was working on a survey for a proposed railway in the Vale of Neath. Wallace's work on the survey was largely outdoors in the countryside, allowing him to indulge his new passion for collecting insects. Wallace persuaded his brother John to join him in starting another architecture and civil engineering firm. It carried out projects including the design of a building for the Neath Mechanics' Institute, founded in 1843. William Jevons, the founder of that institute, was impressed by Wallace and persuaded him to give lectures there on science and engineering. In the autumn of 1846, John and he purchased a cottage near Neath, where they lived with their mother and sister Fanny. During this period, he exchanged letters with Bates about books. He had re-read Darwin's Journal, and said "As the Journal of a scientific traveller, it is second only to Humboldt's 'Personal Narrative'—as a work of general interest, perhaps superior to it." In 1845, Wallace had been convinced by Robert Chambers's anonymously published treatise on progressive development, Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, and found Bates to be more critical. + +Exploration and study of the natural world +Inspired by the chronicles of earlier and contemporary travelling naturalists, Wallace decided to travel abroad. He later wrote that Darwin's Journal and Humboldt's Personal Narrative were "the two works to whose inspiration I owe my determination to visit the tropics as a collector." After reading A voyage up the river Amazon, by William Henry Edwards, Wallace and Bates estimated that by collecting and selling natural history specimens such as birds and insects they could meet their costs, with the prospect of good profits. They therefore engaged as their agent Samuel Stevens who would advertise and arrange sales to institutions and private collectors, for a commission of 20% on sales plus 5% on despatching freight and remittances of money. + +In 1848, Wallace and Bates left for Brazil aboard the Mischief. They intended to collect insects and other animal specimens in the Amazon Rainforest for their private collections, selling the duplicates to museums and collectors back in Britain to fund the trip. Wallace hoped to gather evidence of the transmutation of species. Bates and he spent most of their first year collecting near Belém, then explored inland separately, occasionally meeting to discuss their findings. In 1849, they were briefly joined by another young explorer, the botanist Richard Spruce, along with Wallace's younger brother Herbert. Herbert soon left (dying two years later from yellow fever), but Spruce, like Bates, would spend over ten years collecting in South America. Wallace spent four years charting the Rio Negro, collecting specimens and making notes on the peoples and languages he encountered as well as the geography, flora, and fauna. + +On 12 July 1852, Wallace embarked for the UK on the brig Helen. After 25 days at sea, the ship's cargo caught fire, and the crew was forced to abandon ship. All the specimens Wallace had on the ship, mostly collected during the last, and most interesting, two years of his trip, were lost. He managed to save a few notes and pencil sketches, but little else. Wallace and the crew spent ten days in an open boat before being picked up by the brig Jordeson, which was sailing from Cuba to London. The Jordeson provisions were strained by the unexpected passengers, but after a difficult passage on short rations, the ship reached its destination on 1 October 1852. + +The lost collection had been insured for £200 by Stevens. After his return to Britain, Wallace spent 18 months in London living on the insurance payment, and selling a few specimens that had been shipped home. During this period, despite having lost almost all the notes from his South American expedition, he wrote six academic papers (including "On the Monkeys of the Amazon") and two books, Palm Trees of the Amazon and Their Uses and Travels on the Amazon. At the same time, he made connections with several other British naturalists. + +Bates and others were collecting in the Amazon area, Wallace was more interested in new opportunities in the Malay Archipelago as demonstrated by the travel writings of Ida Laura Pfeiffer, and valuable insect specimens she collected which Stevens sold as her agent. In March 1853 Wallace wrote to Sir James Brooke, Rajah of Sarawak, who was then in London, and who arranged assistance in Sarawak for Wallace. In June Wallace wrote to Murchison at the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) for support, proposing to again fund his exploring entirely from sale of duplicate collections. He later recalled that, while researching in the insect-room of the British Museum, he was introduced to Darwin and they "had a few minutes' conversation." After presenting a paper and a large map of the Rio Negro to the RGS, Wallace was elected a Fellow of the society on 27 February 1854. Free passage arranged on Royal Navy ships was stalled by the Crimean War, but eventually the RGS funded first class travel by P&O steamships. Wallace and a young assistant, Charles Allen, embarked at Southampton on 4 March 1854. After the overland journey to Suez and another change of ship at Ceylon they disembarked at Singapore on 19 April 1854. + +From 1854 to 1862, Wallace travelled around the islands of the Malay Archipelago or East Indies (now Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia). His main objective "was to obtain specimens of natural history, both for my private collection and to supply duplicates to museums and amateurs". In addition to Allen, he "generally employed one or two, and sometimes three Malay servants" as assistants, and paid large numbers of local people at various places to bring specimens. His total was 125,660 specimens, most of which were insects including more than 83,000 beetles, Several thousand of the specimens represented species new to science, Overall, more than thirty men worked for him at some stage as full-time paid collectors. He also hired guides, porters, cooks and boat crews, so well over 100 individuals worked for him. + +After collecting expeditions to Bukit Timah Hill in Singapore, and to Malacca, Wallace and Allen reached Sarawak in October 1854, and were welcomed at Kuching by Sir James Brooke's (then) heir Captain John Brooke. Wallace hired a Malay named Ali as a general servant and cook, and spent the early 1855 wet season in a small Dyak house at the foot of Mount Santubong, overlooking a branch outlet of the Sarawak River. He read about species distribution, and wrote his "Sarawak Paper". In March he moved to the Simunjon coal-works, operated by the Borneo Company under Ludvig Verner Helms, and supplemented collecting by paying workers a cent for each insect. A specimen of the previously unknown gliding tree frog Rhacophorus nigropalmatus (now called Wallace's flying frog) came from a Chinese workman who told Wallace that it glided down. Local people also assisted with shooting orangutans. They spent time with Sir James, then in February 1856 Allen chose to stay on with the missionaries at Kuching. + +On reaching Singapore in May 1856, Wallace hired a bird-skinner. With Ali as cook, they collected for two days on Bali, then from 17 June to 30 August on Lombok. In December 1856, Darwin had written to contacts worldwide to get specimens for his continuing research into variation under domestication. At Lombok's port city, Ampanam, Wallace wrote telling his agent, Stevens, about specimens shipped, including a domestic duck variety "for Mr. Darwin & he would perhaps also like the jungle cock, which is often domesticated here & is doubtless one of the originals of the domestic breed of poultry." +In the same letter, Wallace said birds from Bali and Lombok, divided by a narrow strait, "belong to two quite distinct zoological provinces, of which they form the extreme limits", Java, Borneo, Sumatra and Malacca, and Australia and the Moluccas. Stevens arranged publication of relevant paragraphs in the January 1857 issue of The Zoologist. After further investigation, the zoogeographical boundary eventually became known as the Wallace Line. + +Ali became Wallace's most trusted assistant, a skilled collector and researcher. Wallace collected and preserved the delicate insect specimens, while most of the birds were collected and prepared by his assistants; of those, Ali collected and prepared around 5000. +While exploring the archipelago, Wallace refined his thoughts about evolution, and had his famous insight on natural selection. In 1858 he sent an article outlining his theory to Darwin; it was published, along with a description of Darwin's theory, that same year. + +Accounts of Wallace's studies and adventures were eventually published in 1869 as The Malay Archipelago. This became one of the most popular books of scientific exploration of the 19th century, and has never been out of print. It was praised by scientists such as Darwin (to whom the book was dedicated), by Lyell, and by non-scientists such as the novelist Joseph Conrad. Conrad called the book his "favorite bedside companion" and used information from it for several of his novels, especially Lord Jim. +A set of 80 bird skeletons Wallace collected in Indonesia are held in the Cambridge University Museum of Zoology, and described as of exceptional historical significance. + +Return to England, marriage and children + +In 1862, Wallace returned to England, where he moved in with his sister Fanny Sims and her husband Thomas. While recovering from his travels, Wallace organised his collections and gave numerous lectures about his adventures and discoveries to scientific societies such as the Zoological Society of London. Later that year, he visited Darwin at Down House, and became friendly with both Lyell and the philosopher Herbert Spencer. During the 1860s, Wallace wrote papers and gave lectures defending natural selection. He corresponded with Darwin about topics including sexual selection, warning coloration, and the possible effect of natural selection on hybridisation and the divergence of species. In 1865, he began investigating spiritualism. + +After a year of courtship, Wallace became engaged in 1864 to a young woman whom, in his autobiography, he would only identify as Miss L. Miss L. was the daughter of Lewis Leslie who played chess with Wallace, but to Wallace's great dismay, she broke off the engagement. In 1866, Wallace married Annie Mitten. Wallace had been introduced to Mitten through the botanist Richard Spruce, who had befriended Wallace in Brazil and who was a friend of Annie Mitten's father, William Mitten, an expert on mosses. In 1872, Wallace built the Dell, a house of concrete, on land he leased in Grays in Essex, where he lived until 1876. The Wallaces had three children: Herbert (1867–1874), Violet (1869–1945), and William (1871–1951). + +Financial struggles + +In the late 1860s and 1870s, Wallace was very concerned about the financial security of his family. While he was in the Malay Archipelago, the sale of specimens had brought in a considerable amount of money, which had been carefully invested by the agent who sold the specimens for Wallace. On his return to the UK, Wallace made a series of bad investments in railways and mines that squandered most of the money, and he found himself badly in need of the proceeds from the publication of The Malay Archipelago. + +Despite assistance from his friends, he was never able to secure a permanent salaried position such as a curatorship in a museum. To remain financially solvent, Wallace worked grading government examinations, wrote 25 papers for publication between 1872 and 1876 for various modest sums, and was paid by Lyell and Darwin to help edit some of their works. + +In 1876, Wallace needed a £500 advance from the publisher of The Geographical Distribution of Animals to avoid having to sell some of his personal property. Darwin was very aware of Wallace's financial difficulties and lobbied long and hard to get Wallace awarded a government pension for his lifetime contributions to science. When the £200 annual pension was awarded in 1881, it helped to stabilise Wallace's financial position by supplementing the income from his writings. + +Social activism + +In 1881, Wallace was elected as the first president of the newly formed Land Nationalisation Society. In the next year, he published a book, Land Nationalisation; Its Necessity and Its Aims, on the subject. He criticised the UK's free trade policies for the negative impact they had on working-class people. In 1889, Wallace read Looking Backward by Edward Bellamy and declared himself a socialist, despite his earlier foray as a speculative investor. After reading Progress and Poverty, the bestselling book by the progressive land reformist Henry George, Wallace described it as "Undoubtedly the most remarkable and important book of the present century." + +Wallace opposed eugenics, an idea supported by other prominent 19th-century evolutionary thinkers, on the grounds that contemporary society was too corrupt and unjust to allow any reasonable determination of who was fit or unfit. In his 1890 article "Human Selection" he wrote, "Those who succeed in the race for wealth are by no means the best or the most intelligent ..." He said, "The world does not want the eugenicist to set it straight," "Give the people good conditions, improve their environment, and all will tend towards the highest type. Eugenics is simply the meddlesome interference of an arrogant, scientific priestcraft." + +In 1898, Wallace wrote a paper advocating a pure paper money system, not backed by silver or gold, which impressed the economist Irving Fisher so much that he dedicated his 1920 book Stabilizing the Dollar to Wallace. + +Wallace wrote on other social and political topics, including in support of women's suffrage and repeatedly on the dangers and wastefulness of militarism. In an 1899 essay, he called for popular opinion to be rallied against warfare by showing people "that all modern wars are dynastic; that they are caused by the ambition, the interests, the jealousies, and the insatiable greed of power of their rulers, or of the great mercantile and financial classes which have power and influence over their rulers; and that the results of war are never good for the people, who yet bear all its burthens (burdens)". In a letter published by the Daily Mail in 1909, with aviation in its infancy, he advocated an international treaty to ban the military use of aircraft, arguing against the idea "that this new horror is 'inevitable', and that all we can do is to be sure and be in the front rank of the aerial assassins—for surely no other term can so fitly describe the dropping of, say, ten thousand bombs at midnight into an enemy's capital from an invisible flight of airships." + +In 1898, Wallace published The Wonderful Century: Its Successes and Its Failures, about developments in the 19th century. The first part of the book covered the major scientific and technical advances of the century; the second part covered what Wallace considered to be its social failures including the destruction and waste of wars and arms races, the rise of the urban poor and the dangerous conditions in which they lived and worked, a harsh criminal justice system that failed to reform criminals, abuses in a mental health system based on privately owned sanatoriums, the environmental damage caused by capitalism, and the evils of European colonialism. Wallace continued his social activism for the rest of his life, publishing the book The Revolt of Democracy just weeks before his death. + +Further scientific work + +In 1880, he published Island Life as a sequel to The Geographic Distribution of Animals. In November 1886, Wallace began a ten-month trip to the United States to give a series of popular lectures. Most of the lectures were on Darwinism (evolution through natural selection), but he also gave speeches on biogeography, spiritualism, and socio-economic reform. During the trip, he was reunited with his brother John who had emigrated to California years before. He spent a week in Colorado, with the American botanist Alice Eastwood as his guide, exploring the flora of the Rocky Mountains and gathering evidence that would lead him to a theory on how glaciation might explain certain commonalities between the mountain flora of Europe, Asia and North America, which he published in 1891 in the paper "English and American Flowers". He met many other prominent American naturalists and viewed their collections. His 1889 book Darwinism used information he collected on his American trip and information he had compiled for the lectures. + +Death + +On 7 November 1913, Wallace died at home, aged 90, in the country house he called Old Orchard, which he had built a decade earlier. His death was widely reported in the press. The New York Times called him "the last of the giants [belonging] to that wonderful group of intellectuals composed of Darwin, Huxley, Spencer, Lyell, Owen, and other scientists, whose daring investigations revolutionized and evolutionized the thought of the century". Another commentator in the same edition said: "No apology need be made for the few literary or scientific follies of the author of that great book on the 'Malay Archipelago'." + +Some of Wallace's friends suggested that he be buried in Westminster Abbey, but his wife followed his wishes and had him buried in the small cemetery at Broadstone, Dorset. Several prominent British scientists formed a committee to have a medallion of Wallace placed in Westminster Abbey near where Darwin had been buried. The medallion was unveiled on 1 November 1915. + +Theory of evolution + +Early evolutionary thinking +Wallace began his career as a travelling naturalist who already believed in the transmutation of species. The concept had been advocated by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Erasmus Darwin, and Robert Grant, among others. It was widely discussed, but not generally accepted by leading naturalists, and was considered to have radical, even revolutionary connotations. Prominent anatomists and geologists such as Georges Cuvier, Richard Owen, Adam Sedgwick, and Lyell attacked transmutation vigorously. It has been suggested that Wallace accepted the idea of the transmutation of species in part because he was always inclined to favour radical ideas in politics, religion and science, and because he was unusually open to marginal, even fringe, ideas in science. + +Wallace was profoundly influenced by Robert Chambers's Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, a controversial work of popular science published anonymously in 1844. It advocated an evolutionary origin for the solar system, the earth, and living things. Wallace wrote to Henry Bates in 1845 describing it as "an ingenious hypothesis strongly supported by some striking facts and analogies, but which remains to be proven by ... more research". In 1847, he wrote to Bates that he would "like to take some one family [of beetles] to study thoroughly, ... with a view to the theory of the origin of species." + +Wallace planned fieldwork to test the evolutionary hypothesis that closely related species should inhabit neighbouring territories. During his work in the Amazon basin, he came to realise that geographical barriers—such as the Amazon and its major tributaries—often separated the ranges of closely allied species. He included these observations in his 1853 paper "On the Monkeys of the Amazon". Near the end of the paper he asked the question, "Are very closely allied species ever separated by a wide interval of country?" + +In February 1855, while working in Sarawak on the island of Borneo, Wallace wrote "On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species". The paper was published in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History in September 1855. In this paper, he discussed observations of the geographic and geologic distribution of both living and fossil species, a field that became biogeography. His conclusion that "Every species has come into existence coincident both in space and time with a closely allied species" has come to be known as the "Sarawak Law", answering his own question in his paper on the monkeys of the Amazon basin. Although it does not mention possible mechanisms for evolution, this paper foreshadowed the momentous paper he would write three years later. + +The paper challenged Lyell's belief that species were immutable. Although Darwin had written to him in 1842 expressing support for transmutation, Lyell had continued to be strongly opposed to the idea. Around the start of 1856, he told Darwin about Wallace's paper, as did Edward Blyth who thought it "Good! Upon the whole! ... Wallace has, I think put the matter well; and according to his theory the various domestic races of animals have been fairly developed into species." Despite this hint, Darwin mistook Wallace's conclusion for the progressive creationism of the time, writing that it was "nothing very new ... Uses my simile of tree [but] it seems all creation with him." Lyell was more impressed, and opened a notebook on species in which he grappled with the consequences, particularly for human ancestry. Darwin had already shown his theory to their mutual friend Joseph Hooker and now, for the first time spelt out the full details of natural selection to Lyell. Although Lyell could not agree, he urged Darwin to publish to establish priority. Darwin demurred at first, but began writing up a species sketch of his continuing work in May 1856. + +Natural selection and Darwin + +By February 1858, Wallace had been convinced by his biogeographical research in the Malay Archipelago that evolution was real. He later wrote in his autobiography that the problem was of how species change from one well-marked form to another. He stated that it was while he was in bed with a fever that he thought about Malthus's idea of positive checks on human population, and had the idea of natural selection. His autobiography says that he was on the island of Ternate at the time; but the evidence of his journal suggests that he was in fact on the island of Gilolo. From 1858 to 1861, he rented a house on Ternate from the Dutchman Maarten Dirk van Renesse van Duivenbode, which he used as a base for expeditions to other islands such as Gilolo. + +Wallace describes how he discovered natural selection as follows: + +Wallace had once briefly met Darwin, and was one of the correspondents whose observations Darwin used to support his own theories. Although Wallace's first letter to Darwin has been lost, Wallace carefully kept the letters he received. In the first letter, dated 1 May 1857, Darwin commented that Wallace's letter of 10 October which he had recently received, as well as Wallace's paper "On the Law which has regulated the Introduction of New Species" of 1855, showed that they thought alike, with similar conclusions, and said that he was preparing his own work for publication in about two years time. The second letter, dated 22 December 1857, said how glad he was that Wallace was theorising about distribution, adding that "without speculation there is no good and original observation" but commented that "I believe I go much further than you". Wallace believed this and sent Darwin his February 1858 essay, "On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely From the Original Type", asking Darwin to review it and pass it to Charles Lyell if he thought it worthwhile. Although Wallace had sent several articles for journal publication during his travels through the Malay archipelago, the Ternate essay was in a private letter. Darwin received the essay on 18 June 1858. Although the essay did not use Darwin's term "natural selection", it did outline the mechanics of an evolutionary divergence of species from similar ones due to environmental pressures. In this sense, it was very similar to the theory that Darwin had worked on for 20 years, but had yet to publish. Darwin sent the manuscript to Charles Lyell with a letter saying "he could not have made a better short abstract! Even his terms now stand as heads of my chapters ... he does not say he wishes me to publish, but I shall, of course, at once write and offer to send to any journal." Distraught about the illness of his baby son, Darwin put the problem to Charles Lyell and Joseph Hooker, who decided to publish the essay in a joint presentation together with unpublished writings which highlighted Darwin's priority. Wallace's essay was presented to the Linnean Society of London on 1 July 1858, along with excerpts from an essay which Darwin had disclosed privately to Hooker in 1847 and a letter Darwin had written to Asa Gray in 1857. + +Communication with Wallace in the far-off Malay Archipelago involved months of delay, so he was not part of this rapid publication. Wallace accepted the arrangement after the fact, happy that he had been included at all, and never expressed bitterness in public or in private. Darwin's social and scientific status was far greater than Wallace's, and it was unlikely that, without Darwin, Wallace's views on evolution would have been taken seriously. Lyell and Hooker's arrangement relegated Wallace to the position of co-discoverer, and he was not the social equal of Darwin or the other prominent British natural scientists. All the same, the joint reading of their papers on natural selection associated Wallace with the more famous Darwin. This, combined with Darwin's (as well as Hooker's and Lyell's) advocacy on his behalf, would give Wallace greater access to the highest levels of the scientific community. The reaction to the reading was muted, with the president of the Linnean Society remarking in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any striking discoveries; but, with Darwin's publication of On the Origin of Species later in 1859, its significance became apparent. When Wallace returned to the UK, he met Darwin. Although some of Wallace's opinions in the ensuing years would test Darwin's patience, they remained on friendly terms for the rest of Darwin's life. + +Over the years, a few people have questioned this version of events. In the early 1980s, two books, one by Arnold Brackman and another by John Langdon Brooks, suggested not only that there had been a conspiracy to rob Wallace of his proper credit, but that Darwin had actually stolen a key idea from Wallace to finish his own theory. These claims have been examined and found unconvincing by a number of scholars. Shipping schedules show that, contrary to these accusations, Wallace's letter could not have been delivered earlier than the date shown in Darwin's letter to Lyell. + +Defence of Darwin and his ideas + +After Wallace returned to England in 1862, he became one of the staunchest defenders of Darwin's On the Origin of Species. In an incident in 1863 that particularly pleased Darwin, Wallace published the short paper "Remarks on the Rev. S. Haughton's Paper on the Bee's Cell, And on the Origin of Species". This rebutted a paper by a professor of geology at the University of Dublin that had sharply criticised Darwin's comments in the Origin on how hexagonal honey bee cells could have evolved through natural selection. +An even longer defence was a 1867 article in the Quarterly Journal of Science called "Creation by Law". It reviewed George Campbell, the 8th Duke of Argyll's book, The Reign of Law, which aimed to refute natural selection. +After an 1870 meeting of the British Science Association, Wallace wrote to Darwin complaining that there were "no opponents left who know anything of natural history, so that there are none of the good discussions we used to have". + +Differences between Darwin and Wallace + +Historians of science have noted that, while Darwin considered the ideas in Wallace's paper to be essentially the same as his own, there were differences. Darwin emphasised competition between individuals of the same species to survive and reproduce, whereas Wallace emphasised environmental pressures on varieties and species forcing them to become adapted to their local conditions, leading populations in different locations to diverge. The historian of science Peter J. Bowler has suggested that in the paper he mailed to Darwin, Wallace might have been discussing group selection. Against this, Malcolm Kottler showed that Wallace was indeed discussing individual variation and selection. + +Others have noted that Wallace appeared to have envisioned natural selection as a kind of feedback mechanism that kept species and varieties adapted to their environment (now called 'stabilizing", as opposed to 'directional' selection). They point to a largely overlooked passage of Wallace's famous 1858 paper, in which he likened "this principle ... [to] the centrifugal governor of the steam engine, which checks and corrects any irregularities". The cybernetician and anthropologist Gregory Bateson observed in the 1970s that, although writing it only as an example, Wallace had "probably said the most powerful thing that'd been said in the 19th Century". Bateson revisited the topic in his 1979 book Mind and Nature: A Necessary Unity, and other scholars have continued to explore the connection between natural selection and systems theory. + +Warning coloration and sexual selection + +Warning coloration was one of Wallace's contributions to the evolutionary biology of animal coloration. In 1867, Darwin wrote to Wallace about a problem in explaining how some caterpillars could have evolved conspicuous colour schemes. Darwin had come to believe that many conspicuous animal colour schemes were due to sexual selection, but he saw that this could not apply to caterpillars. Wallace responded that he and Bates had observed that many of the most spectacular butterflies had a peculiar odour and taste, and that he had been told by John Jenner Weir that birds would not eat a certain kind of common white moth because they found it unpalatable. Since the moth was as conspicuous at dusk as a coloured caterpillar in daylight, it seemed likely that the conspicuous colours served as a warning to predators and thus could have evolved through natural selection. Darwin was impressed by the idea. At a later meeting of the Entomological Society, Wallace asked for any evidence anyone might have on the topic. In 1869, Weir published data from experiments and observations involving brightly coloured caterpillars that supported Wallace's idea. Wallace attributed less importance than Darwin to sexual selection. In his 1878 book Tropical Nature and Other Essays, he wrote extensively about the coloration of animals and plants, and proposed alternative explanations for a number of cases Darwin had attributed to sexual selection. He revisited the topic at length in his 1889 book Darwinism. In 1890, he wrote a critical review in Nature of his friend Edward Bagnall Poulton's The Colours of Animals which supported Darwin on sexual selection, attacking especially Poulton's claims on the "aesthetic preferences of the insect world". + +Wallace effect + +In 1889, Wallace wrote the book Darwinism, which explained and defended natural selection. In it, he proposed the hypothesis that natural selection could drive the reproductive isolation of two varieties by encouraging the development of barriers against hybridisation. Thus it might contribute to the development of new species. He suggested the following scenario: When two populations of a species had diverged beyond a certain point, each adapted to particular conditions, hybrid offspring would be less adapted than either parent form and so natural selection would tend to eliminate the hybrids. Furthermore, under such conditions, natural selection would favour the development of barriers to hybridisation, as individuals that avoided hybrid matings would tend to have more fit offspring, and thus contribute to the reproductive isolation of the two incipient species. This idea came to be known as the Wallace effect, later called reinforcement. Wallace had suggested to Darwin that natural selection could play a role in preventing hybridisation in private correspondence as early as 1868, but had not worked it out to this level of detail. It continues to be a topic of research in evolutionary biology today, with both computer simulation and empirical results supporting its validity. + +Application of theory to humans, and role of teleology in evolution + +In 1864, Wallace published a paper, "The Origin of Human Races and the Antiquity of Man Deduced from the Theory of 'Natural Selection, applying the theory to humankind. Darwin had not yet publicly addressed the subject, although Thomas Huxley had in Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature. Wallace explained the apparent stability of the human stock by pointing to the vast gap in cranial capacities between humans and the great apes. Unlike some other Darwinists, including Darwin himself, he did not "regard modern primitives as almost filling the gap between man and ape". He saw the evolution of humans in two stages: achieving a bipedal posture that freed the hands to carry out the dictates of the brain, and the "recognition of the human brain as a totally new factor in the history of life". Wallace seems to have been the first evolutionist to see that the human brain effectively made further specialisation of the body unnecessary. Wallace wrote the paper for the Anthropological Society of London to address the debate between the supporters of monogenism, the belief that all human races shared a common ancestor and were one species, and the supporters of polygenism, who held that different races had separate origins and were different species. Wallace's anthropological observations of Native Americans in the Amazon, and especially his time living among the Dayak people of Borneo, had convinced him that human beings were a single species with a common ancestor. He still felt that natural selection might have continued to act on mental faculties after the development of the different races; and he did not dispute the nearly universal view among European anthropologists of the time that Europeans were intellectually superior to other races. According to political scientist Adam Jones, "Wallace found little difficulty in reconciling the extermination of native peoples with his progressive political views". In 1864, in the aforementioned paper, he stated "It is the same great law of the preservation of favored races in the struggle for life, which leads to the inevitable extinction of all those low and mentally undeveloped populations with which Europeans come in contact." He argued that the natives die out due to an unequal struggle. + +Shortly afterwards, Wallace became a spiritualist. At about the same time, he began to maintain that natural selection could not account for mathematical, artistic, or musical genius, metaphysical musings, or wit and humour. He stated that something in "the unseen universe of Spirit" had interceded at least three times in history: the creation of life from inorganic matter; the introduction of consciousness in the higher animals; and the generation of the higher mental faculties in humankind. He believed that the raison d'être of the universe was the development of the human spirit. + +While some historians have concluded that Wallace's belief that natural selection was insufficient to explain the development of consciousness and the higher functions of the human mind was directly caused by his adoption of spiritualism, other scholars have disagreed, and some maintain that Wallace never believed natural selection applied to those areas. Reaction to Wallace's ideas on this topic among leading naturalists at the time varied. Lyell endorsed Wallace's views on human evolution rather than Darwin's. Wallace's belief that human consciousness could not be entirely a product of purely material causes was shared by a number of prominent intellectuals in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. All the same, many, including Huxley, Hooker, and Darwin himself, were critical of Wallace's views. + +As the historian of science and sceptic Michael Shermer has stated, Wallace's views in this area were at odds with two major tenets of the emerging Darwinian philosophy. These were that evolution was not teleological (purpose-driven), and that it was not anthropocentric (human-centred). Much later in his life Wallace returned to these themes, that evolution suggested that the universe might have a purpose, and that certain aspects of living organisms might not be explainable in terms of purely materialistic processes. He set out his ideas in a 1909 magazine article entitled The World of Life, later expanded into a book of the same name. Shermer commented that this anticipated ideas about design in nature and directed evolution that would arise from religious traditions throughout the 20th century. + +Assessment of Wallace's role in history of evolutionary theory + +In many accounts of the development of evolutionary theory, Wallace is mentioned only in passing as simply being the stimulus to the publication of Darwin's own theory. In reality, Wallace developed his own distinct evolutionary views which diverged from Darwin's, and was considered by many (especially Darwin) to be a leading thinker on evolution in his day, whose ideas could not be ignored. One historian of science has pointed out that, through both private correspondence and published works, Darwin and Wallace exchanged knowledge and stimulated each other's ideas and theories over an extended period. Wallace is the most-cited naturalist in Darwin's Descent of Man, occasionally in strong disagreement. Darwin and Wallace agreed on the importance of natural selection, and some of the factors responsible for it: competition between species and geographical isolation. But Wallace believed that evolution had a purpose ("teleology") in maintaining species' fitness to their environment, whereas Darwin hesitated to attribute any purpose to a random natural process. Scientific discoveries since the 19th century support Darwin's viewpoint, by identifying additional mechanisms and triggers such as mutations triggered by environmental radiation or mutagenic chemicals. Wallace remained an ardent defender of natural selection for the rest of his life. By the 1880s, evolution was widely accepted in scientific circles, but natural selection less so. Wallace's 1889 Darwinism was a response to the scientific critics of natural selection. Of all Wallace's books, it is the most cited by scholarly publications. + +Other scientific contributions + +Biogeography and ecology + +In 1872, at the urging of many of his friends, including Darwin, Philip Sclater, and Alfred Newton, Wallace began research for a general review of the geographic distribution of animals. Initial progress was slow, in part because classification systems for many types of animals were in flux. He resumed the work in earnest in 1874 after the publication of a number of new works on classification. Extending the system developed by Sclater for birds—which divided the earth into six separate geographic regions for describing species distribution—to cover mammals, reptiles and insects as well, Wallace created the basis for the zoogeographic regions in use today. He discussed the factors then known to influence the current and past geographic distribution of animals within each geographic region. + +These factors included the effects of the appearance and disappearance of land bridges (such as the one currently connecting North America and South America) and the effects of periods of increased glaciation. He provided maps showing factors, such as elevation of mountains, depths of oceans, and the character of regional vegetation, that affected the distribution of animals. He summarised all the known families and genera of the higher animals and listed their known geographic distributions. The text was organised so that it would be easy for a traveller to learn what animals could be found in a particular location. The resulting two-volume work, The Geographical Distribution of Animals, was published in 1876 and served as the definitive text on zoogeography for the next 80 years. + +The book included evidence from the fossil record to discuss the processes of evolution and migration that had led to the geographical distribution of modern species. For example, he discussed how fossil evidence showed that tapirs had originated in the Northern Hemisphere, migrating between North America and Eurasia and then, much more recently, to South America after which the northern species became extinct, leaving the modern distribution of two isolated groups of tapir species in South America and Southeast Asia. Wallace was very aware of, and interested in, the mass extinction of megafauna in the late Pleistocene. In The Geographical Distribution of Animals (1876) he wrote, "We live in a zoologically impoverished world, from which all the hugest, and fiercest, and strangest forms have recently disappeared". He added that he believed the most likely cause for the rapid extinctions was glaciation, but by the time he wrote World of Life (1911) he had come to believe those extinctions were "due to man's agency". + +In 1880, Wallace published the book Island Life as a sequel to The Geographical Distribution of Animals. It surveyed the distribution of both animal and plant species on islands. Wallace classified islands into oceanic and two types of continental islands. Oceanic islands, in his view, such as the Galapagos and Hawaiian Islands (then called Sandwich Islands) formed in mid-ocean and never part of any large continent. Such islands were characterised by a complete lack of terrestrial mammals and amphibians, and their inhabitants (except migratory birds and species introduced by humans) were typically the result of accidental colonisation and subsequent evolution. Continental islands, in his scheme, were divided into those that were recently separated from a continent (like Britain) and those much less recently (like Madagascar). Wallace discussed how that difference affected flora and fauna. He discussed how isolation affected evolution and how that could result in the preservation of classes of animals, such as the lemurs of Madagascar that were remnants of once widespread continental faunas. He extensively discussed how changes of climate, particularly periods of increased glaciation, may have affected the distribution of flora and fauna on some islands, and the first portion of the book discusses possible causes of these great ice ages. Island Life was considered a very important work at the time of its publication. It was discussed extensively in scientific circles both in published reviews and in private correspondence. + +Environmentalism +Wallace's extensive work in biogeography made him aware of the impact of human activities on the natural world. In Tropical Nature and Other Essays (1878), he warned about the dangers of deforestation and soil erosion, especially in tropical climates prone to heavy rainfall. Noting the complex interactions between vegetation and climate, he warned that the extensive clearing of rainforest for coffee cultivation in Ceylon (now called Sri Lanka) and India would adversely impact the climate in those countries and lead to their impoverishment due to soil erosion. In Island Life, Wallace again mentioned deforestation and invasive species. On the impact of European colonisation on the island of Saint Helena, he wrote that the island was "now so barren and forbidding that some persons find it difficult to believe that it was once all green and fertile". He explained that the soil was protected by the island's vegetation; once that was destroyed, the soil was washed off the steep slopes by heavy tropical rain, leaving "bare rock or sterile clay". He attributed the "irreparable destruction" to feral goats, introduced in 1513. The island's forests were further damaged by the "reckless waste" of the East India Company from 1651, which used the bark of valuable redwood and ebony trees for tanning, leaving the wood to rot unused. Wallace's comments on environment grew more urgent later in his career. In The World of Life (1911) he wrote that people should view nature "as invested with a certain sanctity, to be used by us but not abused, and never to be recklessly destroyed or defaced." + +Astrobiology +Wallace's 1904 book Man's Place in the Universe was the first serious attempt by a biologist to evaluate the likelihood of life on other planets. He concluded that the Earth was the only planet in the Solar System that could possibly support life, mainly because it was the only one in which water could exist in the liquid phase. His treatment of Mars in this book was brief, and in 1907, Wallace returned to the subject with the book Is Mars Habitable? to criticise the claims made by the American astronomer Percival Lowell that there were Martian canals built by intelligent beings. Wallace did months of research, consulted various experts, and produced his own scientific analysis of the Martian climate and atmospheric conditions. He pointed out that spectroscopic analysis had shown no signs of water vapour in the Martian atmosphere, that Lowell's analysis of Mars's climate badly overestimated the surface temperature, and that low atmospheric pressure would make liquid water, let alone a planet-girding irrigation system, impossible. Richard Milner comments that Wallace "effectively debunked Lowell's illusionary network of Martian canals." Wallace became interested in the topic because his anthropocentric philosophy inclined him to believe that man would be unique in the universe. + +Other activities + +Spiritualism + +Wallace was an enthusiast of phrenology. Early in his career, he experimented with hypnosis, then known as mesmerism, managing to hypnotise some of his students in Leicester. When he began these experiments, the topic was very controversial: early experimenters, such as John Elliotson, had been harshly criticised by the medical and scientific establishment. Wallace drew a connection between his experiences with mesmerism and spiritualism, arguing that one should not deny observations on "a priori grounds of absurdity or impossibility". + +Wallace began investigating spiritualism in the summer of 1865, possibly at the urging of his older sister Fanny Sims. After reviewing the literature and attempting to test what he witnessed at séances, he came to believe in it. For the rest of his life, he remained convinced that at least some séance phenomena were genuine, despite accusations of fraud and evidence of trickery. One biographer suggested that the emotional shock when his first fiancée broke their engagement contributed to his receptiveness to spiritualism. Other scholars have emphasised his desire to find scientific explanations for all phenomena. In 1874, Wallace visited the spirit photographer Frederick Hudson. He declared that a photograph of him with his deceased mother was genuine. Others reached a different conclusion: Hudson's photographs had previously been exposed as fraudulent in 1872. + +Wallace's public advocacy of spiritualism and his repeated defence of spiritualist mediums against allegations of fraud in the 1870s damaged his scientific reputation. In 1875 he published the evidence he believed proved his position in On Miracles and Modern Spiritualism. His attitude permanently strained his relationships with previously friendly scientists such as Henry Bates, Thomas Huxley, and even Darwin. Others, such as the physiologist William Benjamin Carpenter and zoologist E. Ray Lankester became publicly hostile to Wallace over the issue. Wallace was heavily criticised by the press; The Lancet was particularly harsh. When, in 1879, Darwin first tried to rally support among naturalists to get a civil pension awarded to Wallace, Joseph Hooker responded that "Wallace has lost caste considerably, not only by his adhesion to Spiritualism, but by the fact of his having deliberately and against the whole voice of the committee of his section of the British Association, brought about a discussion on Spiritualism at one of its sectional meetings ... This he is said to have done in an underhanded manner, and I well remember the indignation it gave rise to in the B.A. Council." Hooker eventually relented and agreed to support the pension request. + +Flat Earth wager + +In 1870, a flat-Earth proponent named John Hampden offered a £500 wager (roughly ) in a magazine advertisement to anyone who could demonstrate a convex curvature in a body of water such as a river, canal, or lake. Wallace, intrigued by the challenge and short of money at the time, designed an experiment in which he set up two objects along a stretch of canal. Both objects were at the same height above the water, and he mounted a telescope on a bridge at the same height above the water as well. When seen through the telescope, one object appeared higher than the other, showing the curvature of the Earth. The judge for the wager, the editor of Field magazine, declared Wallace the winner, but Hampden refused to accept the result. He sued Wallace and launched a campaign, which persisted for several years, of writing letters to various publications and to organisations of which Wallace was a member denouncing him as a swindler and a thief. Wallace won multiple libel suits against Hampden, but the resulting litigation cost Wallace more than the amount of the wager, and the controversy frustrated him for years. + +Anti-vaccination campaign +In the early 1880s, Wallace joined the debate over mandatory smallpox vaccination. Wallace originally saw the issue as a matter of personal liberty; but, after studying statistics provided by anti-vaccination activists, he began to question the efficacy of vaccination. At the time, the germ theory of disease was new and far from universally accepted. Moreover, no one knew enough about the human immune system to understand why vaccination worked. Wallace discovered instances where supporters of vaccination had used questionable, in a few cases completely false, statistics to support their arguments. Always suspicious of authority, Wallace suspected that physicians had a vested interest in promoting vaccination, and became convinced that reductions in the incidence of smallpox that had been attributed to vaccination were due to better hygiene and improvements in public sanitation. + +Another factor in Wallace's thinking was his belief that, because of the action of natural selection, organisms were in a state of balance with their environment, and that everything in nature, served a useful purpose. Wallace pointed out that vaccination, which at the time was often unsanitary, could be dangerous. + +In 1890, Wallace gave evidence to a Royal Commission investigating the controversy. It found errors in his testimony, including some questionable statistics. The Lancet averred that Wallace and other activists were being selective in their choice of statistics. The commission found that smallpox vaccination was effective and should remain compulsory, though they recommended some changes in procedures to improve safety, and that the penalties for people who refused to comply be made less severe. Years later, in 1898, Wallace wrote a pamphlet, Vaccination a Delusion; Its Penal Enforcement a Crime, attacking the commission's findings. It, in turn, was attacked by The Lancet, which stated that it repeated many of the same errors as his evidence given to the commission. + +Legacy and historical perception + +Honours + +As a result of his writing, Wallace became a well-known figure both as a scientist and as a social activist, and was often sought out for his views. He became president of the anthropology section of the British Association in 1866, and of the Entomological Society of London in 1870. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1873. The British Association elected him as head of its biology section in 1876. He was elected to the Royal Society in 1893. He was asked to chair the International Congress of Spiritualists meeting in London in 1898. He received honorary doctorates and professional honours, such the Royal Society's Royal Medal in 1868 and its Darwin Medal in 1890, and the Order of Merit in 1908. + +Obscurity and rehabilitation +Wallace's fame faded quickly after his death. For a long time, he was treated as a relatively obscure figure in the history of science. Reasons for this lack of attention may have included his modesty, his willingness to champion unpopular causes without regard for his own reputation, and the discomfort of much of the scientific community with some of his unconventional ideas. The reason that the theory of evolution is popularly credited to Darwin is likely the impact of Darwin's On the Origin of Species. + +Recently, Wallace has become better known, with the publication of at least five book-length biographies and two anthologies of his writings published since 2000. A web page dedicated to Wallace scholarship is maintained at Western Kentucky University. +In a 2010 book, the environmentalist Tim Flannery argued that Wallace was "the first modern scientist to comprehend how essential cooperation is to our survival", and suggested that Wallace's understanding of natural selection and his later work on the atmosphere should be seen as a forerunner to modern ecological thinking. A collection of his medals, including the Order of Merit, were sold at auction for £273,000 in 2022. + +Centenary celebrations + +The Natural History Museum, London, co-ordinated commemorative events for the Wallace centenary worldwide in the 'Wallace100' project in 2013. On 24 January, his portrait was unveiled in the Main Hall of the museum by Bill Bailey, a fervent admirer. Bailey further championed Wallace in his 2013 BBC Two series "Bill Bailey's Jungle Hero". On 7 November 2013, the 100th anniversary of Wallace's death, Sir David Attenborough unveiled a statue of Wallace at the museum. The statue, sculpted by Anthony Smith, was donated by the A. R. Wallace Memorial Fund. It depicts Wallace as a young man, collecting in the jungle. November 2013 marked the debut of The Animated Life of A. R. Wallace, a paper-puppet animation film dedicated to Wallace's centennial. In addition, Bailey unveiled a bust of Wallace, sculpted by Felicity Crawley, in Twyn Square in Usk, Monmouthshire in November 2021. + +Bicentenary celebrations + +Commemorations of the 200th anniversary of Wallace's birth celebrated during the course of 2023 range from naturalist walk events to scientific congresses and presentations. A Harvard Museum of Natural History event in April of 2023 will also include a mixologist-designed special cocktail to honor Wallace's legacy. + +Memorials +Mount Wallace in California's Sierra Nevada mountain range was named in his honour in 1895. In 1928, a house at Richard Hale School (then called Hertford Grammar School, where he had been a pupil) was named after Wallace. The Alfred Russel Wallace building is a prominent feature of the Glyntaff campus at the University of South Wales, by Pontypridd, with several teaching spaces and laboratories for science courses. The Natural Sciences Building at Swansea University and lecture theatre at Cardiff University are named after him, as are impact craters on Mars and the Moon. In 1986, the Royal Entomological Society mounted a year-long expedition to the Dumoga-Bone National Park in North Sulawesi named Project Wallace. A group of Indonesian islands is known as the Wallacea biogeographical region in his honour, and Operation Wallacea, named after the region, awards "Alfred Russel Wallace Grants" to undergraduate ecology students. Several hundred species of plants and animals, both living and fossil, have been named after Wallace, such as the gecko Cyrtodactylus wallacei, and the freshwater stingray Potamotrygon wallacei. + +Writings +Wallace was a prolific author. In 2002, historian of science Michael Shermer published a quantitative analysis of Wallace's publications. He found that Wallace had published 22 full-length books and at least 747 shorter pieces, 508 of which were scientific papers (191 of them published in Nature). He further broke down the 747 short pieces by their primary subjects: 29% were on biogeography and natural history, 27% were on evolutionary theory, 25% were social commentary, 12% were on anthropology, and 7% were on spiritualism and phrenology. An online bibliography of Wallace's writings has more than 750 entries. + +References + +Notes + +Citations + +Sources + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + Vol. 1 + . Vol. 2 + +Further reading +There is an extensive literature on Wallace. Recent books on him include: + + + + + + + Vol. 2 (Parts III – VII) (Project Gutenberg). London: Cassell and Company. Published in a single volume by Harper & Brothers Publishers, New York and London, June 1916. + +External links + + The Alfred Russel Wallace Website by George Beccaloni + Alfred Russel Wallace at Western Kentucky University + The Alfred Russel Wallace Correspondence Project + Wallace Online – The first complete online edition of the writings of Alfred Russel Wallace + Great Lives – Bill Bailey on his hero Alfred Russel Wallace on BBC Radio 4 + + + + +1823 births +1913 deaths +19th-century English scientists +19th-century British writers +20th-century English non-fiction writers +Biogeographers +British anti-vaccination activists +English coleopterists +British deists +Charles Darwin +English activists +English anthropologists +English biologists +English naturalists +English people of Scottish descent +English socialists +English spiritualists +British evolutionary biologists +Explorers of Amazonia +Explorers of Indonesia +Fellows of the Linnean Society of London +Fellows of the Royal Geographical Society +Fellows of the Royal Society +Fellows of the Zoological Society of London +Georgists +English lepidopterists +Botanical illustrators +Members of the Order of Merit +Natural history of Indonesia +People associated with Birkbeck, University of London +People educated at Hertford Grammar School +People from Broadstone, Dorset +People from Grays, Essex +People from Kington, Herefordshire +People from Usk +Philosophical theists +Recipients of the Copley Medal +Royal Medal winners +Victorian writers +The Australian Labor Party (ALP), also simply known as Labor, is the major centre-left political party in Australia and one of two major parties in Australian politics, along with the centre-right Liberal Party of Australia. The party has been in government since being elected at the 2022 federal election, and with political branches in each state and territory, they currently form government in New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Victoria, Western Australia, the Australian Capital Territory, and the Northern Territory. As of 2023, Tasmania is the only state or territory where Labor forms the opposition. It is the oldest continuous political party in Australian history, being established on 8 May 1901 at Parliament House, Melbourne, the meeting place of the first federal Parliament. + +The ALP was not founded as a federal party until after the first sitting of the Australian parliament in 1901. It is regarded as descended from labour parties founded in the various Australian colonies by the emerging labour movement in Australia, formally beginning in 1891. Colonial labour parties contested seats from 1891, and federal seats following Federation at the 1901 federal election. The ALP formed the world's first labour party government and the world's first social-democratic government at a national level. At the 1910 federal election, Labor was the first party in Australia to win a majority in either house of the Australian parliament. In every election since 1910 Labor has either served as the governing party or the opposition. There have been 13 Labor Prime Ministers and 10 periods of Federal Labor governments. + +At the federal and state/colony level, the Australian Labor Party predates both the British Labour Party and the New Zealand Labour Party in party formation, government, and policy implementation. Internationally, the ALP is a member of the Progressive Alliance, a network of social-democratic parties, having previously been a member of the Socialist International. + +Name and spelling +In standard Australian English, the word "labour" is spelt with a u. However, the political party uses the spelling "Labor", without a u. There was originally no standardised spelling of the party's name, with "Labor" and "Labour" both in common usage. According to Ross McMullin, who wrote an official history of the Labor Party, the title page of the proceedings of the Federal Conference used the spelling "Labor" in 1902, "Labour" in 1905 and 1908, and then "Labor" from 1912 onwards. In 1908, James Catts put forward a motion at the Federal Conference that "the name of the party be the Australian Labour Party", which was carried by 22 votes to 2. A separate motion recommending state branches adopt the name was defeated. There was no uniformity of party names until 1918 when the Federal party resolved that state branches should adopt the name "Australian Labor Party", now spelt without a u. Each state branch had previously used a different name, due to their different origins. + +Although the ALP officially adopted the spelling without a u, it took decades for the official spelling to achieve widespread acceptance. According to McMullin, "the way the spelling of 'Labor Party' was consolidated had more to do with the chap who ended up being in charge of printing the federal conference report than any other reason". Some sources have attributed the official choice of "Labor" to influence from King O'Malley, who was born in the United States and was reputedly an advocate of spelling reform; the spelling without a u is the standard form in American English. It has been suggested that the adoption of the spelling without a u "signified one of the ALP's earliest attempts at modernisation", and served the purpose of differentiating the party from the Australian labour movement as a whole and distinguishing it from other British Empire labour parties. The decision to include the word "Australian" in the party's name, rather than just "Labour Party" as in the United Kingdom, has been attributed to "the greater importance of nationalism for the founders of the colonial parties". + +History + +The Australian Labor Party has its origins in the Labour parties founded in the 1890s in the Australian colonies prior to federation. Labor tradition ascribes the founding of Queensland Labour to a meeting of striking pastoral workers under a ghost gum tree (the "Tree of Knowledge") in Barcaldine, Queensland in 1891. The 1891 shearers' strike is credited as being one of the factors for the formation of the Australian Labor Party. On 9 September 1892 the Manifesto of the Queensland Labour Party was read out under the well known Tree of Knowledge at Barcaldine following the Great Shearers' Strike. The State Library of Queensland now holds the manifesto; in 2008 the historic document was added to UNESCO's Memory of the World Australian Register and, in 2009, the document was added to UNESCO's Memory of the World International Register. The Balmain, New South Wales branch of the party claims to be the oldest in Australia. However, the Scone Branch has a receipt for membership fees for the 'Labour Electoral League' dated April 1891. This predates the Balmain claim. This can be attested in the Centenary of the ALP book. Labour as a parliamentary party dates from 1891 in New South Wales and South Australia, 1893 in Queensland, and later in the other colonies. + +The first election contested by Labour candidates was the 1891 New South Wales election, when Labour candidates (then called the Labor Electoral League of New South Wales) won 35 of 141 seats. The major parties were the Protectionist and Free Trade parties and Labour held the balance of power. It offered parliamentary support in exchange for policy concessions. The United Labor Party (ULP) of South Australia was founded in 1891, and three candidates were that year elected to the South Australian Legislative Council. The first successful South Australian House of Assembly candidate was John McPherson at the 1892 East Adelaide by-election. Richard Hooper however was elected as an Independent Labor candidate at the 1891 Wallaroo by-election, while he was the first "labor" member of the House of Assembly he was not a member of the newly formed ULP. + +At the 1893 South Australian elections the ULP was immediately elevated to balance of power status with 10 of 54 lower house seats. The liberal government of Charles Kingston was formed with the support of the ULP, ousting the conservative government of John Downer. So successful, less than a decade later at the 1905 state election, Thomas Price formed the world's first stable Labor government. John Verran led Labor to form the state's first of many majority governments at the 1910 state election. + +In 1899, Anderson Dawson formed a minority Labour government in Queensland, the first in the world, which lasted one week while the conservatives regrouped after a split. + +The colonial Labour parties and the trade unions were mixed in their support for the Federation of Australia. Some Labour representatives argued against the proposed constitution, claiming that the Senate as proposed was too powerful, similar to the anti-reformist colonial upper houses and the British House of Lords. They feared that federation would further entrench the power of the conservative forces. However, the first Labour leader and Prime Minister Chris Watson was a supporter of federation. + +Historian Celia Hamilton, examining New South Wales, argues for the central role of Irish Catholics. Before 1890, they opposed Henry Parkes, the main Liberal leader, and of free trade, seeing them both as the ideals of Protestant Englishmen who represented landholding and large business interests. In the strike of 1890 the leading Catholic, Sydney's Archbishop Patrick Francis Moran was sympathetic toward unions, but Catholic newspapers were negative. After 1900, says Hamilton, Irish Catholics were drawn to the Labour Party because its stress on equality and social welfare fitted with their status as manual labourers and small farmers. In the 1910 elections Labour gained in the more Catholic areas and the representation of Catholics increased in Labour's parliamentary ranks. + +Early decades at the federal level + +The federal parliament in 1901 was contested by each state Labour Party. In total, they won 15 of the 75 seats in the House of Representatives, collectively holding the balance of power, and the Labour members now met as the Federal Parliamentary Labour Party (informally known as the caucus) on 8 May 1901 at Parliament House, Melbourne, the meeting place of the first federal Parliament. The caucus decided to support the incumbent Protectionist Party in minority government, while the Free Trade Party formed the opposition. It was some years before there was any significant structure or organisation at a national level. Labour under Chris Watson doubled its vote at the 1903 federal election and continued to hold the balance of power. In April 1904, however, Watson and Alfred Deakin fell out over the issue of extending the scope of industrial relations laws concerning the Conciliation and Arbitration Bill to cover state public servants, the fallout causing Deakin to resign. Free Trade leader George Reid declined to take office, which saw Watson become the first Labour Prime Minister of Australia, and the world's first Labour head of government at a national level (Anderson Dawson had led a short-lived Labour government in Queensland in December 1899), though his was a minority government that lasted only four months. He was aged only 37, and is still the youngest Prime Minister in Australia's history. + +George Reid of the Free Trade Party adopted a strategy of trying to reorient the party system along Labour vs. non-Labour lines prior to the 1906 federal election and renamed his Free Trade Party to the Anti-Socialist Party. Reid envisaged a spectrum running from socialist to anti-socialist, with the Protectionist Party in the middle. This attempt struck a chord with politicians who were steeped in the Westminster tradition and regarded a two-party system as very much the norm. + +Although Watson further strengthened Labour's position in 1906, he stepped down from the leadership the following year, to be succeeded by Andrew Fisher who formed a minority government lasting seven months from late 1908 to mid 1909. At the 1910 federal election, Fisher led Labor to victory, forming Australia's first elected federal majority government, Australia's first elected Senate majority, the world's first Labour Party majority government at a national level, and after the 1904 Chris Watson minority government the world's second Labour Party government at a national level. It was the first time a Labour Party had controlled any house of a legislature, and the first time the party controlled both houses of a bicameral legislature. The state branches were also successful, except in Victoria, where the strength of Deakinite liberalism inhibited the party's growth. The state branches formed their first majority governments in New South Wales and South Australia in 1910, Western Australia in 1911, Queensland in 1915 and Tasmania in 1925. Such success eluded equivalent social democratic and labour parties in other countries for many years. + +Analysis of the early NSW Labor caucus reveals "a band of unhappy amateurs", made up of blue collar workers, a squatter, a doctor, and even a mine owner, indicating that the idea that only the socialist working class formed Labor is untrue. In addition, many members from the working class supported the liberal notion of free trade between the colonies; in the first grouping of state MPs, 17 of the 35 were free-traders. + +In the aftermath of World War I and the Russian Revolution of 1917, support for socialism grew in trade union ranks, and at the 1921 All-Australian Trades Union Congress a resolution was passed calling for "the socialisation of industry, production, distribution and exchange." The 1922 Labor Party National Conference adopted a similarly worded "socialist objective," which remained official policy for many years. The resolution was immediately qualified, however, by the "Blackburn amendment," which said that "socialisation" was desirable only when was necessary to "eliminate exploitation and other anti-social features." In practice the socialist objective was a dead letter. Only once has a federal Labor government attempted to nationalise any industry (Ben Chifley's bank nationalisation of 1947), and that was held by the High Court to be unconstitutional. The commitment to nationalisation was dropped by Gough Whitlam, and Bob Hawke's government carried out many free market reforms including the floating of the dollar and privatisation of state enterprises such as Qantas airways and the Commonwealth Bank. + +The Labor Party is commonly described as a social democratic party, and its constitution stipulates that it is a democratic socialist party. The party was created by, and has always been influenced by, the trade unions, and in practice its policy at any given time has usually been the policy of the broader labour movement. Thus at the first federal election 1901 Labor's platform called for a White Australia policy, a citizen army and compulsory arbitration of industrial disputes. Labor has at various times supported high tariffs and low tariffs, conscription and pacifism, White Australia and multiculturalism, nationalisation and privatisation, isolationism and internationalism. + +Historically, Labor and its affiliated unions were strong defenders of the White Australia policy, which banned all non-European migration to Australia. This policy was partly motivated by 19th century theories about "racial purity" and by fears of economic competition from low-wage overseas workers which was shared by the vast majority of Australians and all major political parties. In practice the Labor party opposed all migration, on the grounds that immigrants competed with Australian workers and drove down wages, until after World War II, when the Chifley government launched a major immigration program. The party's opposition to non-European immigration did not change until after the retirement of Arthur Calwell as leader in 1967. Subsequently, Labor has become an advocate of multiculturalism, although some of its trade union base and some of its members continue to oppose high immigration levels. + +World War II and beyond +The Curtin and Chifley governments governed Australia through the latter half of the Second World War and initial stages of transition to peace. Labor leader John Curtin became prime minister in October 1941 when two independents crossed the floor of Parliament. Labor, led by Curtin, then led Australia through the years of the Pacific War. In December 1941, Curtin announced that "Australia looks to America, free of any pangs as to our traditional links or kinship with the United Kingdom", thus helping to establish the Australian-American alliance (later formalised as ANZUS by the Menzies Government). Remembered as a strong war time leader and for a landslide win at the 1943 federal election, Curtin died in office just prior to the end of the war and was succeeded by Ben Chifley. Chifley Labor won the 1946 federal election and oversaw Australia's initial transition to a peacetime economy. + +Labor was defeated at the 1949 federal election. At the conference of the New South Wales Labor Party in June 1949, Chifley sought to define the labour movement as follows: "We have a great objective – the light on the hill – which we aim to reach by working for the betterment of mankind. [...] [Labor would] bring something better to the people, better standards of living, greater happiness to the mass of the people." + +To a large extent, Chifley saw centralisation of the economy as the means to achieve such ambitions. With an increasingly uncertain economic outlook, after his attempt to nationalise the banks and a strike by the Communist-dominated Miners' Federation, Chifley lost office in 1949 to Robert Menzies' Liberal-National Coalition. Labor commenced a 23-year period in opposition. The party was primarily led during this time by H. V. Evatt and Arthur Calwell. + +Various ideological beliefs were factionalised under reforms to the ALP under Gough Whitlam, resulting in what is now known as the Socialist Left who tend to favour a more interventionist economic policy and more socially progressive ideals, and Labor Right, the now dominant faction that tends to be more economically liberal and focus to a lesser extent on social issues. The Whitlam Labor government, marking a break with Labor's socialist tradition, pursued social-democratic policies rather than democratic socialist policies. In contrast to earlier Labor leaders, Whitlam also cut tariffs by 25 percent. Whitlam led the Federal Labor Party back to office at the 1972 and 1974 federal elections, and passed a large amount of legislation. The Whitlam government lost office following the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis and dismissal by Governor-General John Kerr after the Coalition blocked supply in the Senate after a series of political scandals, and was defeated at the 1975 federal election in the largest landslide of Australian federal history. Whitlam remains the only Prime Minister to have his commission terminated in that manner. Whitlam also lost the 1977 federal election and subsequently resigned as leader. + +Bill Hayden succeeded Whitlam as leader. At the 1980 federal election, the party achieved a big swing, though the unevenness of the swing around the nation prevented an ALP victory. In 1983, Bob Hawke became leader of the party after Hayden resigned to avoid a leadership spill. + +Bob Hawke led Labor back to office at the 1983 federal election and the party won four consecutive elections under Hawke. In December 1991 Paul Keating defeated Bob Hawke in a leadership spill. The ALP then won the 1993 federal election. It was in power for five terms over 13 years, until severely defeated by John Howard at the 1996 federal election. This was the longest period the party has ever been in government at the national level. + +Kim Beazley led the party to the 1998 federal election, winning 51 percent of the two-party-preferred vote but falling short on seats, and the ALP lost ground at the 2001 federal election. After a brief period when Simon Crean served as ALP leader, Mark Latham led Labor to the 2004 federal election but lost further ground. Beazley replaced Latham in 2005; not long afterwards he in turn was forced out of the leadership by Kevin Rudd. + +Rudd went on to defeat John Howard at the 2007 federal election with 52.7 percent of the two-party vote (Howard became the first Prime Minister since Stanley Melbourne Bruce to lose not just the election but his own parliamentary seat). The Rudd government ended prior to the 2010 federal election with the overthrow of Rudd as leader of the Party by deputy leader Julia Gillard. Gillard, who was also the first woman to serve as Prime Minister of Australia, remained Prime Minister in a hung parliament following the election. Her government lasted until 2013, when Gillard lost a leadership spill, with Rudd becoming leader once again. Later that year the ALP lost the 2013 election. + +After this defeat, Bill Shorten became leader of the party. The party narrowly lost the 2016 election, yet gained 14 seats. It remained in opposition after the 2019 election, despite having been ahead in opinion polls for the preceding two years. The party lost in 2019 some of the seats which it had won back in 2016. After the 2019 defeat, Shorten resigned from the leadership, though he remained in parliament. Anthony Albanese was elected as leader unopposed and led the party to victory in the 2022 election. +Between the 2007 federal election and the 2008 Western Australian state election, Labor was in government nationally and in all eight state and territory legislatures. This was the first time any single party or any coalition had achieved this since the ACT and the NT gained self-government. Labor narrowly lost government in Western Australia at the 2008 state election and Victoria at the 2010 state election. These losses were further compounded by landslide defeats in New South Wales in 2011, Queensland in 2012, the Northern Territory in 2012, Federally in 2013 and Tasmania in 2014. Labor secured a good result in the Australian Capital Territory in 2012 and, despite losing its majority, the party retained government in South Australia in 2014. + +However, most of these reversals proved only temporary with Labor returning to government in Victoria in 2014 and in Queensland in 2015 after spending only one term in opposition in both states. Furthermore, after winning the 2014 Fisher by-election by nine votes from a 7.3 percent swing, the Labor government in South Australia went from minority to majority government. Labor won landslide victories in the 2016 Northern Territory election, the 2017 Western Australian election and the 2018 Victorian state election. However, Labor lost the 2018 South Australian state election after 16 years in government. In 2022, Labor returned to government after defeating the Liberal Party in the 2022 South Australian state election. Despite favourable polling, the party also did not return to government in the 2019 New South Wales state election or the 2019 federal election. The latter has been considered a historic upset due to Labor's consistent and significant polling lead; the result has been likened to the Coalition's loss in the 1993 federal election, with 2019 retrospectively referred to as the "unloseable election". Anthony Albanese later led the party into the 2022 Australian federal election, in which the party once again won a majority government. In 2023, Labor won the 2023 New South Wales state election returning to government for the first time since 2011. This victory marked the first time in 15 years that Labor were in government in all mainland states. + +National platform + +The policy of the Australian Labor Party is contained in its National Platform, which is approved by delegates to Labor's National Conference, held every three years. According to the Labor Party's website, "The Platform is the result of a rigorous and constructive process of consultation, spanning the nation and including the cooperation and input of state and territory policy committees, local branches, unions, state and territory governments, and individual Party members. The Platform provides the policy foundation from which we can continue to work towards the election of a federal Labor government." + +The platform gives a general indication of the policy direction which a future Labor government would follow, but does not commit the party to specific policies. It maintains that "Labor's traditional values will remain a constant on which all Australians can rely." While making it clear that Labor is fully committed to a market economy, it says that: "Labor believes in a strong role for national government – the one institution all Australians truly own and control through our right to vote." Labor "will not allow the benefits of change to be concentrated in fewer and fewer hands, or located only in privileged communities. The benefits must be shared by all Australians and all our regions." The platform and Labor "believe that all people are created equal in their entitlement to dignity and respect, and should have an equal chance to achieve their potential." For Labor, "government has a critical role in ensuring fairness by: ensuring equal opportunity; removing unjustifiable discrimination; and achieving a more equitable distribution of wealth, income and status." Further sections of the platform stress Labor's support for equality and human rights, labour rights and democracy. + +In practice, the platform provides only general policy guidelines to Labor's federal, state and territory parliamentary leaderships. The policy Labor takes into an election campaign is determined by the Cabinet (if the party is in office) or the Shadow Cabinet (if it is in opposition), in consultation with key interest groups within the party, and is contained in the parliamentary Leader's policy speech delivered during the election campaign. When Labor is in office, the policies it implements are determined by the Cabinet, subject to the platform. Generally, it is accepted that while the platform binds Labor governments, how and when it is implemented remains the prerogative of the parliamentary caucus. It is now rare for the platform to conflict with government policy, as the content of the platform is usually developed in close collaboration with the party's parliamentary leadership as well as the factions. However, where there is a direct contradiction with the platform, Labor governments have sought to change the platform as a prerequisite for a change in policy. For example, privatisation legislation under the Hawke government occurred only after holding a special national conference to debate changing the platform., + +Party structure + +National executive and secretariat +The Australian Labor Party National Executive is the party's chief administrative authority, subject only to Labor's national conference. The executive is responsible for organising the triennial national conference; carrying out the decisions of the conference; interpreting the national constitution, the national platform and decisions of the national conference; and directing federal members. + +The party holds a national conference every three years, which consists of delegates representing the state and territory branches (many coming from affiliated trade unions, although there is no formal requirement for unions to be represented at the national conference). The national conference decides the party's platform, elects the national executive and appoints office-bearers such as the national secretary, who also serves as national campaign director during elections. The current national secretary is Paul Erickson. The most recent national conference was the 48th conference held in December 2018. + +The head office of the ALP, the national secretariat, is managed by the national secretary. It plays a dual role of administration and a national campaign strategy. It acts as a permanent secretariat to the national executive by managing and assisting in all administrative affairs of the party. As the national secretary also serves as national campaign director during elections, it is also responsible for the national campaign strategy and organisation. + +Federal Parliamentary Labor Party +The elected members of the Labor party in both houses of the national Parliament meet as the Federal Parliamentary Labor Party, also known as the Australian Labor Party Caucus (see also caucus). Besides discussing parliamentary business and tactics, the Caucus also is involved in the election of the federal parliamentary leaders. + +Federal parliamentary leaders + +Until 2013, the parliamentary leaders were elected by the Caucus from among its members. The leader has historically been a member of the House of Representatives. Since October 2013, a ballot of both the Caucus and by the Labor Party's rank-and-file members determined the party leader and the deputy leader. When the Labor Party is in government, the party leader is the Prime Minister and the deputy leader is the Deputy Prime Minister. If a Labor prime minister resigns or dies in office, the deputy leader acts as prime minister and party leader until a successor is elected. The deputy prime minister also acts as prime minister when the prime minister is on leave or out of the country. Members of the Ministry are also chosen by Caucus, though the leader may allocate portfolios to the ministers. + +Anthony Albanese is the leader of the federal Labor party, serving since 30 May 2019. The deputy leader is Richard Marles, also serving since 30 May 2019. + +State and territory branches + +The Australian Labor Party is a federal party, consisting of eight branches from each state and territory. While the National Executive is responsible for national campaign strategy, each state and territory are an autonomous branch and are responsible for campaigning in their own jurisdictions for federal, state and local elections. State and territory branches consist of both individual members and affiliated trade unions, who between them decide the party's policies, elect its governing bodies and choose its candidates for public office. + +Members join a state branch and pay a membership fee, which is graduated according to income. The majority of trade unions in Australia are affiliated to the party at a state level. Union affiliation is direct and not through the Australian Council of Trade Unions. Affiliated unions pay an affiliation fee based on the size of their membership. Union affiliation fees make up a large part of the party's income. Other sources of funds for the party include political donations and public funding. + +Members are generally expected to attend at least one meeting of their local branch each year, although there are differences in the rules from state to state. In practice only a dedicated minority regularly attend meetings. Many members are only active during election campaigns. + +The members and unions elect delegates to state and territory conferences (usually held annually, although more frequent conferences are often held). These conferences decide policy, and elect state or territory executives, a state or territory president (an honorary position usually held for a one-year term), and a state or territory secretary (a full-time professional position). However, ACT Labor directly elects its president. The larger branches also have full-time assistant secretaries and organisers. In the past the ratio of conference delegates coming from the branches and affiliated unions has varied from state to state, however under recent national reforms at least 50% of delegates at all state and territory conferences must be elected by branches. + +In some states it also contests local government elections or endorses local candidates. In others it does not, preferring to allow its members to run as non-endorsed candidates. The process of choosing candidates is called preselection. Candidates are preselected by different methods in the various states and territories. In some they are chosen by ballots of all party members, in others by panels or committees elected by the state conference, in still others by a combination of these two. + +The state and territory Labor branches are the following: + +Country Labor +The Country Labor Party, commonly known as Country Labor, was an affiliated organisation of the Labor Party. Although not expressly defined, Country Labor operated mainly within rural New South Wales, and was mainly seen as an extension of the New South Wales branch that operates in rural electorates. + +Country Labor was used as a designation by candidates contesting elections in rural areas. The Country Labor Party was registered as a separate party in New South Wales, and was also registered with the Australian Electoral Commission (AEC) for federal elections. It did not have the same status in other states and, consequently, that designation could not be used on the ballot paper. + +The creation of a separation designation for rural candidates was first suggested at the June 1999 ALP state conference in New South Wales. In May 2000, following Labor's success at the 2000 Benalla by-election in Victoria, Kim Beazley announced that the ALP intended to register a separate "Country Labor Party" with the AEC; this occurred in October 2000. The Country Labor designation was most frequently used in New South Wales. According to the ALP's financial statements for the 2015–16 financial year, NSW Country Labor had around 2,600 members (around 17 percent of the party total), but almost no assets. It recorded a severe funding shortfall at the 2015 New South Wales election, and had to rely on a $1.68-million loan from the party proper to remain solvent. It had been initially assumed that the party proper could provide the money from its own resources, but the NSW Electoral Commission ruled that this was impermissible because the parties were registered separately. Instead the party proper had to loan Country Labor the required funds at a commercial interest rate. + +The Country Labor Party was de-registered by the New South Wales Electoral Commission in 2021. + +Australian Young Labor + +Australian Young Labor is the youth wing of the Australian Labor Party, where all members under age 26 are automatically members. It is the peak youth body within the ALP. Former presidents of AYL have included former NSW Premier Bob Carr, Federal Leader of the House Tony Burke, former Special Minister of State Senator John Faulkner, former Australian Workers Union National Secretary, current Member for Maribyrnong and former Federal Labor Leader Bill Shorten as well as dozens of State Ministers and MPs. The current National President is Jason Byrne from South Australia. + +Networks + +The Australian Labor Party is beginning to formally recognise single interest groups within the party. The national platform currently encourages state branches to formally establish these groups known as policy action caucuses. Examples of such groups include the Labor Environment Action Network, Rainbow Labor, Labor For Choice, Labor Women's Network, Labor for Drug Law Reform Labor for Refugees, Labor for Housing, Labor Teachers Network, Aboriginal Labor Network, and recently, Labor Enabled - the action group for Disability Advocacy The Tasmanian Branch of the Australian Labor Party recently gave these groups voting and speaking rights at their state conference. + +Ideology and factions +Labor's constitution has long stated: "The Australian Labor Party is a democratic socialist party and has the objective of the democratic socialisation of industry, production, distribution and exchange, to the extent necessary to eliminate exploitation and other anti-social features in these fields". This "socialist objective" was introduced in 1921, but was later qualified by two further objectives: "maintenance of and support for a competitive non-monopolistic private sector" and "the right to own private property". Labor governments have not attempted the "democratic socialisation" of any industry since the 1940s, when the Chifley government failed to nationalise the private banks, and in fact have privatised several industries such as aviation and banking. Labor's current National Platform describes the party as "a modern social democratic party". + +Factions + +The Labor Party has always had a left wing and a right wing, but since the 1970s it has been organised into formal factions. The two largest factions are the Labor Left and the Labor Right. The Labor Right generally supports free-market policies and the US alliance and tends to be conservative on some social issues, whilst the Labor Left favours more state intervention in the economy, is generally less enthusiastic about the US alliance and is often more progressive on social issues. The national factions are themselves divided into sub-factions, primarily state-based such as Centre Unity in New South Wales and Labor Forum in Queensland. Those factions tend to occupy social-liberal, and social democratic positions. + +Some trade unions are affiliated with the Labor Party and are also factionally aligned. The largest unions supporting the right faction are the Australian Workers' Union (AWU), the Shop, Distributive and Allied Employees' Association (SDA) and the Transport Workers Union (TWU). Important unions supporting the left include the Australian Manufacturing Workers Union (AMWU), United Workers Union, the Construction, Forestry, Maritime, Mining and Energy Union (CFMMEU) and the Community and Public Sector Union (CPSU). + +Federal election results + +House of Representatives + +Donors + +For the 2015–2016 financial year, the top ten disclosed donors to the ALP were the Health Services Union NSW ($389,000), Village Roadshow ($257,000), Electrical Trades Union of Australia ($171,000), National Automotive Leasing and Salary Packaging Association ($153,000), Westfield Corporation ($150,000), Randazzo C&G Developments ($120,000), Macquarie Telecom ($113,000), Woodside Energy ($110,000), ANZ Bank ($100,000) and Ying Zhou ($100,000), all significantly lower than the 2014 donations by a Chinese donor Zi Chun Wang, which at $850,000 was the largest donation to any political party in the 2013-2014 financial year. At least one newspaper report queried the identity of this donor stating "news archive searches do not produce results for this name, suggesting Wang operates under another name". Another report mentions that in addition to a hotel and a travel agency, the donor's listed address at the Old Communist Cadres Activity Centre in Shijiazhuang houses several Chinese government entities, stating also that another publisher "tried many times without success" to contact the donor on the phone number listed in the donation return form. + +The Labor Party also receives undisclosed funding through several methods, such as "associated entities". John Curtin House, Industry 2020, IR21 and the Happy Wanderers Club are entities which have been used to funnel donations to the Labor Party without disclosing the source. + +A 2019 report found that the Labor Party received $33,000 from pro-gun groups during the 2011–2018 periods, however, the Coalition received over $82,000 in donations from pro-gun groups, more than doubling Labor's pro-gun donors. + +See also + Socialism in Australia + Australian labour movement + Third Way + +Further reading +Ormonde, Paul (1982). A Foolish Passionate Man: a biography of Jim Cairns. Ringwood, Vic, Australia: Penguin Books. ISBN 014005975X. + +Ormonde, Paul (1972). The Movement. Sydney: Thomas Nelson. SBN 170019683 + +Charlesworth, M. J. (2000) Ormonde, Paul (Ed). Santamaria : the politics of fear : critical reflections. Richmond, Vic.: Spectrum Publications. ISBN 0867862947 + +Notes + +References + +Bibliography + + Bramble, Tom, and Rick Kuhn. Labor's Conflict: Big Business, Workers, and the Politics of Class (Cambridge University Press; 2011) 240 pages. + Calwell, A. A. (1963). Labor's Role in Modern Society. Melbourne, Lansdowne Press. + +External links + + Australian Labor Party Victorian Branch Rules, April 2013 + Manifesto of the Queensland Labour Party, 1892 - UNESCO Australian Memory of the World Register +125th anniversary of the Manifesto of the Queensland Labour Party - John Oxley Library Blog, State Library of Queensland. +OM69-18 Charles Seymour Papers 1880-1924 - Collection record, State Library of Queensland +Charles Seymour Papers 1880-1924: Treasure collection of the John Oxley Library - John Oxley Library Blog, State Library of Queensland. + + +1891 establishments in Australia +Democratic socialist parties in Oceania +Former member parties of the Socialist International +Centre-left parties +Labour parties +Political parties established in 1891 +Progressive Alliance +Republican parties in Australia +Social democratic parties in Oceania + + +Events + +Pre-1600 + 684 – Battle of Marj Rahit: Umayyad partisans defeat the supporters of Ibn al-Zubayr and cement Umayyad control of Syria. +707 – Princess Abe accedes to the imperial Japanese throne as Empress Genmei. +1304 – The Battle of Mons-en-Pévèle is fought to a draw between the French army and the Flemish militias. +1487 – The Siege of Málaga ends with the taking of the city by Castilian and Aragonese forces. +1492 – The first grammar of the Spanish language (Gramática de la lengua castellana) is presented to Queen Isabella I. +1572 – The Huguenot King Henry III of Navarre marries the Catholic Margaret of Valois, ostensibly to reconcile the feuding Protestants and Catholics of France. +1590 – John White, the governor of the Roanoke Colony, returns from a supply trip to England and finds his settlement deserted. + +1601–1900 +1612 – The trial of the Pendle witches, one of England's most famous witch trials, begins at Lancaster Assizes. +1634 – Urbain Grandier, accused and convicted of sorcery, is burned alive in Loudun, France. +1721 – The city of Shamakhi in Safavid Shirvan is sacked. +1783 – A huge fireball meteor is seen across Great Britain as it passes over the east coast. +1809 – The Senate of Finland is established in the Grand Duchy of Finland after the official adoption of the Statute of the Government Council by Tsar Alexander I of Russia. +1826 – Major Gordon Laing becomes the first European to enter Timbuktu. +1838 – The Wilkes Expedition, which would explore the Puget Sound and Antarctica, weighs anchor at Hampton Roads. +1848 – Camila O'Gorman and Ladislao Gutierrez are executed on the orders of Argentine dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas. +1864 – American Civil War: Battle of Globe Tavern: Union forces try to cut a vital Confederate supply-line into Petersburg, Virginia, by attacking the Wilmington and Weldon Railroad. +1868 – French astronomer Pierre Janssen discovers helium. +1870 – Franco-Prussian War: Battle of Gravelotte is fought. +1877 – American astronomer Asaph Hall discovers Phobos, one of Mars’s moons. +1891 – A major hurricane strikes Martinique, leaving 700 dead. + +1901–present +1903 – German engineer Karl Jatho allegedly flies his self-made, motored gliding airplane four months before the first flight of the Wright brothers. +1917 – A Great Fire in Thessaloniki, Greece, destroys 32% of the city leaving 70,000 individuals homeless. +1920 – The Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified, guaranteeing women's suffrage. +1923 – The first British Track and Field championships for women are held in London, Great Britain. +1933 – The Volksempfänger is first presented to the German public at a radio exhibition; the presiding Nazi Minister of Propaganda, Joseph Goebbels, delivers an accompanying speech heralding the radio as the ‘eighth great power’. +1937 – A lightning strike starts the Blackwater Fire of 1937 in Shoshone National Forest, killing 15 firefighters within three days and prompting the United States Forest Service to develop their smokejumper program. +1938 – The Thousand Islands Bridge, connecting New York, United States, with Ontario, Canada, over the Saint Lawrence River, is dedicated by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt. +1940 – World War II: The Hardest Day air battle, part of the Battle of Britain, takes place. At that point, it is the largest aerial engagement in history with heavy losses sustained on both sides. +1945 – Sukarno takes office as the first president of Indonesia, following the country's declaration of independence the previous day. + 1945 – Soviet-Japanese War: Battle of Shumshu: Soviet forces land at Takeda Beach on Shumshu Island and launch the Battle of Shumshu; the Soviet Union’s Invasion of the Kuril Islands commences. +1949 – Kemi Bloody Thursday: Two protesters die in the scuffle between the police and the strikers' protest procession in Kemi, Finland. +1950 – Julien Lahaut, the chairman of the Communist Party of Belgium, is assassinated. The Party newspaper blames royalists and Rexists. +1958 – Vladimir Nabokov's controversial novel Lolita is published in the United States. + 1958 – Brojen Das from Bangladesh swims across the English Channel in a competition as the first Bengali and the first Asian to do so, placing first among the 39 competitors. +1963 – Civil rights movement: James Meredith becomes the first African American to graduate from the University of Mississippi. +1965 – Vietnam War: Operation Starlite begins: United States Marines destroy a Viet Cong stronghold on the Van Tuong peninsula in the first major American ground battle of the war. +1966 – Vietnam War: The Battle of Long Tan ensues after a patrol from the 6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment clashes with a Viet Cong force in Phước Tuy Province. +1971 – Vietnam War: Australia and New Zealand decide to withdraw their troops from Vietnam. +1973 – Aeroflot Flight A-13 crashes after takeoff from Baku-Bina International Airport in Azerbaijan, killing 56 people and injuring eight. +1976 – The Korean axe murder incident in Panmunjom results in the deaths of two US Army officers. + 1976 – The Soviet Union’s robotic probe Luna 24 successfully lands on the Moon. +1977 – Steve Biko is arrested at a police roadblock under Terrorism Act No. 83 of 1967 in King William's Town, South Africa. He later dies from injuries sustained during this arrest, bringing attention to South Africa's apartheid policies. +1983 – Hurricane Alicia hits the Texas coast, killing 21 people and causing over US$1 billion in damage (1983 dollars). +1989 – Leading presidential hopeful Luis Carlos Galán is assassinated near Bogotá in Colombia. +1993 – American International Airways Flight 808 crashes at Leeward Point Field at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base in Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, injuring the three crew members. +2003 – One-year-old Zachary Turner is murdered in Newfoundland by his mother, who was awarded custody despite facing trial for the murder of Zachary's father. The case was documented in the film Dear Zachary and led to reform of Canada's bail laws. +2005 – A massive power blackout hits the Indonesian island of Java; affecting almost 100 million people, it is one of the largest and most widespread power outages in history. +2008 – The President of Pakistan, Pervez Musharraf, resigns under threat of impeachment. + 2008 – War of Afghanistan: The Uzbin Valley ambush occurs. +2011 – A terrorist attack on Israel's Highway 12 near the Egyptian border kills 16 and injures 40. +2017 – The first terrorist attack ever sentenced as a crime in Finland kills two and injures eight. +2019 – One hundred activists, officials, and other concerned citizens in Iceland hold a funeral for Okjökull glacier, which has completely melted after having once covered six square miles (15.5 km2). + +Births + +Pre-1600 +1305 – Ashikaga Takauji, Japanese Shōgun (d. 1358) +1450 – Marko Marulić, Croatian poet and author (d. 1524) +1458 – Lorenzo Pucci, Catholic cardinal (d. 1531) +1497 – Francesco Canova da Milano, Italian composer (d. 1543) +1542 – Charles Neville, 6th Earl of Westmorland (d. 1601) +1579 – Countess Charlotte Flandrina of Nassau (d. 1640) +1587 – Virginia Dare, granddaughter of Governor John White of the Colony of Roanoke, first child born to English parents in the Americas (date of death unknown) +1596 – Jean Bolland, Flemish priest and hagiographer (d. 1665) + +1601–1900 +1605 – Henry Hammond, English churchman and theologian (d. 1660) +1606 – Maria Anna of Spain (d. 1646) +1629 – Agneta Horn, Swedish writer (d. 1672) +1657 – Ferdinando Galli-Bibiena, Italian architect and painter (d. 1743) +1685 – Brook Taylor, English mathematician and theorist (d. 1731) +1692 – Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon (d. 1740) +1700 – Baji Rao I, first Peshwa of Maratha Empire (d. 1740) +1720 – Laurence Shirley, 4th Earl Ferrers, English politician (d. 1760) +1750 – Antonio Salieri, Italian composer and conductor (d. 1825) +1754 – François, marquis de Chasseloup-Laubat, French general and engineer (d. 1833) +1774 – Meriwether Lewis, American soldier, explorer, and politician (d. 1809) +1792 – John Russell, 1st Earl Russell, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1878) +1803 – Nathan Clifford, American lawyer, jurist, and politician, 19th United States Attorney General (d. 1881) +1807 – B. T. Finniss, Australian politician, 1st Premier of South Australia (d. 1893) +1819 – Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna of Russia (d. 1876) +1822 – Isaac P. Rodman, American general and politician (d. 1862) +1830 – Franz Joseph I of Austria (d. 1916) +1831 – Ernest Noel, Scottish businessman and politician (d. 1931) +1834 – Marshall Field, American businessman, founded Marshall Field's (d. 1906) +1841 – William Halford, English-American lieutenant, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1919) +1855 – Alfred Wallis, English painter and illustrator (d. 1942) +1857 – Libert H. Boeynaems, Belgian-American bishop and missionary (d. 1926) +1866 – Mahboob Ali Khan, 6th Nizam of Hyderabad (d. 1911) +1869 – Carl Rungius, German-American painter and educator (d. 1959) +1870 – Lavr Kornilov, Russian general and explorer (d. 1918) +1879 – Alexander Rodzyanko, Russian general (d. 1970) +1885 – Nettie Palmer, Australian poet and critic (d. 1964) +1887 – John Anthony Sydney Ritson, English rugby player, mines inspector, engineer and professor of mining (d. 1957) +1890 – Walther Funk, German economist and politician, Reich Minister of Economics (d. 1960) +1893 – Burleigh Grimes, American baseball player and manager (d. 1985) + 1893 – Ernest MacMillan, Canadian conductor and composer (d. 1973) +1896 – Jack Pickford, Canadian-American actor and director (d. 1933) +1898 – Clemente Biondetti, Italian race car driver (d. 1955) +1900 – Ruth Bonner, Soviet Communist activist, sentenced to a labor camp during Joseph Stalin's Great Purge (d. 1987) + 1900 – Ruth Norman, American religious leader (d. 1993) + +1901–present +1902 – Adamson-Eric, Estonian painter (d. 1968) + 1902 – Margaret Murie, American environmentalist and author (d. 2003) +1903 – Lucienne Boyer, French singer (d. 1983) +1904 – Max Factor, Jr., American businessman (d. 1996) +1905 – Enoch Light, American bandleader, violinist, and recording engineer (d. 1978) +1906 – Marcel Carné, French director and screenwriter (d. 1996) + 1906 – Curtis Jones, American blues pianist and singer (d. 1971) +1908 – Edgar Faure, French historian and politician, 139th Prime Minister of France (d. 1988) + 1908 – Olav H. Hauge, Norwegian poet and gardener (d. 1994) + 1908 – Bill Merritt, New Zealand cricketer and sportscaster (d. 1977) +1909 – Gérard Filion, Canadian businessman and journalist (d. 2005) +1910 – Herman Berlinski, Polish-American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 2001) + 1910 – Robert Winters, Canadian colonel, engineer, and politician, 26th Canadian Minister of Public Works (d. 1969) +1911 – Amelia Boynton Robinson, American activist (d. 2015) + 1911 – Klara Dan von Neumann, Hungarian computer scientist and programmer (d. 1963) + 1911 – Maria Ulfah Santoso, Indonesian politician and women's rights activist (d. 1988) +1912 – Otto Ernst Remer, German general (d. 1997) +1913 – Romain Maes, Belgian cyclist (d. 1983) +1914 – Lucy Ozarin, United States Navy lieutenant commander and psychiatrist (d. 2017) +1915 – Max Lanier, American baseball player and manager (d. 2007) +1916 – Neagu Djuvara, Romanian historian, journalist, and diplomat (d. 2018) + 1916 – Moura Lympany, English pianist (d. 2005) +1917 – Caspar Weinberger, American captain, lawyer, and politician, 15th United States Secretary of Defense (d. 2006) +1918 – Cisco Houston, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1961) +1919 – Wally Hickel, American businessman and politician, 2nd Governor of Alaska (d. 2010) +1920 – Godfrey Evans, English cricketer (d. 1999) + 1920 – Bob Kennedy, American baseball player and manager (d. 2005) + 1920 – Shelley Winters, American actress (d. 2006) +1921 – Lydia Litvyak, Russian lieutenant and pilot (d. 1943) + 1921 – Zdzisław Żygulski, Polish historian and academic (d. 2015) +1922 – Alain Robbe-Grillet, French director, screenwriter, and novelist (d. 2008) +1923 – Katherine Victor, American actress (d. 2004) +1925 – Brian Aldiss, English author and critic (d. 2017) + 1925 – Pierre Grondin, Canadian surgeon and academic (d. 2006) + 1925 – Anis Mansour, Egyptian journalist and author (d. 2011) +1927 – Rosalynn Carter, 41st First Lady of the United States +1928 – Marge Schott, American businesswoman (d. 2004) + 1928 – Sonny Til, American R&B singer (d. 1981) +1929 – Hugues Aufray, French singer-songwriter +1930 – Liviu Librescu, Romanian-American engineer and academic (d. 2007) + 1930 – Rafael Pineda Ponce, Honduran academic and politician (d. 2014) +1931 – Bramwell Tillsley, Canadian 14th General of The Salvation Army (d. 2019) + 1931 – Hans van Mierlo, Dutch journalist and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 2010) + 1931 – Grant Williams, American film, theater and television actor (d. 1985) +1932 – Luc Montagnier, French virologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2022) +1933 – Just Fontaine, Moroccan-French footballer and manager (d. 2023) + 1933 – Roman Polanski, French-Polish director, producer, screenwriter, and actor + 1933 – Frank Salemme, American gangster and hitman (d. 2022) +1934 – Vincent Bugliosi, American lawyer and author (d. 2015) + 1934 – Roberto Clemente, Puerto Rican-American baseball player and soldier (d. 1972) + 1934 – Gulzar, Indian poet, lyricist and film director + 1934 – Rafer Johnson, American decathlete and actor (d. 2020) + 1934 – Michael May, German-Swiss race car driver and engineer +1935 – Gail Fisher, American actress (d. 2000) + 1935 – Hifikepunye Pohamba, Namibian lawyer and politician, 2nd President of Namibia +1936 – Robert Redford, American actor, director, and producer +1937 – Sheila Cassidy, English physician and author +1939 – Maxine Brown, American soul/R&B singer-songwriter + 1939 – Robert Horton, English businessman (d. 2011) + 1939 – Johnny Preston, American pop singer (d. 2011) +1940 – Adam Makowicz, Polish-Canadian pianist and composer + 1940 – Gil Whitney, American journalist (d. 1982) +1942 – Henry G. Sanders, American actor +1943 – Martin Mull, American actor and comedian + 1943 – Gianni Rivera, Italian footballer and politician + 1943 – Carl Wayne, English singer and actor (d. 2004) +1944 – Paula Danziger, American author (d. 2004) + 1944 – Robert Hitchcock, Australian sculptor and illustrator +1945 – Sarah Dash, American singer-songwriter and actress (d. 2021) + 1945 – Värner Lootsmann, Estonian lawyer and politician + 1945 – Lewis Burwell Puller, Jr., American soldier, lawyer, and author (d. 1994) +1948 – James Jones, English bishop + 1948 – John Scarlett, English intelligence officer +1949 – Nigel Griggs, English bass player, songwriter, and producer +1950 – Dennis Elliott, English drummer and sculptor +1952 – Elayne Boosler, American actress, director, and screenwriter + 1952 – Patrick Swayze, American actor and dancer (d. 2009) + 1952 – Ricardo Villa, Argentinian footballer and coach +1953 – Louie Gohmert, American captain, lawyer, and politician + 1953 – Marvin Isley, American R&B bass player and songwriter (d. 2010) +1954 – Umberto Guidoni, Italian astrophysicist, astronaut, and politician +1955 – Bruce Benedict, American baseball player and coach + 1955 – Taher Elgamal, Egyptian-American cryptographer +1956 – John Debney, American composer and conductor + 1956 – Sandeep Patil, Indian cricketer and coach + 1956 – Jon Schwartz, American drummer and producer + 1956 – Kelly Willard, American singer-songwriter + 1956 – Rainer Woelki, German cardinal +1957 – Tan Dun, Chinese composer + 1957 – Denis Leary, American comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter + 1957 – Ron Strykert, Australian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer +1958 – Didier Auriol, French race car driver + 1958 – Madeleine Stowe, American actress +1959 – Tom Prichard, American wrestler and trainer +1960 – Mike LaValliere, American baseball player + 1960 – Fat Lever, American basketball player and sportscaster +1961 – Huw Edwards, Welsh-English journalist and author + 1961 – Timothy Geithner, American banker and politician, 75th United States Secretary of the Treasury + 1961 – Bob Woodruff, American journalist and author +1962 – Felipe Calderón, Mexican lawyer and politician, 56th President of Mexico + 1962 – Geoff Courtnall, Canadian ice hockey player and coach + 1962 – Adam Storke, American actor +1964 – Craig Bierko, American actor and singer + 1964 – Andi Deris, German singer and songwriter + 1964 – Mark Sargent, Australian rugby league player + 1964 – Kenny Walker, American basketball player and sportscaster +1965 – Ikue Ōtani, Japanese voice actress +1966 – Gustavo Charif, Argentinian director and producer +1967 – Daler Mehndi, Indian Punjabi singer, songwriter and record producer + 1967 – Brian Michael Bendis, American author and illustrator +1969 – Everlast, American singer, rapper, and musician + 1969 – Masta Killa, American rapper + 1969 – Mark Kuhlmann, German rugby player and coach + 1969 – Edward Norton, American actor + 1969 – Christian Slater, American actor and producer +1970 – Jason Furman, American economist and politician + 1970 – Malcolm-Jamal Warner, American actor and producer +1971 – Patrik Andersson, Swedish footballer + 1971 – Richard David James, English musician composer +1974 – Nicole Krauss, American novelist and critic +1975 – Kaitlin Olson, American actress and comedian +1977 – Paraskevas Antzas, Greek footballer + 1977 – Even Kruse Skatrud, Norwegian musician and educator +1978 – Andy Samberg, American actor and comedian +1979 – Stuart Dew, Australian footballer +1980 – Esteban Cambiasso, Argentinian footballer + 1980 – Rob Nguyen, Australian race car driver + 1980 – Ryan O'Hara, Australian rugby league player + 1980 – Bart Scott, American football player + 1980 – Jeremy Shockey, American football player +1981 – César Delgado, Argentinian footballer + 1981 – Dimitris Salpingidis, Greek footballer +1983 – Mika, Lebanese-born English recording artist and singer-songwriter + 1983 – Cameron White, Australian cricketer +1984 – Sigourney Bandjar, Dutch footballer + 1984 – Robert Huth, German footballer +1985 – Inge Dekker, Dutch swimmer + 1985 – Bryan Ruiz, Costa Rican footballer +1986 – Evan Gattis, American baseball player + 1986 – Ross McCormack, Scottish footballer +1987 – Joanna Jędrzejczyk, Polish mixed martial artist + 1987 – Justin Wilson, American baseball player +1988 – Jack Hobbs, English footballer + 1988 – Eggert Jónsson, Icelandic footballer + 1988 – G-Dragon, South Korean rapper, singer-songwriter and record producer +1989 – Anna Akana, American actress, comedian, musician, and YouTuber + 1989 – Yu Mengyu, Singaporean table tennis player +1991 – Liz Cambage, Australian basketball player + 1991 – Richard Harmon, Canadian actor +1992 – Elizabeth Beisel, American swimmer + 1992 – Bogdan Bogdanović, Serbian basketball player + 1992 – Frances Bean Cobain, American visual artist and model +1993 – Jung Eun-ji, South Korean singer-songwriter + 1993 – Maia Mitchell, Australian actress and singer +1994 – Madelaine Petsch, American actress and YouTuber + 1994 – Morgan Sanson, French footballer + 1994 – Seiya Suzuki, Japanese baseball player +1995 – Alīna Fjodorova, Latvian figure skater + 1995 – Parker McKenna Posey, American actress +1997 – Josephine Langford, Australian actress + 1997 – Renato Sanches, Portuguese footballer +1998 – Brian To'o, Australian-Samoan rugby league player +1999 – Cassius Stanley, American basketball player + +Deaths + +Pre-1600 + 353 – Decentius, Roman usurper + 440 – Pope Sixtus III + 472 – Ricimer, Roman general and politician (b. 405) + 670 – Fiacre, Irish hermit + 673 – Kim Yu-shin, general of Silla (b. 595) + 849 – Walafrid Strabo, German monk and theologian (b. 808) +911 – Al-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahya, first Zaydi Imam of Yemen (b. 859) +1095 – King Olaf I of Denmark +1211 – Narapatisithu, king of Burma (b. 1150) +1258 – Theodore II Laskaris, emperor of Nicea (Byzantine emperor in exile) +1276 – Pope Adrian V (b. 1220) +1318 – Clare of Montefalco, Italian nun and saint (b. 1268) +1430 – Thomas de Ros, 8th Baron de Ros, English soldier and politician (b. 1406) +1500 – Alfonso of Aragon, Spanish prince (b. 1481) +1502 – Knut Alvsson, Norwegian nobleman and politician (b. 1455) +1503 – Pope Alexander VI (b. 1431) +1550 – Antonio Ferramolino, Italian architect and military engineer +1559 – Pope Paul IV (b. 1476) +1563 – Étienne de La Boétie, French judge and philosopher (b. 1530) +1600 – Sebastiano Montelupi, Italian businessman (b. 1516) + +1601–1900 +1613 – Giovanni Artusi, Italian composer and theorist (b. 1540) +1620 – Wanli Emperor of China (b. 1563) +1625 – Edward la Zouche, 11th Baron Zouche, English diplomat (b. 1556) +1634 – Urbain Grandier, French priest (b. 1590) +1642 – Guido Reni, Italian painter and educator (b. 1575) +1648 – Ibrahim of the Ottoman Empire (b. 1615) +1683 – Charles Hart, English actor (b. 1625) +1707 – William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Derbyshire (b. 1640) +1712 – Richard Savage, 4th Earl Rivers, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Essex (b. 1660) +1765 – Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1708) +1815 – Chauncey Goodrich, American lawyer and politician, 8th Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut (b. 1759) +1823 – André-Jacques Garnerin, French balloonist and the inventor of the frameless parachute (b. 1769) +1842 – Louis de Freycinet, French explorer and navigator (b. 1779) +1850 – Honoré de Balzac, French novelist and playwright (b. 1799) +1852 – James Finlayson, Scottish Quaker (b. 1772) +1886 – Eli Whitney Blake, American inventor, invented the Mortise lock (b. 1795) + +1901–present +1919 – Joseph E. Seagram, Canadian businessman and politician, founded the Seagram Company (b. 1841) +1940 – Walter Chrysler, American businessman, founded Chrysler (b. 1875) +1942 – Erwin Schulhoff, Austro-Czech composer and pianist (b. 1894) +1943 – Ali-Agha Shikhlinski, Azerbaijani general (b. 1865) +1944 – Ernst Thälmann, German soldier and politician (b. 1886) +1945 – Subhas Chandra Bose, Indian activist and politician (b. 1897) +1949 – Paul Mares, American trumpet player and bandleader (b. 1900) +1950 – Julien Lahaut, Belgian soldier and politician (b. 1884) +1952 – Alberto Hurtado, Chilean priest, lawyer, and saint (b. 1901) +1961 – Learned Hand, American lawyer, jurist, and philosopher (b. 1872) +1964 – Hildegard Trabant, Berlin Wall victim (b. 1927) +1968 – Arthur Marshall, American pianist and composer (b. 1881) +1979 – Vasantrao Naik, Indian politician (b. 1913) +1981 – Anita Loos, American author and screenwriter (b. 1889) +1983 – Nikolaus Pevsner, German-English historian and scholar (b. 1902) +1986 – Harun Babunagari, Bangladeshi Islamic scholar and educationist (b. 1902) +1990 – B. F. Skinner, American psychologist and philosopher, invented the Skinner box (b. 1904) +1994 – Francis Raymond Shea, American bishop (b. 1913) +1998 – Persis Khambatta, Indian model and actress, Femina Miss India 1965 (b. 1948) +2001 – David Peakall, English chemist and toxicologist (b. 1931) +2002 – Dean Riesner, American actor and screenwriter (b. 1918) +2003 – Tony Jackson, English singer and bassist (b. 1938) +2004 – Elmer Bernstein, American composer and conductor (b. 1922) + 2004 – Hiram Fong, American soldier and politician (b. 1906) +2005 – Chri$ Ca$h, American wrestler (b. 1982) +2006 – Ken Kearney, Australian rugby player (b. 1924) +2007 – Michael Deaver, American soldier and politician, White House Deputy Chief of Staff (b. 1938) + 2007 – Magdalen Nabb, English author (b. 1947) +2009 – Kim Dae-jung, South Korean lieutenant and politician, 15th President of South Korea, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1925) + 2009 – Rose Friedman, Ukrainian-American economist and author (b. 1910) + 2009 – Robert Novak, American journalist and author (b. 1931) +2010 – Hal Connolly, American hammer thrower and coach (b. 1931) + 2010 – Benjamin Kaplan, American scholar and jurist (b. 1911) +2012 – Harrison Begay, American painter (b. 1917) + 2012 – John Kovatch, American football player (b. 1920) + 2012 – Scott McKenzie, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1939) + 2012 – Ra. Ki. Rangarajan, Indian journalist and author (b. 1927) + 2012 – Jesse Robredo, Filipino public servant and politician, 23rd Secretary of the Interior and Local Government (b. 1958) +2013 – Josephine D'Angelo, American baseball player (b. 1924) + 2013 – Jean Kahn, French lawyer and activist (b. 1929) + 2013 – Albert Murray, American author and critic (b. 1916) +2014 – Gordon Faber, American soldier and politician, 39th Mayor of Hillsboro, Oregon (b. 1930) + 2014 – Jim Jeffords, American captain, lawyer, and politician (b. 1934) + 2014 – Levente Lengyel, Hungarian chess player (b. 1933) + 2014 – Don Pardo, American radio and television announcer (b. 1918) +2015 – Khaled al-Asaad, Syrian archaeologist and author (b. 1932) + 2015 – Roger Smalley, English-Australian pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1943) + 2015 – Suvra Mukherjee, Wife of former Indian president Pranab Mukherjee (b. 1940) + 2015 – Louis Stokes, American lawyer and politician (b. 1925) + 2015 – Bud Yorkin, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1926) +2016 – Ernst Nolte, German historian (b. 1923) +2017 – Bruce Forsyth, English television presenter and entertainer (b. 1928) + 2017 – Zoe Laskari, Greek actress and beauty pageant winner (b. 1944) +2018 – Denis Edozie, Nigerian Supreme Court judge (b. 1935) + 2018 – Kofi Annan, Ghanaian diplomat and seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations (b. 1938) +2020 – Ben Cross, English stage and film actor (b. 1947) +2023 – Lolita, the second-oldest orca in captivity (b. ca. 1966) + 2023 – Al Quie, American politician, 35th Governor of Minnesota (b. 1923) + +Holidays and observances +Christian feast day: +Agapitus of Palestrina +Alberto Hurtado +Daig of Inniskeen +Evan (or Inan) +Fiacre +Florus and Laurus +Helena of Constantinople (Roman Catholic Church) +William Porcher DuBose (Episcopal Church) +August 18 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) +Arbor Day (Pakistan) +Armed Forces Day (North Macedonia) +Birthday of Virginia Dare (Roanoke Island) +Constitution Day (Indonesia) +Long Tan Day, also called Vietnam Veterans' Day (Australia) +National Science Day (Thailand) + +References + +Sources + +External links + + + + + +Days of the year +August + + +Events + +Pre-1600 +295 BC – The first temple to Venus, the Roman goddess of love, beauty and fertility, is dedicated by Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges during the Third Samnite War. +43 BC – Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, later known as Augustus, compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul. + 947 – Abu Yazid, a Kharijite rebel leader, is defeated and killed in the Hodna Mountains in modern-day Algeria by Fatimid forces. +1153 – Baldwin III of Jerusalem takes control of the Kingdom of Jerusalem from his mother Melisende, and also captures Ascalon. +1458 – Pope Pius II is elected the 211th Pope. +1504 – In Ireland, the Hiberno-Norman de Burghs (Burkes) and Cambro-Norman Fitzgeralds fight in the Battle of Knockdoe. +1561 – Mary, Queen of Scots, aged 18, returns to Scotland after spending 13 years in France. + +1601–1900 +1604 – Eighty Years War: a besieging Dutch and English army led by Maurice of Orange forces the Spanish garrison of Sluis to capitulate. +1612 – The "Samlesbury witches", three women from the Lancashire village of Samlesbury, England, are put on trial, accused of practicing witchcraft, one of the most famous witch trials in British history. +1666 – Second Anglo-Dutch War: Rear Admiral Robert Holmes leads a raid on the Dutch island of Terschelling, destroying 150 merchant ships, an act later known as "Holmes's Bonfire". +1692 – Salem witch trials: In Salem, Province of Massachusetts Bay, five people, one woman and four men, including a clergyman, are executed after being convicted of witchcraft. +1745 – Prince Charles Edward Stuart raises his standard in Glenfinnan: The start of the Second Jacobite Rebellion, known as "the 45". + 1745 – Ottoman–Persian War: In the Battle of Kars, the Ottoman army is routed by Persian forces led by Nader Shah. +1759 – Battle of Lagos: Naval battle during the Seven Years' War between Great Britain and France. +1772 – Gustav III of Sweden stages a coup d'état, in which he assumes power and enacts a new constitution that divides power between the Riksdag and the King. +1782 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Blue Licks: The last major engagement of the war, almost ten months after the surrender of the British commander Charles Cornwallis following the Siege of Yorktown. +1812 – War of 1812: American frigate defeats the British frigate off the coast of Nova Scotia, Canada earning the nickname "Old Ironsides". +1813 – Gervasio Antonio de Posadas joins Argentina's Second Triumvirate. +1839 – The French government announces that Louis Daguerre's photographic process is a gift "free to the world". +1848 – California Gold Rush: The New York Herald breaks the news to the East Coast of the United States of the gold rush in California (although the rush started in January). +1854 – The First Sioux War begins when United States Army soldiers kill Lakota chief Conquering Bear and in return are massacred. +1861 – First ascent of Weisshorn, fifth highest summit in the Alps. +1862 – Dakota War: During an uprising in Minnesota, Lakota warriors decide not to attack heavily defended Fort Ridgely and instead turn to the settlement of New Ulm, killing white settlers along the way. + +1901–present +1903 – The Transfiguration Uprising breaks out in East Thrace, resulting in the establishment of the Strandzha Commune. +1909 – The Indianapolis Motor Speedway opens for automobile racing. William Bourque and his mechanic are killed during the first day's events. +1920 – The Tambov Rebellion breaks out, in response to the Bolshevik policy of Prodrazvyorstka. +1927 – Patriarch Sergius of Moscow proclaims the declaration of loyalty of the Russian Orthodox Church to the Soviet Union. +1934 – The first All-American Soap Box Derby is held in Dayton, Ohio. + 1934 – The German referendum of 1934 approves Adolf Hitler's appointment as head of state with the title of Führer. +1936 – The Great Purge of the Soviet Union begins when the first of the Moscow Trials is convened. +1940 – First flight of the B-25 Mitchell medium bomber. +1941 – Germany and Romania sign the Tiraspol Agreement, rendering the region of Transnistria under control of the latter. +1942 – World War II: Operation Jubilee: The 2nd Canadian Infantry Division leads an amphibious assault by allied forces on Dieppe, France and fails. +1944 – World War II: Liberation of Paris: Paris, France rises against German occupation with the help of Allied troops. +1945 – August Revolution: Viet Minh led by Ho Chi Minh take power in Hanoi, Vietnam. +1953 – Cold War: The CIA and MI6 help to overthrow the government of Mohammad Mosaddegh in Iran and reinstate the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. +1955 – In the Northeast United States, severe flooding caused by Hurricane Diane, claims 200 lives. +1960 – Cold War: In Moscow, Russia, Soviet Union, downed American U-2 pilot Francis Gary Powers is sentenced to ten years imprisonment by the Soviet Union for espionage. + 1960 – Sputnik program: Korabl-Sputnik 2: The Soviet Union launches the satellite with the dogs Belka and Strelka, 40 mice, two rats and a variety of plants. +1964 – Syncom 3, the first geostationary communication satellite, is launched. Two months later, it would enable live coverage of the 1964 Summer Olympics. +1965 – Japanese prime minister Eisaku Satō becomes the first post-World War II sitting prime minister to visit Okinawa Prefecture. +1978 – In Iran, the Cinema Rex fire causes more than 400 deaths. +1980 – Saudia Flight 163, a Lockheed L-1011 TriStar burns after making an emergency landing at King Khalid International Airport in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, killing 301 people. + 1980 – Otłoczyn railway accident: In Poland's worst post-war railway accident, 67 people lose their lives and a further 62 are injured. +1981 – Gulf of Sidra Incident: United States F-14A Tomcat fighters intercept and shoot down two Libyan Sukhoi Su-22 fighter jets over the Gulf of Sidra. +1987 – Hungerford massacre: In the United Kingdom, Michael Ryan kills sixteen people with a semi-automatic rifle and then commits suicide. +1989 – Polish president Wojciech Jaruzelski nominates Solidarity activist Tadeusz Mazowiecki to be the first non-communist prime minister in 42 years. + 1989 – Several hundred East Germans cross the frontier between Hungary and Austria during the Pan-European Picnic, part of the events that began the process of the Fall of the Berlin Wall. +1991 – Dissolution of the Soviet Union: The August Coup begins when Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev is placed under house arrest while on holiday in the town of Foros, Ukraine. + 1991 – Crown Heights riot begins. +1999 – In Belgrade, Yugoslavia, tens of thousands of Serbians rally to demand the resignation of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia President Slobodan Milošević. +2002 – Khankala Mi-26 crash: A Russian Mil Mi-26 helicopter carrying troops is hit by a Chechen missile outside Grozny, killing 118 soldiers. +2003 – A truck-bomb attack on United Nations headquarters in Iraq kills the agency's top envoy Sérgio Vieira de Mello and 21 other employees. + 2003 – Shmuel HaNavi bus bombing: A suicide attack on a bus in Jerusalem, planned by Hamas, kills 23 Israelis, seven of them children. +2004 – Google Inc. has its initial public offering on Nasdaq. +2005 – The first-ever joint military exercise between Russia and China, called Peace Mission 2005 begins. +2009 – A series of bombings in Baghdad, Iraq, kills 101 and injures 565 others. +2010 – Operation Iraqi Freedom ends, with the last of the United States brigade combat teams crossing the border to Kuwait. +2013 – The Dhamara Ghat train accident kills at least 37 people in the Indian state of Bihar. +2017 – Tens of thousands of farmed non-native Atlantic salmon are accidentally released into the wild in Washington waters in the 2017 Cypress Island Atlantic salmon pen break. + +Births + +Pre-1600 + 232 – Marcus Aurelius Probus, Roman emperor (d. 282) +1342 – Catherine of Bohemia, duchess of Austria (d. 1395) +1398 – Íñigo López de Mendoza, 1st Marquis of Santillana, Spanish poet and politician (d. 1458) +1570 – Salamone Rossi, Italian violinist and composer (probable; d. 1630) +1583 – Daišan, Chinese prince and statesman (d. 1648) +1590 – Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Berkshire (d. 1649) +1596 – Elizabeth Stuart, queen of Bohemia (d. 1662) + +1601–1900 +1609 – Jan Fyt, Flemish painter (d. 1661) +1621 – Gerbrand van den Eeckhout, Dutch painter, etcher, and poet (d. 1674) +1631 – John Dryden, English poet, literary critic and playwright (d. 1700) +1646 – John Flamsteed, English astronomer and academic (d. 1719) +1686 – Eustace Budgell, English journalist and politician (d. 1737) +1689 (baptized) – Samuel Richardson, English author and publisher (d. 1761) +1711 – Edward Boscawen, English admiral and politician (d. 1761) +1719 – Charles-François de Broglie, marquis de Ruffec, French soldier and diplomat (d. 1781) +1743 – Madame du Barry, French mistress of Louis XV of France (d. 1793) +1777 – Francis I, king of the Two Sicilies (d. 1830) +1815 – Harriette Newell Woods Baker, American editor and children's book writer (d. 1893) +1819 – Julius van Zuylen van Nijevelt, Luxembourger-Dutch politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1894) +1830 – Julius Lothar Meyer, German chemist (d. 1895) +1835 – Tom Wills, Australian cricketer and pioneer of Australian rules football (d. 1880) +1843 – C. I. Scofield, American minister and theologian (d. 1921) +1846 – Luis Martín, Spanish religious leader, 24th Superior General of the Society of Jesus (d. 1906) +1848 – Gustave Caillebotte, French painter and engineer (d. 1894) +1849 – Joaquim Nabuco, Brazilian politician and diplomat (d. 1910) +1858 – Ellen Willmott, English horticulturalist (d. 1934) +1870 – Bernard Baruch, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1965) +1871 – Orville Wright, American engineer and pilot, co-founded the Wright Company (d. 1948) +1873 – Fred Stone, American actor and producer (d. 1959) +1878 – Manuel L. Quezon, Filipino soldier, lawyer, and politician, 2nd President of the Philippines (d. 1944) +1881 – George Enescu, Romanian violinist, pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1955) + 1881 – George Shepherd, 1st Baron Shepherd (d. 1954) +1883 – Coco Chanel, French fashion designer, founded the Chanel Company (d. 1971) + 1883 – José Mendes Cabeçadas, Portuguese admiral and politician, 9th President of Portugal (d. 1965) +1885 – Grace Hutchins, American labor reformer and researcher (d. 1969) +1887 – S. Satyamurti, Indian lawyer and politician (d. 1943) +1895 – C. Suntharalingam, Sri Lankan lawyer, academic, and politician (d. 1985) +1899 – Colleen Moore, American actress (d. 1988) +1900 – Gontran de Poncins, French author and adventurer (d. 1962) + 1900 – Gilbert Ryle, English philosopher, author, and academic (d. 1976) + 1900 – Dorothy Burr Thompson, American archaeologist and art historian (d. 2001) + +1901–present +1902 – Ogden Nash, American poet (d. 1971) +1903 – James Gould Cozzens, American novelist and short story writer (d. 1978) +1904 – Maurice Wilks, English engineer and businessman (d. 1963) +1906 – Philo Farnsworth, American inventor, invented the Fusor (d. 1971) +1907 – Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, Indian historian, author, and scholar (d. 1979) +1909 – Ronald King, New Zealand rugby player (d. 1988) +1910 – Saint Alphonsa, first woman of Indian origin to be canonized as a saint by the Catholic Church (d. 1946) +1911 – Anna Terruwe, Dutch psychiatrist and author (d. 2004) +1912 – Herb Narvo, Australian rugby league player, coach, and boxer (d. 1958) +1913 – John Argyris, Greek engineer and academic (d. 2004) + 1913 – Peter Kemp, Indian-English soldier and author (d. 1993) + 1913 – Richard Simmons, American actor (d. 2003) +1914 – Lajos Baróti, Hungarian footballer and manager (d. 2005) + 1914 – Fumio Hayasaka, Japanese composer (d. 1955) + 1914 – Rose Heilbron, British barrister and judge (d. 2005) +1915 – Ring Lardner, Jr., American journalist and screenwriter (d. 2000) + 1915 – Alfred Rouleau, Canadian businessman (d. 1985) +1916 – Dennis Poore, English racing driver and businessman (d. 1987) +1918 – Jimmy Rowles, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1996) +1919 – Malcolm Forbes, American publisher and politician (d. 1990) +1921 – Gene Roddenberry, American screenwriter and producer (d. 1991) +1922 – Jack Holland, Australian rugby league player (d. 1994) +1923 – Edgar F. Codd, English computer scientist, inventor of relational model of data (d. 2003) +1924 – Willard Boyle, Canadian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2011) + 1924 – William Marshall, American actor, director, and opera singer (d. 2003) +1925 – Claude Gauvreau, Canadian poet and playwright (d. 1971) +1926 – Angus Scrimm, American actor and author (d. 2016) +1928 – Shiv Prasaad Singh, Indian Hindi writer (d. 1998) + 1928 – Bernard Levin, English journalist, author, and broadcaster (d. 2004) +1929 – Bill Foster, American basketball player and coach (d. 2016) + 1929 – Ion N. Petrovici, Romanian-German neurologist and academic (d. 2021) +1930 – Frank McCourt, American author and educator (d. 2009) +1931 – Bill Shoemaker, American jockey and author (d. 2003) +1932 – Thomas P. Salmon, American lawyer and politician, 75th Governor of Vermont + 1932 – Banharn Silpa-archa, Thai politician, Prime Minister (1995–1996) (d. 2016) +1933 – Bettina Cirone, American model and photographer + 1933 – David Hopwood, English microbiologist and geneticist + 1933 – Debra Paget, American actress +1934 – David Durenberger, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (d. 2023) + 1934 – Renée Richards, American tennis player and ophthalmologist +1935 – Bobby Richardson, American baseball player and coach +1936 – Richard McBrien, American priest, theologian, and academic (d. 2015) +1937 – Richard Ingrams, English journalist, founded The Oldie + 1937 – William Motzing, American composer and conductor (d. 2014) +1938 – Diana Muldaur, American actress + 1938 – Nelly Vuksic, Argentine conductor and musician +1939 – Ginger Baker, English drummer and songwriter (d. 2019) +1940 – Roger Cook, English songwriter, singer, and producer + 1940 – Johnny Nash, American singer-songwriter (d. 2020) + 1940 – Jill St. John, American model and actress +1941 – John Cootes, Australian rugby league player, priest, and businessman + 1941 – Mihalis Papagiannakis, Greek educator and politician (d. 2009) +1942 – Fred Thompson, American actor, lawyer, and politician (d. 2015) +1943 – Don Fardon, English pop singer + 1943 – Sid Going, New Zealand rugby player + 1943 – Billy J. Kramer, English pop singer +1944 – Jack Canfield, American author + 1944 – Stew Johnson, American basketball player + 1944 – Bodil Malmsten, Swedish author and poet (d. 2016) + 1944 – Eddy Raven, American country music singer-songwriter + 1944 – Charles Wang, Chinese-American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Computer Associates International (d. 2018) +1945 – Dennis Eichhorn, American author and illustrator (d. 2015) + 1945 – Charles Wellesley, 9th Duke of Wellington, English politician + 1945 – Ian Gillan, English singer-songwriter +1946 – Charles Bolden, American general and astronaut + 1946 – Bill Clinton, American lawyer and politician, 42nd President of the United States + 1946 – Dawn Steel, American film producer (d. 1997) +1947 – Dave Dutton, English actor and screenwriter + 1947 – Terry Hoeppner, American football player and coach (d. 2007) + 1947 – Gerald McRaney, American actor + 1947 – Gerard Schwarz, American conductor and director + 1947 – Anuška Ferligoj, Slovenian mathematician +1948 – Jim Carter, English actor + 1948 – Tipper Gore, American activist and author, former Second Lady of the United States + 1948 – Robert Hughes, Australian actor + 1948 – Christy O'Connor Jnr, Irish golfer and architect (d. 2016) +1949 – Michael Nazir-Ali, Pakistani-English bishop +1950 – Jennie Bond, English journalist and author + 1950 – Sudha Murty, Indian author and teacher, head of Infosys Foundation +1951 – John Deacon, English bass player and songwriter + 1951 – Gustavo Santaolalla, Argentinian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer +1952 – Jonathan Frakes, American actor and director + 1952 – Jimmy Watson, Canadian ice hockey player +1954 – Oscar Larrauri, Argentinian racing driver +1955 – Mary-Anne Fahey, Australian actress + 1955 – Peter Gallagher, American actor + 1955 – Patricia Scotland, Baroness Scotland of Asthal, Dominica-born English lawyer and politician, Attorney General for England and Wales + 1955 – Ned Yost, American baseball player and manager +1956 – Adam Arkin, American actor, director, and producer + 1956 – José Rubén Zamora, Guatemalan journalist +1957 – Paul-Jan Bakker, Dutch cricketer + 1957 – Gary Chapman, American singer-songwriter and guitarist + 1957 – Martin Donovan, American actor and director + 1957 – Ian Gould, English cricketer and umpire + 1957 – Cesare Prandelli, Italian footballer and manager + 1957 – Christine Soetewey, Belgian high jumper + 1957 – Gerda Verburg, Dutch trade union leader and politician, Dutch Minister of Agriculture +1958 – Gary Gaetti, American baseball player, coach, and manager + 1958 – Anthony Muñoz, American football player and sportscaster + 1958 – Brendan Nelson, Australian physician and politician, 47th Minister for Defence for Australia + 1958 – Rick Snyder, American politician and businessman, 48th Governor of Michigan + 1958 – Darryl Sutter, Canadian ice hockey player and coach +1959 – Chris Mortimer, Australian rugby league player + 1959 – Ivan Neville, American singer-songwriter + 1959 – Ricky Pierce, American basketball player +1960 – Morten Andersen, Danish-American football player + 1960 – Ron Darling, American baseball player and commentator +1961 – Jonathan Coe, English author and academic +1963 – John Stamos, American actor +1965 – Kevin Dillon, American actor + 1965 – Kyra Sedgwick, American actress and producer + 1965 – James Tomkins, Australian rower +1966 – Lee Ann Womack, American singer-songwriter +1967 – Khandro Rinpoche, Indian spiritual leader + 1967 – Satya Nadella, Indian-American business executive, Chairman and CEO of Microsoft + 1969 – Douglas Allen Tunstall Jr., American professional wrestler and politician +1969 – Nate Dogg, American rapper (d. 2011) + 1969 – Matthew Perry, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2023) + 1969 – Kazuyoshi Tatsunami, Japanese baseball player and coach + 1969 – Clay Walker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist +1970 – Fat Joe, American rapper +1971 – Mary Joe Fernández, Dominican-American tennis player and coach + 1971 – João Vieira Pinto, Portuguese footballer +1972 – Roberto Abbondanzieri, Argentinian footballer and manager + 1972 – Chihiro Yonekura, Japanese singer-songwriter +1973 – Marco Materazzi, Italian footballer and manager + 1973 – Roy Rogers, American basketball player and coach + 1973 – Tasma Walton, Australian actress +1975 – Tracie Thoms, American actress +1976 – Régine Chassagne, Canadian singer-songwriter +1977 – Iban Mayo, Spanish cyclist +1978 – Chris Capuano, American baseball player + 1978 – Jakub Dvorský, Czech game designer + 1978 – Thomas Jones, American football player +1979 – Oumar Kondé, Swiss footballer +1980 – Darius Campbell, Scottish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (d. 2022) + 1980 – Craig Frawley, Australian rugby league player + 1980 – Jun Jin, South Korean singer + 1980 – Paul Parry, Welsh footballer + 1980 – Michael Todd, American bass player +1981 – Nick Kennedy, English rugby player + 1981 – Taylor Pyatt, Canadian ice hockey player + 1981 – Percy Watson, American football player and wrestler +1982 – Erika Christensen, American actress + 1982 – Melissa Fumero, American actress + 1982 – J. J. Hardy, American baseball player + 1982 – Kevin Rans, Belgian pole vaulter + 1982 – Stipe Miocic, American professional mixed martial artist + 1982 – Steve Ott, Canadian ice hockey player +1983 – Mike Conway, English racing driver + 1983 – Missy Higgins, Australian singer-songwriter + 1983 – Tammin Sursok, South African-Australian actress and singer +1984 – Simon Bird, English actor and screenwriter + 1984 – Alessandro Matri, Italian footballer + 1984 – Ryan Taylor, English footballer +1985 – David A. Gregory, American actor + 1985 – Lindsey Jacobellis, American snowboarder +1986 – Sotiris Balafas, Greek footballer + 1986 – Saori Kimura, Japanese volleyball player + 1986 – Christina Perri, American singer and songwriter +1987 – Patrick Chung, Jamaican-American football player + 1987 – Nick Driebergen, Dutch swimmer + 1987 – Nico Hülkenberg, German racing driver +1988 – Kirk Cousins, American football player + 1988 – Veronica Roth, American author +1989 – Romeo Miller, American basketball player, rapper, actor +1990 – Danny Galbraith, Scottish footballer +1991 – Salem Al-Dawsari, Saudi Arabian footballer +1992 – David Rittich, Czech ice hockey player +1994 – Nafissatou Thiam, Belgian pentathlete and heptathlete + 1994 – Fernando Gaviria, Colombian cyclist +1996 – Jung Ye-rin, South Korean singer and actress + 1996 – Lachlan Lewis, Australian rugby league player +1999 – Ethan Cutkosky, American actor and musician + 1999 – Thomas Flegler, Australian rugby league player +2000 – Keegan Murray, American basketball player +2001 – Awak Kuier, Finnish basketball player + +Deaths + +Pre-1600 + 607 BC – Duke Ling of Jin, Chinese monarch +AD 14 – Augustus, Roman emperor (b. 63 BC) + 780 – Credan, English abbot and saint + 947 – Abu Yazid, Kharijite rebel leader (b. 873) + 998 – Fujiwara no Sukemasa, Japanese noble, statesman and calligrapher (b. 944) +1072 – Hawise, Duchess of Brittany (b. 1037) +1085 – Al-Juwayni, Muslim scholar and imam (b. 1028) +1186 – Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany (b. 1158) +1245 – Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence (b. 1195) +1284 – Alphonso, Earl of Chester (b. 1273) +1297 – Louis of Toulouse, French bishop and saint (b. 1274) +1457 – Andrea del Castagno, Italian painter (b. 1421) +1470 – Richard Olivier de Longueil, French cardinal (b. 1406) +1493 – Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1415) +1506 – King Alexander Jagiellon of Poland (b. 1461) +1541 – Vincenzo Cappello, Venetian admiral and statesman (b. 1469) +1580 – Andrea Palladio, Italian architect, designed the Church of San Giorgio Maggiore and Il Redentore (b. 1508) + +1601–1900 +1646 – Alexander Henderson, Scottish theologian and academic (b. 1583) +1654 – Yom-Tov Lipmann Heller, Bohemian rabbi (b. 1579) +1662 – Blaise Pascal, French mathematician, physicist, and philosopher (b. 1623) +1680 – Jean Eudes, French priest, founded the Congregation of Jesus and Mary (b. 1601) +1691 – Köprülü Fazıl Mustafa Pasha, Ottoman commander and politician, 117th Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (b. 1637) +1702 – Anthony Grey, 11th Earl of Kent, English politician (b. 1645) +1753 – Johann Balthasar Neumann, German engineer and architect, designed Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers (b. 1687) +1808 – Fredrik Henrik af Chapman, Swedish admiral and shipbuilder (b. 1721) +1822 – Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre, French mathematician and astronomer (b. 1749) +1883 – Jeremiah S. Black, American lawyer and politician, 24th United States Attorney General (b. 1810) +1889 – Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam, French author, poet, and playwright (b. 1838) +1895 – John Wesley Hardin, American Old West outlaw, gunfighter (b. 1853) +1900 – Jean-Baptiste Accolay, Belgian violinist, composer, and conductor (b. 1833) + +1901–present +1914 – Franz Xavier Wernz, German religious leader, 25th Superior General of the Society of Jesus (b. 1844) +1915 – Tevfik Fikret, Turkish poet and educator (b. 1867) +1923 – Vilfredo Pareto, Italian sociologist and economist (b. 1845) +1928 – Stephanos Skouloudis, Greek banker and diplomat, 97th Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1838) +1929 – Sergei Diaghilev, Russian critic and producer, founded Ballets Russes (b. 1872) +1932 – Louis Anquetin, French painter (b. 1861) +1936 ��� Federico García Lorca, Spanish poet, playwright, and director (b. 1898) +1942 – Harald Kaarmann, Estonian footballer (b. 1901) + 1942 – Heinrich Rauchinger, Kraków-born painter (b. 1858) +1944 – Henry Wood, English conductor (b. 1869) +1945 – Tomás Burgos, Chilean philanthropist (b. 1875) +1950 – Giovanni Giorgi, Italian physicist and engineer (b. 1871) +1954 – Alcide De Gasperi, Italian journalist and politician, 30th Prime Minister of Italy (b. 1881) +1957 – David Bomberg, English soldier and painter (b. 1890) +1967 – Hugo Gernsback, Luxembourg-born American author and publisher (b. 1884) + 1967 – Isaac Deutscher, Polish-English journalist and historian (b. 1907) +1968 – George Gamow, Ukrainian-American physicist and cosmologist (b. 1904) +1970 – Paweł Jasienica, Polish soldier and historian (b. 1909) +1975 – Mark Donohue, American race car driver and engineer (b. 1937) +1976 – Alastair Sim, Scottish-English actor (b. 1900) + 1976 – Ken Wadsworth, New Zealand cricketer (b. 1946) +1977 – Aleksander Kreek, Estonian shot putter and discus thrower (b. 1914) + 1977 – Groucho Marx, American comedian and actor (b. 1890) +1980 – Otto Frank, German-Swiss businessman, father of Anne Frank (b. 1889) +1981 – Jessie Matthews, English actress, singer, and dancer (b. 1907) +1982 – August Neo, Estonian wrestler (b. 1908) +1986 – Hermione Baddeley, English actress (b. 1906) + 1986 – Viv Thicknesse, Australian rugby player (b. 1910) +1993 – Utpal Dutt, Bangladeshi actor, director, and playwright (b. 1929) +1994 – Linus Pauling, American chemist and biologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1901) +1995 – Pierre Schaeffer, French composer and musicologist (b. 1910) +2000 – Bineshwar Brahma, Indian poet, author, and educator (b. 1948) +2001 – Donald Woods, South African journalist and activist (b. 1933) +2003 – Carlos Roberto Reina, Honduran lawyer and politician, President of Honduras (b. 1926) + 2003 – Sérgio Vieira de Mello, Brazilian diplomat (b. 1948) +2005 – Mo Mowlam, English academic and politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (b. 1949) +2008 – Levy Mwanawasa, Zambian lawyer and politician, 3rd President of Zambia (b. 1948) +2009 – Don Hewitt, American television producer, created 60 Minutes (b. 1922) +2011 – Raúl Ruiz, Chilean director and producer (b. 1941) +2012 – Donal Henahan, American journalist and critic (b. 1921) + 2012 – Ivar Iversen, Norwegian canoe racer (b. 1914) + 2012 – Tony Scott, English-American director and producer (b. 1944) + 2012 – Edmund Skellings, American poet and academic (b. 1932) +2013 – Musa'id bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, Saudi Arabian prince (b. 1923) + 2013 – Russell S. Doughten, American director and producer (b. 1927) + 2013 – Abdul Rahim Hatif, Afghan politician, 8th President of Afghanistan (b. 1926) + 2013 – Donna Hightower, American singer-songwriter (b. 1926) +2014 – Samih al-Qasim, Palestinian poet and journalist (b. 1939) + 2014 – Simin Behbahani, Iranian poet and activist (b. 1927) + 2014 – James Foley, American photographer and journalist (b. 1973) + 2014 – Candida Lycett Green, Anglo-Irish journalist and author (b. 1942) +2015 – George Houser, American minister and activist (b. 1916) + 2015 – Sanat Mehta, Indian activist and politician (b. 1935) +2016 – Jack Riley, American actor and voice artist (b. 1935) +2017 – Dick Gregory, American comedian, author and activist (b. 1932) +2019 – Lars Larsen, Danish businessman and billionaire, founder and owner of the Danish retail chain JYSK (b. 1948) +2021 – Sonny Chiba, Japanese actor (b. 1939) +2023 – Václav Patejdl, Slovak musician (b. 1954) + +Holidays and observances +Afghan Independence Day, commemorates the Treaty of Rawalpindi in 1919, granting independence from Britain (Afghanistan) +August Revolution Commemoration Day (Vietnam) +Birthday of Crown Princess Mette-Marit (Norway) +Christian Feast Day: +Bernardo Tolomei +Bertulf of Bobbio +Saint Calminius +Ezequiél Moreno y Díaz +Feast of the Transfiguration (Julian calendar), and its related observances: +Buhe (Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church) +Saviour's Transfiguration, popularly known as the "Apples Feast" (Russian Orthodox Church and Georgian Orthodox Church) +Jean-Eudes de Mézeray +Louis of Toulouse +Maginus +Magnus of Anagni +Magnus of Avignon +Sebaldus +August 19 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) +Manuel Luis Quezón Day (Quezon City and other places in the Philippines named after Manuel L. Quezon) +National Aviation Day (United States) +World Humanitarian Day + +References + +External links + + + + + +Days of the year +August + + +Events + +Pre-1600 + 959 – Eraclus becomes the 25th bishop of Liège. +1140 – Song dynasty general Yue Fei defeats an army led by Jin dynasty general Wuzhu at the Battle of Yancheng during the Jin–Song Wars. +1169 – Battle of the Blacks: Uprising by the black African forces of the Fatimid army, along with a number of Egyptian emirs and commoners, against Saladin. +1192 – Minamoto no Yoritomo becomes Sei-i Taishōgun and the de facto ruler of Japan. (Traditional Japanese date: the 12th day of the seventh month in the third year of the Kenkyū (建久) era). +1331 – King Stefan Uroš III, after months of anarchy, surrenders to his son and rival Stefan Dušan, who succeeds as King of Serbia. +1415 – Henry the Navigator leads Portuguese forces to victory over the Marinids at the Conquest of Ceuta. + +1601–1900 +1680 – Pueblo Indians capture Santa Fe from the Spanish during the Pueblo Revolt. +1689 – The Battle of Dunkeld in Scotland. +1716 – Seventh Ottoman–Venetian War: The arrival of naval reinforcements and the news of the Battle of Petrovaradin force the Ottomans to abandon the Siege of Corfu, thus preserving the Ionian Islands under Venetian rule. +1770 – James Cook formally claims eastern Australia for Great Britain, naming it New South Wales. +1772 – King Gustav III completes his coup d'état by adopting a new Constitution, ending half a century of parliamentary rule in Sweden and installing himself as an enlightened despot. +1778 – American Revolutionary War: British forces begin besieging the French outpost at Pondichéry. +1791 – A Vodou ceremony, led by Dutty Boukman, turns into a violent slave rebellion, beginning the Haitian Revolution. +1808 – Battle of Vimeiro: British and Portuguese forces led by General Arthur Wellesley defeat French force under Major-General Jean-Andoche Junot near the village of Vimeiro, Portugal, the first Anglo-Portuguese victory of the Peninsular War. +1810 – Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, Marshal of France, is elected Crown Prince of Sweden by the Swedish Riksdag of the Estates. +1821 – Jarvis Island is discovered by the crew of the ship, Eliza Frances. +1831 – Nat Turner leads black slaves and free blacks in a rebellion in Southampton County, Virginia, which will claim the lives of 55 to 65 whites and about twice that number of blacks. +1852 – Tlingit Indians destroy Fort Selkirk, Yukon Territory. +1858 – The first of the Lincoln–Douglas debates is held in Ottawa, Illinois. +1862 – The Stadtpark, the first public park in Vienna, opens to the public. +1863 – Lawrence, Kansas is destroyed by pro-Confederate guerrillas known as Quantrill's Raiders. +1878 – The American Bar Association is founded in Saratoga Springs, New York. +1879 – The locals of Knock, County Mayo, Ireland report their having seen an apparition of the Virgin Mary. The apparition is later named “Our Lady of Knock” and the spot transformed into a Catholic pilgrimage site. +1883 – An F5 tornado strikes Rochester, Minnesota, leading to the creation of the Mayo Clinic. +1888 – The first successful adding machine in the United States is patented by William Seward Burroughs. + +1901–present +1901 – Six hundred American school teachers, Thomasites, arrived in Manila on the USAT Thomas. +1911 – The Mona Lisa is stolen by Vincenzo Peruggia, a Louvre employee. +1914 – World War I: The Battle of Charleroi, a successful German attack across the River Sambre that pre-empted a French offensive in the same area. +1918 – World War I: The Second Battle of the Somme begins. +1942 – World War II: The Guadalcanal Campaign: American forces defeat an attack by Imperial Japanese Army soldiers in the Battle of the Tenaru. +1944 – Dumbarton Oaks Conference, prelude to the United Nations, begins. + 1944 – World War II: Canadian and Polish units capture the strategically important town of Falaise, Calvados, France. +1945 – Physicist Harry Daghlian is fatally irradiated in a criticality accident during an experiment with the Demon core at Los Alamos National Laboratory. +1957 – The Soviet Union successfully conducts a long-range test flight of the R-7 Semyorka, the first intercontinental ballistic missile. +1959 – United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower signs an executive order proclaiming Hawaii the 50th state of the union. Hawaii's admission is currently commemorated by Hawaii Admission Day. +1963 – Xá Lợi Pagoda raids: The Army of the Republic of Vietnam Special Forces loyal to Ngô Đình Nhu, brother of President Ngo Dinh Diem, vandalizes Buddhist pagodas across the country, arresting thousands and leaving an estimated hundreds dead. +1965 – The Socialist Republic of Romania is proclaimed, following the adoption of a new constitution. +1968 – Cold War: Nicolae Ceaușescu, leader of the Socialist Republic of Romania, publicly condemns the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, encouraging the Romanian population to arm itself against possible Soviet reprisals. + 1968 – James Anderson Jr. posthumously receives the first Medal of Honor to be awarded to an African American U.S. Marine. +1971 – A bomb exploded in the Liberal Party campaign rally in Plaza Miranda, Manila, Philippines with several anti-Marcos political candidates injured. +1982 – Lebanese Civil War: The first troops of a multinational force lands in Beirut to oversee the Palestine Liberation Organization's withdrawal from Lebanon. +1983 – Philippine opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr. is assassinated at Manila International Airport (now renamed Ninoy Aquino International Airport in his honor). +1986 – Carbon dioxide gas erupts from volcanic Lake Nyos in Cameroon, killing up to 1,800 people within a range. +1988 – The 6.9 Nepal earthquake shakes the Nepal–India border with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe), leaving 709–1,450 people killed and thousands injured. +1991 – Latvia declares renewal of its full independence after its occupation by the Soviet Union since 1940. + 1991 – Coup attempt against Mikhail Gorbachev collapses. +1993 – NASA loses contact with the Mars Observer spacecraft. +1994 – Royal Air Maroc Flight 630 crashes in Douar Izounine, Morocco, killing all 44 people on board. +1995 – Atlantic Southeast Airlines Flight 529, an Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia, attempts to divert to West Georgia Regional Airport after the left engine fails, but the aircraft crashes in Carroll County near Carrollton, Georgia, killing nine of the 29 people on board. +2000 – American golfer Tiger Woods wins the 82nd PGA Championship and becomes the first golfer since Ben Hogan in 1953 to win three majors in a calendar year. +2013 – Hundreds of people are reported killed by chemical attacks in the Ghouta region of Syria. +2017 – A solar eclipse traverses the continental United States. + +Births + +Pre-1600 +1165 – Philip II of France (d. 1223) +1481 – Jorge de Lencastre, Duke of Coimbra (d. 1550) +1535 – Shimazu Yoshihiro, Japanese general (d. 1619) +1552 – Muhammad Qadiri, Founder of the Naushahia branch of the Qadri order (d. 1654) +1567 – Francis de Sales, Swiss bishop and saint (d. 1622) +1579 – Henri, Duke of Rohan (d. 1638) +1597 – Roger Twysden, English historian and politician (d. 1672) + +1601–1900 +1625 – John Claypole, English politician (d. 1688) +1643 – Afonso VI of Portugal (d. 1683) +1660 – Hubert Gautier, French mathematician and engineer (d. 1737) +1665 – Giacomo F. Maraldi, French-Italian astronomer and mathematician (d. 1729) +1670 – James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick, French general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Hampshire (d. 1734) +1725 – Jean-Baptiste Greuze, French painter and educator (d. 1805) +1754 – William Murdoch, Scottish engineer and inventor, created gas lighting (d. 1839) + 1754 – Banastre Tarleton, English general and politician (d. 1833) +1765 – William IV of the United Kingdom (d. 1837) +1789 – Augustin-Louis Cauchy, French mathematician and academic (d. 1857) +1798 – Jules Michelet, French historian and philosopher (d. 1874) +1800 – Hiram Walden, American general and politician (d. 1880) +1801 – Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer, Dutch historian and politician (d. 1876) +1813 – Jean Stas, Belgian chemist and physician (d. 1891) +1816 – Charles Frédéric Gerhardt, French chemist and academic (d. 1856) +1823 – Nathaniel Everett Green, English painter and astronomer (d. 1899) +1826 – Karl Gegenbaur, German anatomist and academic (d. 1903) +1829 – Otto Goldschmidt, German composer, conductor and pianist (d. 1907) +1840 – Ferdinand Hamer, Dutch bishop and missionary (d. 1900) +1851 – Charles Barrois, French geologist and palaeontologist (d. 1939) +1856 – Medora de Vallombrosa, Marquise de Morès, American heiress (d. 1921) +1858 – Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria (d. 1889) +1862 – Emilio Salgari, Italian journalist and author (d. 1911) +1869 – William Henry Ogilvie, Scottish-Australian poet and author (d. 1963) +1872 – Aubrey Beardsley, English author and illustrator (d. 1898) +1878 – Richard Girulatis, German footballer and manager (d. 1963) +1879 – Claude Grahame-White, English pilot and engineer (d. 1959) +1884 – Chandler Egan, American golfer and architect (d. 1936) +1885 – Édouard Fabre, Canadian runner (d. 1939) +1886 – Ruth Manning-Sanders, Welsh-English author and poet (d. 1988) +1887 – James Paul Moody, English sailor (d. 1912) +1891 – Emiliano Mercado del Toro, Puerto Rican-American soldier (d. 2007) +1892 – Charles Vanel, French actor and director (d. 1989) +1894 – Christian Schad, German painter (d. 1982) +1895 – Blossom Rock, American actress (d. 1978) +1897 – Keith Arbuthnott, 15th Viscount of Arbuthnott, Scottish soldier and peer (d. 1966) + +1901–present +1902 – Angel Karaliychev, Bulgarian author (d. 1972) +1903 – Kostas Giannidis, Greek pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1984) +1904 – Count Basie, American pianist, composer, and bandleader (d. 1984) +1905 – Bipin Gupta, Indian actor and producer (d. 1981) +1906 – Friz Freleng, American animator, director, and producer (d. 1995) +1907 – P. Jeevanandham, Indian lawyer and politician (d. 1963) +1909 – Nikolay Bogolyubov, Russian mathematician and physicist (d. 1992) +1912 – Toe Blake, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1995) +1914 – Doug Wright, English cricketer and coach (d. 1998) +1916 – Bill Lee, American actor and singer (d. 1980) + 1916 – Consuelo Velázquez, Mexican pianist and songwriter (d. 2005) +1917 – Leonid Hurwicz, Russian economist and mathematician (d. 2008) +1918 – Billy Reay, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach (d. 2004) +1921 – Reuven Feuerstein, Romanian-Israeli psychologist and academic (d. 2014) +1922 – Albert Irvin, English soldier and painter (d. 2015) +1923 – Keith Allen, Canadian-American ice hockey player, coach, and manager (d. 2014) +1924 – Jack Buck, American sportscaster (d. 2002) + 1924 – Jack Weston, American actor (d. 1996) +1926 – Can Yücel, Turkish poet and translator (d. 1999) +1927 – Thomas S. Monson, American religious leader, 16th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (d. 2018) +1928 – Addison Farmer, American bassist (d. 1963) + 1928 – Art Farmer, American trumpet player and composer (d. 1999) + 1928 – Bud McFadin, American football player (d. 2006) +1929 – Herman Badillo, Puerto Rican-American lawyer and politician (d. 2014) + 1929 – X. J. Kennedy, American poet, translator, anthologist, editor + 1929 – Ahmed Kathrada, South African politician and political prisoner (d. 2017) +1930 – Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon (d. 2002) + 1930 – Frank Perry, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1995) +1932 – Menashe Kadishman, Israeli sculptor and painter (d. 2015) + 1932 – Melvin Van Peebles, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2021) +1933 – Janet Baker, English soprano and educator + 1933 – Michael Dacher, German mountaineer (d. 1994) + 1933 – Barry Norman, English author and critic (d. 2017) + 1933 – Erik Paaske, Danish actor and singer (d. 1992) +1934 – Sudhakarrao Naik, Indian lawyer and politician, 13th Chief Minister of Maharashtra (d. 2001) + 1934 – Paul Panhuysen, Dutch composer (d. 2015) +1936 – Wilt Chamberlain, American basketball player and coach (d. 1999) + 1936 – Radish Tordia, Georgian painter and educator +1937 – Donald Dewar, Scottish politician, first First Minister of Scotland (d. 2000) + 1937 – Gustavo Noboa, Ecuadorian academic and politician, 51st President of Ecuador (d. 2021) + 1937 – Robert Stone, American novelist and short story writer (d. 2015) +1938 – Steve Cowper, American politician, 6th Governor of Alaska + 1938 – Kenny Rogers, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor (d. 2020) + 1938 – Mike Weston, English rugby player +1939 – James Burton, American Hall of Fame guitarist + 1939 – Festus Mogae, Botswana economist and politician, third President of Botswana + 1939 – Clarence Williams III, American actor (d. 2021) +1940 – Dominick Harrod, English journalist, historian, and author (d. 2013) + 1940 – Endre Szemerédi, Hungarian-American mathematician and computer scientist +1941 – Jackie DeShannon, American singer-songwriter +1943 – Patrick Demarchelier, French photographer (d. 2022) + 1943 – Jonathan Schell, American journalist and author (d. 2014) + 1943 – Lucius Shepard, American author and critic (d. 2014) + 1943 – Hugh Wilson, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2018) +1944 – Perry Christie, Bahamian politician, third Prime Minister of the Bahamas + 1944 – Peter Weir, Australian director, producer, and screenwriter +1945 – Basil Poledouris, Greek-American composer, conductor (d. 2006) + 1945 – Celia Brayfield, English journalist and author + 1945 – Jerry DaVanon, American baseball player + 1945 – Willie Lanier, American football player + 1945 – Patty McCormack, American actress +1947 – Carl Giammarese, American singer-songwriter and musician +1949 – Loretta Devine, American actress and singer + 1949 – Daniel Sivan, Israeli scholar and academic +1950 – Patrick Juvet, Swiss singer-songwriter and model (d. 2021) +1951 – Eric Goles, Chilean mathematician and computer scientist + 1951 – Glenn Hughes, English musician + 1951 – Yana Mintoff, Maltese politician, economist and educator + 1951 – Chesley V. Morton, American businessman and politician +1952 – Keith Hart, Canadian firefighter, wrestler, and trainer + 1952 – Jiří Paroubek, Czech soldier and politician, sixth Prime Minister of the Czech Republic + 1952 – Bernadette Porter, English nun and educator + 1952 – Joe Strummer, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2002) +1953 – Ivan Stang, American author, publisher, and director +1954 – Archie Griffin, American football player + 1954 – Steve Smith, American drummer + 1954 – Mark Williams, New Zealand-Australian singer-songwriter +1956 – Kim Cattrall, English-Canadian actress + 1956 – Jon Tester, American farmer and politician +1957 – Frank Pastore, American baseball player and radio host (d. 2012) +1958 – Steve Case, American businessman, co-founder of America Online (AOL) + 1958 – Mark Williams, Australian footballer and coach +1959 – Anne Hobbs, English tennis player and coach + 1959 – Jim McMahon, American football player and coach +1961 – Gerardo Barbero, Argentinian chess player and coach (d. 2001) + 1961 – V. B. Chandrasekhar, Indian cricketer and coach (d. 2019) + 1961 – Stephen Hillenburg, American marine biologist, cartoonist, animator and creator of SpongeBob SquarePants (d. 2018) +1962 – Cleo King, American actress + 1962 – John Korfas, Greek-American basketball player and coach + 1962 – Gilberto Santa Rosa, Puerto Rican bandleader and singer of salsa and bolero + 1962 – Pete Weber, American bowler +1963 – Mohammed VI of Morocco, King of Morocco + 1963 – Nigel Pearson, English footballer and manager +1964 – Gary Elkerton, Australian surfer +1965 – Jim Bullinger, American baseball player +1966 – John Wetteland, American baseball player and coach +1967 – Darren Bewick, Australian footballer + 1967 – Charb, French journalist and cartoonist (d. 2015) + 1967 – Carrie-Anne Moss, Canadian actress + 1967 – Serj Tankian, Lebanese-born Armenian-American singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, and record producer +1968 – Dina Carroll, English singer-songwriter + 1968 – Goran Ćurko, Serbian footballer + 1968 – Laura Trevelyan, English journalist and author +1969 – Bruce Anstey, New Zealand motorcycle racer + 1969 – Josée Chouinard, Canadian figure skater +1970 – Craig Counsell, American baseball player and coach + 1970 – Erik Dekker, Dutch cyclist and manager + 1970 – Cathy Weseluck, Canadian actress +1971 – Mamadou Diallo, Senegalese footballer + 1971 – Robert Harvey, Australian footballer and coach + 1971 – Liam Howlett, English keyboard player, DJ, and producer +1973 – Sergey Brin, Russian-American computer scientist and businessman, co-founded Google + 1973 – Steve McKenna, Canadian ice hockey player and coach +1974 – Martin Andanar, Filipino journalist and radio host + 1974 – Paul Mellor, Australian rugby league player and referee +1975 – Simon Katich, Australian cricketer and manager + 1975 – Alicia Witt, American actress and musician +1976 – Alex Brooks, American ice hockey player and scout + 1976 – Jeff Cunningham, Jamaican-American soccer player + 1976 – Robert Miles, Australian rugby league player + 1976 – Ramón Vázquez, Puerto Rican-American baseball player and coach +1978 – Peter Buxton, English rugby player and manager + 1978 – Reuben Droughns, American football player and coach + 1978 – Lee Gronkiewicz, American baseball player and coach + 1978 – Alan Lee, Irish footballer and coach + 1978 – Jason Marquis, American baseball player +1979 – Kelis, American singer-songwriter, producer, chef and author + 1979 – Diego Klattenhoff, Canadian actor +1980 – Bryan Allen, Canadian ice hockey player + 1980 – Burney Lamar, American race car driver + 1980 – Paul Menard, American race car driver + 1980 – Jasmin Wöhr, German tennis player +1981 – Jarrod Lyle, Australian golfer (d. 2018) + 1981 – Cameron Winklevoss, American rower and businessman, co-founded ConnectU + 1981 – Tyler Winklevoss, American rower and businessman, co-founded ConnectU + 1981 – Ross Thomas, American actor +1982 – Jason Eaton, New Zealand rugby player + 1982 – Omar Sachedina, Canadian television journalist, correspondent, and news anchor +1983 – Brody Jenner, American television personality and model + 1983 – Scott McDonald, Australian footballer +1984 – Neil Dexter, South African cricketer + 1984 – Melvin Upton, Jr., American baseball player +1985 – Nicolás Almagro, Spanish tennis player + 1985 – Aleksandra Kiryashova, Russian pole vaulter + 1985 – Alizée, French singer +1986 – Usain Bolt, Jamaican sprinter + 1986 – Wout Brama, Dutch footballer + 1986 – Koki Sakamoto, Japanese gymnast + 1986 – Brooks Wheelan, American comedian and actor +1987 – DeWanna Bonner, American-Macedonian basketball player + 1987 – Cody Kasch, American actor + 1987 – J. D. Martinez, American baseball player + 1987 – Jodie Meeks, American basketball player and coach +1988 – Robert Lewandowski, Polish footballer + 1988 – Kacey Musgraves, American singer-songwriter and guitarist +1989 – Charlison Benschop, Dutch footballer + 1989 – James Davey, English rugby league player + 1989 – Matteo Gentili, Italian footballer + 1989 – Hayden Panettiere, American actress + 1989 – Aleix Vidal, Spanish footballer +1990 – Bo Burnham, American comedian, musician, actor, filmmaker and poet + 1990 – Christian Vázquez, Puerto Rican baseball player +1991 – Leandro Bacuna, Dutch footballer +1992 – Brandon Drury, American baseball player + 1992 – RJ Mitte, American actor + 1992 – Felipe Nasr, Brazilian race car driver +1993 – Millie Bright, English footballer + 1993 – Mike Evans, American football player +1995 – Dominik Kubalík, Czech ice hockey player +1996 – Karolína Muchová, Czech tennis player +1999 – Maxim Knight, American actor +2000 – Corbin Carroll, American baseball player + +Deaths + +Pre-1600 + 672 – Emperor Kōbun of Japan (b. 648) + 784 – Alberic, archbishop of Utrecht + 913 – Tang Daoxi, Chinese general +1131 – King Baldwin II of Jerusalem +1148 – William II, Count of Nevers (b. c. 1089) +1157 – Alfonso VII of León and Castile (b. 1105) +1245 – Alexander of Hales, English theologian +1271 – Alphonse, Count of Poitiers (b. 1220) +1534 – Philippe Villiers de L'Isle-Adam, 44th Grandmaster of the Knights Hospitaller (b. 1464) +1568 – Jean Parisot de Valette, 49th Grandmaster of the Knights Hospitaller (b. 1495) + +1601–1900 +1614 – Elizabeth Báthory, Hungarian countess and purported serial killer (b. 1560) +1622 – Juan de Tassis, 2nd Count of Villamediana, Spanish poet and politician (b. 1582) +1627 – Jacques Mauduit, French composer and academic (b. 1557) +1673 – Henry Grey, 1st Earl of Stamford, English soldier (b. 1599) +1689 – William Cleland, Scottish poet and soldier (b. 1661) +1762 – Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, English author, poet, and playwright (b. 1689) +1763 – Charles Wyndham, 2nd Earl of Egremont, English politician, Secretary of State for the Southern Department (b. 1710) +1775 – Zahir al-Umar, Arabian ruler (b. 1690) +1796 – John McKinly, American physician and politician, first Governor of Delaware (b. 1721) +1814 – Benjamin Thompson, American-English physicist and colonel (b. 1753) +1835 – John MacCulloch, Scottish geologist and academic (b. 1773) +1836 – Claude-Louis Navier, French physicist and engineer (b. 1785) +1838 – Adelbert von Chamisso, German botanist and poet (b. 1781) +1853 – Charles Tristan, marquis de Montholon, French general (b. 1783) +1854 – Thomas Clayton, American lawyer and politician (b. 1777) +1867 – Juan Álvarez, Mexican general and president (1855) (b. 1790) +1870 – Ma Xinyi, Chinese general and politician, Viceroy of Liangjiang (b. 1821) +1888 – James Farnell, Australian politician, eighth Premier of New South Wales (b. 1825) + +1901–present +1905 – Alexander von Oettingen, Estonian theologian and statistician (b. 1827) +1910 – Bertalan Székely, Hungarian painter and academic (b. 1835) +1911 – Mahboob Ali Khan, sixth Nizam of Hyderabad State (b. 1866) +1919 – Laurence Doherty, English tennis player (b. 1875) +1935 – John Hartley, English tennis player (b. 1849) +1940 – Hermann Obrecht, Swiss lawyer and politician (b. 1882) + 1940 – Ernest Thayer, American poet and author (b. 1863) + 1940 – Leon Trotsky, Russian theorist and politician, founded the Red Army (b. 1879) +1943 – Henrik Pontoppidan, Danish journalist and author, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1857) +1947 – Ettore Bugatti, Italian-French engineer and businessman, founded Bugatti (b. 1881) +1951 – Constant Lambert, English composer and conductor (b. 1905) +1957 – Mait Metsanurk, Estonian author and playwright (b. 1879) + 1957 – Nels Stewart, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1902) + 1957 – Harald Sverdrup, Norwegian meteorologist and oceanographer (b. 1888) +1960 – David B. Steinman, American engineer, designed the Mackinac Bridge (b. 1886) +1964 – Palmiro Togliatti, Italian journalist and politician, Italian Minister of Justice (b. 1893) +1968 – Germaine Guèvremont, Canadian journalist and author (b. 1893) +1971 – George Jackson, American activist and author, co-founded the Black Guerrilla Family (b. 1941) +1974 – Buford Pusser, American police officer (b. 1937) + 1974 – Kirpal Singh, Indian spiritual master (b. 1894) +1978 – Charles Eames, American architect, co-designed the Eames House (b. 1907) +1979 – Giuseppe Meazza, Italian footballer and manager (b. 1910) +1981 – Kaka Kalelkar, Indian Hindi Writer(b. 1885) +1983 – Benigno Aquino Jr., Filipino journalist and politician (b. 1932) +1988 – Teodoro de Villa Diaz, Filipino guitarist and songwriter (b. 1963) + 1988 – Ray Eames, American architect, co-designed the Eames House (b. 1912) +1989 – Raul Seixas, Brazilian singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1945) +1993 – Tatiana Troyanos, American soprano and actress (b. 1938) +1995 – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Indian-American astrophysicist and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1910) + 1995 – Chuck Stevenson, American race car driver (b. 1919) +1996 – Mary Two-Axe Earley, Canadian indigenous women's rights activist (b. 1911) +2000 – Tomata du Plenty, American singer-songwriter and playwright (b. 1948) + 2000 – Daniel Lisulo, Zambian politician, third Prime Minister of Zambia (b. 1930) + 2000 – Andrzej Zawada, Polish mountaineer and author (b. 1928) +2001 – Calum MacKay, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1927) +2003 – John Coplans, British artist (b. 1920) + 2003 – Kathy Wilkes, English philosopher and academic (b. 1946) +2004 – Sachidananda Routray, Indian Oriya-language poet (b. 1916) +2005 – Martin Dillon, American tenor and educator (b. 1957) + 2005 – Robert Moog, American businessman, founded Moog Music (b. 1934) + 2005 – Dahlia Ravikovitch, Israeli poet and translator (b. 1936) +2005 – Marcus Schmuck, Austrian mountaineer (b. 1925) +2006 – Bismillah Khan, Indian musician, Bharat Ratna recipient (b. 1916) +2006 – Paul Fentener van Vlissingen, Dutch businessman and philanthropist (b. 1941) +2007 – Frank Bowe, American academic (b. 1947) + 2007 – Siobhan Dowd, British author (b. 1960) + 2007 – Elizabeth P. Hoisington, American general (b. 1918) +2008 – Jerry Finn, American engineer and producer (b. 1969) +2009 – Rex Shelley, Singaporean engineer and author (b. 1930) +2010 – Rodolfo Enrique Fogwill, Argentinean sociologist and author (b. 1941) +2012 – Georg Leber, German soldier and politician, Federal Minister of Defence for Germany (b. 1920) + 2012 – J. Frank Raley Jr., American soldier and politician (b. 1926) + 2012 – Don Raleigh, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1926) + 2012 – Guy Spitaels, Belgian academic and politician, seventh Minister-President of Wallonia (b. 1931) + 2012 – William Thurston, American mathematician and academic (b. 1946) +2013 – Jean Berkey, American lawyer and politician (b. 1938) + 2013 – Sid Bernstein, American record producer (b. 1918) + 2013 – C. Gordon Fullerton, American colonel, engineer, and astronaut (b. 1936) + 2013 – Fred Martin, Scottish footballer (b. 1929) + 2013 – Enos Nkala, Zimbabwean politician, Zimbabwean Minister of Defence (b. 1932) +2014 – Gerry Anderson, Irish radio and television host (b. 1944) + 2014 – Helen Bamber, English psychotherapist and academic (b. 1925) + 2014 – Steven R. Nagel, American colonel, engineer, and astronaut (b. 1946) + 2014 – Jean Redpath, Scottish singer-songwriter (b. 1937) + 2014 – Albert Reynolds, Irish businessman and politician, ninth Taoiseach of Ireland (b. 1932) +2015 – Colin Beyer, New Zealand lawyer and businessman (b. 1938) + 2015 – Wang Dongxing, Chinese commander and politician (b. 1916) + 2015 – Jimmy Evert, American tennis player and coach (b. 1924) +2017 – Bajram Rexhepi, First Kosovan Prime Ministers of UN mission administration in Kosovo (b. 1954) +2018 – Stefán Karl Stefánsson, Icelandic actor and singer (b. 1975) +2019 – Celso Piña, Mexican singer, composer, arranger, and accordionist (b. 1953) + +Holidays and observances + Christian Feast Day: + Abraham of Smolensk (Eastern Orthodox Church) + Euprepius of Verona + Maximilian of Antioch + Our Lady of Knock + Pope Pius X + Sidonius Apollinaris + August 21 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) + Ninoy Aquino Day (Philippines) + Youth Day (Morocco) + World Senior Citizen's Day + +References + +External links + + + + + +Days of the year +August +The Dodo is a fictional character appearing in Chapters 2 and 3 of the 1865 book Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson). The Dodo is a caricature of the author. A popular but unsubstantiated belief is that Dodgson chose the particular animal to represent himself because of his stammer, and thus would accidentally introduce himself as "Do-do-dodgson". + +Historically, the dodo was a non-flying bird that lived on the island of Mauritius, east of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean. It became extinct in the mid 17th century during the colonisation of the island by the Dutch. + +Alice's Adventures in Wonderland + +In this passage Lewis Carroll incorporated references to the original boating expedition of 4 July 1862 during which Alice's Adventures were first told, with Alice as herself, and the others represented by birds: the Lory was Lorina Liddell, the Eaglet was Edith Liddell, the Dodo was Dodgson, and the Duck was Rev. Robinson Duckworth. In order to get dry after a swim, the Dodo proposes that everyone run a Caucus race – where the participants run in patterns of any shape, starting and leaving off whenever they like, so that everyone wins. At the end of the race, Alice distributes comfits from her pocket to all as prizes. However this leaves no prize for herself. The Dodo inquires what else she has in her pocket. As she has only a thimble, the Dodo requests it from her and then awards it to Alice as her prize. The Caucus Race, as depicted by Carroll, is a satire on the political caucus system, mocking its lack of clarity and decisiveness. + +Interpretations + +Disney animated film version + +In the Disney film, the Dodo plays a much greater role in the story than in the book. He is merged with the character of Pat the Gardener, which leads to him sometimes being nicknamed Pat the Dodo, but this name is never mentioned in the film. The Dodo is also the leader of the caucus race. He has the appearance and personality of a sea captain. The Dodo is voiced by Bill Thompson and animated by Milt Kahl. + +Dodo is first seen as Alice is floating on the sea in a bottle. Dodo is seen singing, but when Alice asks him for help, he does not notice her. On shore, Dodo is seen on a rock, organizing a caucus race. This race involves running around until one gets dry, but the attempts are hampered by incoming waves. + +Dodo is later summoned by the White Rabbit, when the rabbit believes a monster, actually Alice having magically grown to a giant size, is inside his home. Dodo brings Bill the Lizard, and attempts to get him to go down the chimney. Bill refuses at first, but Dodo is able to convince him otherwise. However, the soot causes Alice to sneeze, sending Bill high up into the sky. Dodo then decides to burn the house down, much to the chagrin of the White Rabbit. He begins gathering wood, such as the furniture, for this purpose. However, Alice is soon able to return to a smaller size and exit the house. + +The White Rabbit soon leaves, while Dodo asks for matches, not realizing that the situation has been resolved. He then asks Alice for a match, but when she doesn't have any, Dodo complains about the lack of cooperation and uses his pipe to light the fire. + +The Dodo later appears briefly at the end of the film, conducting another Caucus Race while Alice is being chased by the Queen of Hearts and her card soldiers. + +In Alice's Wonderland Bakery, Dodo has returned and has a son named Jojo. + +Tim Burton's Alice in Wonderland version + +In Tim Burton's adaptation of Alice in Wonderland, the Dodo's appearance retains the subtle apparent nature from John Tenniel's illustration. He bears a down of brilliant blue and wears a navy blue waistcoat and white spats along with glasses and a cane. He is one of Alice's good-willed advisers, taking first note of her abilities as the true Alice. He is also one of the oldest inhabitants. His name is Uilleam, and he is portrayed by Michael Gough. He goes with the White Rabbit, Tweedledum and Tweedledee, and Dormouse to take Alice to Caterpillar to decide whether Alice is the real one. He is later captured by the Red Queen's forces. When Alice came to the Red Queen's castle, he was seen at the Red Queen's castle yard as a caddy for the Queen's croquet game. After the Red Queen orders the release of the Jubjub bird to kill all her subjects from rebelling, he is then seen briefly running from it when the Tweedles went to hide from it and escaped but was snatched by the Jubjub and was never seen again throughout the film. + +His name may be based on a lecture on William the Conqueror from Chapter Three of the original novel. The character is voiced by Michael Gough in his final feature film role before his death in 2011. Gough came out of retirement to appear in the film but the character only speaks three lines, so Gough managed to record in one day. + +References + +Lewis Carroll characters +Fictional flightless birds +Literary characters introduced in 1865 +Dodo +Male characters in literature +A Lory is a small to medium-sized arboreal parrot. + +Lory may also refer to: + +People + Al De Lory (1930–2012), an American record producer, arranger, conductor and session musician + Donna De Lory (born 1964), an American singer, dancer and songwriter + Milo B. Lory (1903–1974), an American sound editor + +Other uses + Lory, a fictional parrot, a minor character in the Alice series by Lewis Carroll +Lory Lake, in Minnesota, U.S. +Lory State Park, near Fort Collins, Colorado, U.S. + +See also + +Lorry (disambiguation) +Lori (disambiguation) +Loris (disambiguation) +Loris, strepsirrhine primates +Albert may refer to: + +Companies + Albert Czech Republic, a supermarket chain in the Czech Republic + Albert Heijn, a supermarket chain in the Netherlands + Albert Market, a street market in The Gambia + Albert Productions, a record label + Albert Computers, Inc., a computer manufacturer in the 1980s + +Entertainment + Albert (1985 film), a Czechoslovak film directed by František Vláčil + Albert (2015 film), a film by Karsten Kiilerich + Albert (2016 film), an American TV movie + Albert (album), by Ed Hall, 1988 + "Albert" (short story), by Leo Tolstoy + Albert (comics), a character in Marvel Comics + Albert (Discworld), a character in Terry Pratchett's Discworld series + Albert, a character in Dario Argento's 1977 film Suspiria + +Military + Battle of Albert (1914), a WWI battle at Albert, Somme, France + Battle of Albert (1916), a WWI battle at Albert, Somme, France + Battle of Albert (1918), a WWI battle at Albert, Somme, France + +People + Albert (given name) + Albert (surname) + Albert (wrestler) (born 1972), stage name of professional wrestler Matt Bloom + Albert (dancer) (François-Ferdinand 1789–1865), French ballet dancer + +Places + +Canada + Albert (1846–1973 electoral district), a provincial electoral district in New Brunswick from 1846 to 1973 + Albert (electoral district), a federal electoral district in New Brunswick from 1867 to 1903 + Albert (provincial electoral district), a provincial electoral district in New Brunswick + Albert County, New Brunswick + Rural Municipality of Albert, Manitoba, Canada + +United States + Albert, Kansas + Albert Township, Michigan + Albert, Oklahoma + Albert, Texas, a ghost town + The Albert (Detroit), formerly the Griswold Building, an American apartment block + +Elsewhere + Albert (Belize House constituency), a Belize City-based electoral constituency + Albert, New South Wales, a town in Australia + Electoral district of Albert, a former electoral district in Queensland, Australia + Albert, Somme, a French commune + +Transportation + Albert (automobile), a 1920s British light car + Albert (motorcycle), a 1920s German vehicle brand + Albert (tugboat), a 1979 U.S. tugboat + +Other + 719 Albert, Amor asteroid + Albert (crater), a lunar crater + The Albert, a pub in London + +See also + + Alberta (disambiguation) + Alberts (disambiguation) + Alberte (born 1963), a Danish singer and actress + Albertet, a diminutive of Albert + Albret, a seigneurie in Landes, France + Aubert, an Anglo-Saxon surname +Albert I may refer to: + +People + +Born before 1300 +Albert I, Count of Vermandois (917–987) +Albert I, Count of Namur () +Albert I of Moha +Albert I of Brandenburg (), first margrave of Brandenburg +Albert I, Margrave of Meissen (1158–1195) +Albert I of Käfernburg (), Archbishop of Magdeburg +Albert I of Pietengau () +Albert I, Lord of Mecklenburg (after 1230–1265) +Albert I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (1236–1279), second duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg +Albert I of Germany (1255–1308), king of Germany and archduke of Austria +Albert I, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst (–1316) + +Born after 1300 +Albert I, Duke of Bavaria (1336–1404), duke of Bavaria-Straubing, count of Holland, Hainault and Zealand +Albert I, Duke of Mecklenburg-Stargard +Albert I, Duke of Brunswick-Grubenhagen () +Albert I, Duke of Münsterberg-Oels (1468–1511) +Albert I, Duke of Prussia (1490–1568), first Duke of Prussia +Albert I, Prince of Monaco (1848–1922) +Albert I of Belgium (1875–1934), king of the Belgians +Albert I Kalonji Ditunga (1929–2015), Congolese politician + +Other uses +Albert I, the first monkey used in a subspace rocket launch, June 11, 1948 + +See also +Albert (given name) +Albert II may refer to: + +Monkeys + Albert II (monkey), first primate and first mammal in space, died on impact following V-2 flight June 14, 1949 + +People + Albert II, Count of Namur (died 1067) + Albert II, Count of Tyrol (died 1120s) + Albert II, Margrave of Brandenburg (–1220) + Albert II, Archbishop of Riga (1200–1273) + Albert II, Margrave of Meissen (1240–1314), + Albert II, Duke of Saxony (1250–1298) + Albert II, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (–1318) + Albert II of Austria (1298–1358) + Albert II, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst (died 1362) + Albert II, Duke of Mecklenburg (1318–1379) + Albert II, Duke of Bavaria-Straubing (1368–1397) + Albert II, Count of Holstein-Rendsburg (1369–1403) + Albert II of Germany (1397–1439), King of Germany, Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia, Duke of Austria + Albert II, Duke of Brunswick-Grubenhagen (1419–1485) + Albert II, Duke of Mecklenburg-Stargard (1400s) + Albert II, Count of Hoya (1526–1563) + Albert II, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (1620–1667) + Albert II of Belgium (born 1934), King of the Belgians + Albert II, Prince of Monaco (born 1958), ruler of the principality of Monaco + Albert II, Prince of Thurn and Taxis (born 1983), Prince of Thurn und Taxis, German prince +Albert III may refer to: + +Albert III, Count of Namur (1048–1102) +Albert III, Count of Habsburg (died 1199) +Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg-Salzwedel (–1300) +Albert III, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg (1281–1308) +Albert III, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst (died 1359) +Albert III, Count of Gorizia (died 1374) +Albert III, Duke of Austria (1349–1395) +Albert III, Duke of Saxe-Wittenberg (1375/1380–1422) +Albrecht III Achilles, Elector of Brandenburg (1414–1486) +Albert III, Duke of Bavaria (1438–1460) +Albert III, Duke of Saxony (1443–1500) +Albert II (; 28 March 15228 January 1557) was the margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach (Brandenburg-Bayreuth) from 1527 to 1553. He was a member of the Franconian branch of the House of Hohenzollern. Because of his bellicose nature, Albert was given the cognomen Bellator ("the Warlike") during his lifetime. Posthumously, he became known as Alcibiades. + +Biography + +Albert was born in Ansbach and, losing his father Casimir in 1527, he came under the guardianship of his uncle George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, a strong adherent of Protestantism. + +In 1541, he received Bayreuth as his share of the family lands, but as the chief town of his principality was Kulmbach, he is sometimes referred to as the Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. +His restless and turbulent nature marked him out for a military career; and having collected a small band of soldiers, he assisted Emperor Charles V in his war with France in 1543. + +The Peace of Crépy in September 1544 deprived him of this employment, but he won a considerable reputation, and when Charles was preparing to attack the Schmalkaldic League, he took pains to win Albert's assistance. + +Sharing in the attack on the Electorate of Saxony, Albert was taken prisoner at Rochlitz in March 1547 by Elector John Frederick of Saxony, but was released as a result of the Emperor's victory at the Battle of Mühlberg in the succeeding April. + +He then followed the fortunes of his friend Elector Maurice of Saxony, deserted Charles, and joined the league which proposed to overthrow the Emperor by an alliance with King Henry II of France. + +He took part in the subsequent campaign, but when the Peace of Passau was signed in August 1552 he separated himself from his allies and began a crusade of plunder in Franconia, which led to the Second Margrave War. + +Having extorted a large sum of money from the citizens of Nuremberg, he quarrelled with his supporter, the French King, and offered his services to the Emperor. +Charles, anxious to secure such a famous fighter, gladly assented to Albert's demands and gave the imperial sanction to his possession of the lands taken from the bishops of Würzburg and Bamberg; and his conspicuous bravery was of great value to the Emperor on the retreat from the Siege of Metz in January 1553. + +When Charles left Germany a few weeks later, Albert renewed his depredations in Franconia. These soon became so serious that a league was formed to crush him, and Maurice of Saxony led an army against his former comrade. + +The rival forces met at Sievershausen on 9 July 1553, and after a combat of unusual ferocity Albert was put to flight. Henry, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, then took command of the troops of the league, and after Albert had been placed under the Imperial ban in December 1553 he was defeated by Duke Henry, and compelled to flee to France. +He there entered the service of Henry II of France and had undertaken a campaign to regain his lands when he died at Pforzheim on 8 January 1557. + +He is defined by Thomas Carlyle as "a failure of a Fritz," with "features" of a Frederick the Great in him, "but who burnt away his splendid qualities as a mere temporary shine for the able editors, and never came to anything, full of fire, too much of it wildfire, not in the least like an Alcibiades except in the change of fortune he underwent". He had early two children: Frederick and Anna. He was buried at Heilsbronn Münster. His hymn "Was mein Got will, das g'scheh allzeit" was translated as "The will of God is always best". + +References + +Citations + +Works cited + Endnote: See J. Voigt, Markgraf Albrecht Alcibiades von Brandenburg-Kulmbach (Berlin, 1852). + + + + +1522 births +1557 deaths +House of Hohenzollern +People from Ansbach +People from the Principality of Ansbach +Margraves of Bayreuth +Albert the Bear (; 1100 – 18 November 1170) was the first margrave of Brandenburg from 1157 to his death and was briefly duke of Saxony between 1138 and 1142. + +Life +Albert was the only son of Otto, Count of Ballenstedt, and Eilika, daughter of Magnus Billung, Duke of Saxony. He inherited his father's valuable estates in northern Saxony in 1123, and on his mother's death, in 1142, succeeded to one-half of the lands of the house of Billung. Albert was a loyal vassal of his relation, Lothar I, Duke of Saxony, from whom, about 1123, he received the Margraviate of Lusatia, to the east; after Lothar became King of the Germans, he accompanied him on a disastrous expedition to Bohemia against the upstart, Soběslav I, Duke of Bohemia in 1126 at the Battle of Kulm, where he suffered a short imprisonment. + +Albert's entanglements in Saxony stemmed from his desire to expand his inherited estates there. After the death of his brother-in-law, Henry II, Margrave of the Nordmark, who controlled a small area on the Elbe called the Saxon Northern March, in 1128, Albert, disappointed at not receiving this fief himself, attacked Udo V, Count of Stade, the heir, and was consequently deprived of Lusatia by Lothar. Udo, however, was said to have been assassinated by servants of Albert on 15 March 1130 near Aschersleben. In spite of this, Albert went to Italy in 1132 in the train of the king, and his services there were rewarded in 1134 by the investiture of the Northern March, which was again without a ruler. + +In 1138 Conrad III, the Hohenstaufen King of the Germans, deprived Albert's cousin and nemesis, Henry the Proud, of his Saxon duchy, which was awarded to Albert if he could take it. After some initial success in his efforts to take possession, Albert was driven from Saxony, and also from his Northern March by a combined force of Henry and Jaxa of Köpenick, and compelled to take refuge in south Germany. Henry died in 1139 and an arrangement was found. Henry's son, Henry the Lion, received the duchy of Saxony in 1142. In the same year, Albert renounced the Saxon duchy and received the counties of Weimar and Orlamünde. + +Once he was firmly established in the Northern March, Albert's covetous eye lay also on the thinly populated lands to the north and east. For three years he was occupied in campaigns against the Slavic Wends, who as pagans were considered fair game, and whose subjugation to Christianity was the aim of the Wendish Crusade of 1147 in which Albert took part. Albert was a part of the army that besieged Demmin, and at the end of the war, recovered Havelberg, which had been lost since 983. Diplomatic measures were more successful, and by an arrangement made with the last of the Wendish princes of Brandenburg, Pribislav-Henry of the Hevelli, Albert secured this district when the prince died in 1150. Taking the title "Margrave in Brandenburg", he pressed the crusade against the Wends, extended the area of his mark, encouraged Dutch and German settlement in the Elbe-Havel region (Ostsiedlung), established bishoprics under his protection, and so became the founder of the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1157, which his heirs — the House of Ascania — held until the line died out in 1320. + +In 1158 a feud with Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, was interrupted by a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. On his return in 1160, he, with the consent of his sons, Siegfried not being mentioned, donated land to the Knights of Saint John in memory of his wife, Sofia, at Werben on the Elbe. Around this same time, he minted a pfennig in memory of his deceased wife. In 1162 Albert accompanied Emperor Frederick Barbarossa to Italy, where he distinguished himself at the storming of Milan. + +In 1164 Albert joined a league of princes formed against Henry the Lion, and peace being made in 1169, Albert divided his territories among his six sons. He died on 18 November 1170, and was buried at Ballenstedt. + +Cognomen + +Albert's personal qualities won for him the cognomen of the Bear, "not from his looks or qualities, for he was a tall handsome man, but from the cognisance on his shield, an able man, had a quick eye as well as a strong hand, and could pick what way was straightest among crooked things, was the shining figure and the great man of the North in his day, got much in the North and kept it, got Brandenburg for one there, a conspicuous country ever since," says Thomas Carlyle, who called Albert "a restless, much-managing, wide-warring man." He was also called "the Handsome." + +Marriage and children +Albert was married in 1124 to Sophie of Winzenburg (died 25 March 1160) and they had the following children: + Otto I, Margrave of Brandenburg (1126/1128–7 March 1184) + Count Hermann I of Orlamünde (died 1176), father of Siegfried III, Count of Weimar-Orlamünde + Siegfried (died 24 October 1184), Bishop of Brandenburg from 1173 to 1180, Prince-Archbishop of Bremen, the first ranked prince, from 1180 to 1184 + Heinrich (died 1185), a canon in Magdeburg + Count Albert of Ballenstedt (died after 6 December 1172) + Count Dietrich of Werben (died after 5 September 1183) + Count Bernhard of Anhalt (1134–9 February 1212), Duke of Saxony from 1180 to 1212 as Bernard III + Hedwig (d. 1203), married to Otto II, Margrave of Meissen + Daughter, married to Vladislav of Olomouc, the eldest son of Soběslav I, Duke of Bohemia + Adelheid (died 1162), a nun in Lamspringe + Gertrude, married in 1155 to Duke Diepold of Moravia + Sybille (died ), Abbess of Quedlinburg + Eilika + +References + +Works cited + +General references + +External links + +Thomas Carlyle, History of Friedrich ii Chapter iv: Albert the Bear +The History Files: Rulers of Brandenburg + + + + + + + +Albert 00 +Margraves of Brandenburg +Counts of Anhalt +People from Brandenburg an der Havel +Christians of the Wendish Crusade +1100s births +1170 deaths +Year of birth uncertain +Place of birth unknown +Albert of Brandenburg (; 28 June 149024 September 1545) was a German cardinal, elector, Archbishop of Mainz from 1514 to 1545, and Archbishop of Magdeburg from 1513 to 1545. + +Through his notorious sale of indulgences, he became the catalyst for Martin Luther's Reformation and its staunch opponent. + +Biography + +Career + +Born in Cölln on the Spree, now a central part of Berlin, into the ruling House of Hohenzollern, Albert was the younger son of John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg and Margaret of Thuringia. + +After their father's death in 1499, Albert's older brother Joachim I Nestor became elector of Brandenburg while Albert held only the title of a margrave of Brandenburg. Albert studied at the university of Frankfurt (Oder), and in 1513 became Archbishop of Magdeburg at the age of 23 and administrator of the Diocese of Halberstadt. + +In 1514 he was also elected Archbishop of Mainz and thus sovereign of the Electorate of Mainz and archchancellor of the Holy Roman Empire. By electing him, the Mainz cathedral chapter hoped for the support of the Elector of Brandenburg in defending the city of Erfurt, which belonged to the archbishopric of Mainz, against the expansionist efforts of the neighboring Saxon dukes. However, this choice violated the canonical prohibition to hold more than one bishopric. Albert also did not meet the requirements for taking over any diocese, since he had not yet reached the age, and he didn't have a college degree; therefore he received a study dispensation in 1513. Albert borrowed 20,000 guilders from Jacob Fugger to pay the confirmation fee to the Roman Curia (see: simony). In 1514 Albert suggested to Pope Leo X that a special indulgence be announced in his three dioceses as well as in his native diocese of Brandenburg and that half of the income should be used for the construction of the new St. Peter's Basilica and half for Albert's own cash register. The papal bull was issued on 31 March 1515. The indulgence was entrusted to Albert in 1517 for publication in Saxony and Brandenburg. It cost him the considerable sum of ten thousand ducats, and Albert employed Johann Tetzel for the actual preaching of the indulgence. Later, Martin Luther addressed a letter of protest to Albert concerning the conduct of Tetzel. + +Largely in reaction to Tetzel's actions, Luther wrote his famous Ninety-five Theses, which led to the Reformation. Luther sent these to Albert on 31 October 1517, and according to a disputable tradition, nailed a copy to the door of Castle Church in Wittenberg. Albert forwarded the theses to Rome, suspecting Luther of heresy. + +As Archbishop of Mainz, he tried unsuccessfully in 1515 and 1516 to expel the Jews living in Mainz. In 1518, at the age of 28, he was made a cardinal. When the imperial election of 1519 drew near, partisans of the two leading candidates (kings Charles I of Spain and Francis I of France) eagerly solicited the vote of the Prince-Archbishop of Mainz, and Albert appears to have received a large amount of money for his vote. The electors eventually chose Charles, who became the Emperor Charles V. + +Like other high-ranking clergymen of his time, Archbishop Albert lived in concubinage, gave his lovers gifts and favored his children as far as possible without causing much offense. Recent research assumes that he lived in a marriage-like relationship at first with Elisabeth "Leys" Schütz from Mainz and then with the Frankfurt widow Agnes Pless, née Strauss. With Leys Schütz he had a daughter named Anna, whom he married to his secretary Joachim Kirchner. + +Albert's large and liberal ideas, his correspondence with leading humanists, his friendship with Ulrich von Hutten whom he drew to his court, and his political ambitions, appear to have raised hopes that he could be won over to Protestantism; but after the German Peasants' War of 1525 he ranged himself definitely among the supporters of Catholicism, and was among the princes who joined the League of Dessau in July 1525. + +From 1514 until his flight on 21 February 1541, Albert ruled mostly from his residence Moritzburg in Halle. In 1531, he had a spacious new residential palace built there. Albert also needed a prestigious church that met his expectations at a central location in his residenz town. He feared for his peace of mind in heaven, and collected more than 8,100 relics and 42 holy skeletons which needed to be stored. From 1529, he had two parish churches standing next to each other demolished and only their four towers from with pointed helmets stood. Between these towers he had a large new nave built, which was named Market Church of Our Lady since she received a Marian patronage. However, these precious treasures, known as Hallesches Heilthum (the Halle sanctuary), indirectly related to the sale of indulgences which had triggered the Reformation a few years before because it should attract pilgrims willing to pay. Then, the cardinal and the Catholic members of the town council wanted to repress the growing influence of the Reformation by holding far grander Masses and services in a new church dedicated solely to the Blessed Virgin Mary, whose excessive worship Luther disliked. + +Albert's hostility towards the reformers, however, was not so extreme as that of his brother Joachim I; and he appears to have exerted himself towards peace, although he was a member of the League of Nuremberg, formed in 1538 as a counterpoise to the League of Schmalkalden. New doctrines nevertheless made considerable progress in his dominions, and he was compelled to grant religious liberty to the inhabitants of Magdeburg in return for 500,000 florins. In his later years, he showed more intolerance towards the Protestants, and favoured the teaching of the Jesuits in his dominions. + +The Market Church of Our Lady in Halle, which had been built to defend against the spread of Reformation sympathies, was the spot where Justus Jonas officially introduced the Reformation into Halle with his Good Friday sermon in 1541. The service must have been at least partly conducted in the open air, because at that time construction had only been finished at the eastern end of the nave. Jonas began a successful preaching crusade and attracted so many people that the church overflowed. Albert left the town permanently after the estates in the city had announced that they would take over his enormous debt at the bank of Jakob Fugger. Halle became Protestant and in 1542 Jonas was appointed as priest to St. Mary's and, in 1544, bishop over the city. + +Patron of the arts +He became a friend of science and a patron of the arts. As a patron of learning, he counted Erasmus among his friends. However, Albert's ideas about founding a Catholic university in Halle were not implemented. Nonetheless he adorned Halle Cathedral and Mainz Cathedral in sumptuous fashion, and took as his motto the words (Latin for "I have loved, O Lord, the beauty of thy house", from Psalm 25:8). Matthias Grünewald and Lucas Cranach the Elder created magnificent paintings for the Halle Cathedral which was decorated from 1519 to 1525 with 16 Passion altars with 140 pictures by Cranach and his workshop, the largest single commission in German art history. Grünewald contributed the famous wood painting Saint Erasmus and Saint Maurice. Albert also ordered paintings from Hans Baldung Grien and a cycle of 18 life-size statues of saints from Peter Schro in Mainz, which can still be admired in Halle Cathedral today. In 1526 he donated the market fountain in Mainz. In 1521, Martin Luther referred to the ever-growing collection of relics as the "idol of Halle". + +When Albert left Halle for good in 1541 and moved to his residence in Aschaffenburg in the electoral state of Mainz, he took with him the collection of relics, his private art collection and a large part of the works of art he had donated to the cathedral and other Catholic churches that now became protestant. He sold parts of the treasure of relics in order to be able to settle claims of the cathedral chapters of Magdeburg and Halberstadt; the sanctuaries are scattered today. He took his private paintings with him to his residence in Johannisburg Castle, where a large part was plundered and destroyed in 1552 during the Second Margrave War. He had the works of art brought from Halle Cathedral hung in the St. Peter und Alexander's church, where they survived all wars until the Elector-Archbishop Carl Theodor von Dalberg had them brought to Johannisburg Castle in 1803. There they were evacuated in good time before the damaging fire caused by bombing in 1945. Today they can be seen in the reconstructed castle in the Staatsgalerie Aschaffenburg, which was reopened in 2023 after several years of renovation. Despite the losses caused by wars, looting and sales, the Aschaffenburg collection is considered the largest Cranach collection in Europe. In addition to 17 altar wings, some of which consist of several panels, and individual paintings from the Cranach workshop, 9 autographed works by the older and 2 by the younger Cranach are on display. In addition, a crucifixion group by Hans Baldung Grien and a large number of paintings by Cranach's students. Some other altars and paintings from the school are also preserved in the St. Peter und Alexander's church and its museum. Other paintings are in the Alte Pinakothek in Munich. + +Death + +Albert died at the Martinsburg, Mainz in 1545. His tomb is in Mainz Cathedral. + +Ancestry + +References + +Sources + Helmut Börsch-Supan, et al. "Hohenzollern, House of." Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press. Web. 24 Jul. 2016. + Roesgen, Manfred von. Kardinal Albrecht von Brandenburg : ein Renaissancefürst auf dem Mainzer Bischofsthron. Moers : Steiger, 1980. + Schauerte, Thomas and Andreas Tacke. Der Kardinal Albrecht von Brandenburg : Renaissancefürst und Mäzen. 2 v. Regensburg : Schnell + Steiner, 2006. Contents: Bd. 1. Katalog / herausgegeben von Thomas Schauerte—Bd. 2. Essays / herausgegeben von Andreas Tacke ; mit Beiträgen von Bodo Brinkmann ... [et al.]. Note: Exhibition held September 9November 26, 2006, Halle an der Saale. + "Prayer Book of Cardinal Albrecht of Brandenburg." The J. Paul Getty Museum, viewed 24 July 2016. + +External links + + + + +1490 births +1545 deaths +Clergy from Berlin +16th-century German cardinals +Archbishop-Electors of Mainz +Archbishops of Magdeburg +Roman Catholic Prince-Bishops of Halberstadt +Simony +Sons of monarchs +Albert of Prussia (; 17 May 149020 March 1568) was a German prince who was the 37th grand master of the Teutonic Knights and, after converting to Lutheranism, became the first ruler of the Duchy of Prussia, the secularized state that emerged from the former Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights. Albert was the first European ruler to establish Lutheranism, and thus Protestantism, as the official state religion of his lands. He proved instrumental in the political spread of Protestantism in its early stage, ruling the Prussian lands for nearly six decades (1510–1568). + +Albert was great-grandson of the converted pagan ruler Jagiello of Poland and Lithuania, vanquisher of the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Grunwald. He was also a member of the Brandenburg-Ansbach branch of the House of Hohenzollern. He became grand master of the Teutonic Knights in their attempt to diplomatically win over the Polish-Lithuanian union. His skill in political administration and leadership ultimately succeeded in reversing the decline of the Teutonic Order. But Albert was sympathetic to the demands of Martin Luther, whose teachings had become popular in his lands. So he rebelled against the Roman Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire by converting the Teutonic state into a Protestant and hereditary realm, the Duchy of Prussia, for which he paid homage to his uncle, Sigismund I, king of Poland. That arrangement was confirmed by the Treaty of Kraków in 1525. Albert pledged a personal oath to the king and in return was invested with the duchy for himself and his heirs. + +Albert's rule in Prussia was fairly prosperous. Although he had some trouble with the peasantry, the confiscation of the lands and treasures of the Catholic Church enabled him to propitiate the nobles and provide for the expenses of the newly established Prussian court. He was active in imperial politics, joining the League of Torgau in 1526, and acted in unison with the Protestants in plotting to overthrow Emperor Charles V after the issue of the Augsburg Interim in May 1548. Albert established schools in every town and founded the University of Königsberg in 1544. He promoted culture and arts, patronising the works of Erasmus Reinhold and Caspar Hennenberger. During the final years of his rule, Albert was forced to raise taxes instead of further confiscating now-depleted church lands, causing peasant rebellion. The intrigues of the court favourites Johann Funck and Paul Skalić also led to various religious and political disputes. Albert spent his final years virtually deprived of power and died at Tapiau on 20 March 1568. His son, Albert Frederick, succeeded him as Duke of Prussia. + +Early life +Albert was born in Ansbach in Franconia as the third son of Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach. His mother was Sophia, daughter of Casimir IV Jagiellon, Grand Duke of Lithuania and king of Poland, and his wife Elisabeth of Austria. His great-grandfather was Władysław II Jagiełło, the last pagan ruler in Europe, who defeated the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410. He was raised for a career in the Church and spent some time at the court of Hermann IV of Hesse, Elector of Cologne, who appointed him canon of the Cologne Cathedral. +Not only was he quite religious; he was also interested in mathematics and science and sometimes is claimed to have contradicted the teachings of the Church in favour of scientific theories. His career was forwarded by the Church, however, and institutions of the Catholic clerics supported his early advancement. + +Turning to a more active life, Albert accompanied Emperor Maximilian I to Italy in 1508 and after his return spent some time in the Kingdom of Hungary. + +Grand Master + +Duke Frederick of Saxony, grand master of the Teutonic Order, died in December 1510. Albert was chosen as his successor early in 1511 in the hope that his relationship to his maternal uncle, Sigismund I the Old, Grand Duke of Lithuania and king of Poland, would facilitate a settlement of the disputes over eastern Prussia, which had been held by the order under Polish suzerainty since the Second Peace of Thorn (1466). + +The new grand master, aware of his duties to the empire and to the papacy, refused to submit to the crown of Poland. As war over the order's existence appeared inevitable, Albert made strenuous efforts to secure allies and carried on protracted negotiations with Emperor Maximilian I. The ill-feeling, influenced by the ravages of members of the Order in Poland, culminated in a war which began in December 1519 and devastated Prussia. Albert was granted a four-year truce early in 1521. + +The dispute was referred to Emperor Charles V and other princes, but as no settlement was reached Albert continued his efforts to obtain help in view of a renewal of the war. For this purpose he visited the Diet of Nuremberg in 1522, where he made the acquaintance of the Reformer Andreas Osiander, by whose influence Albert was won over to Protestantism. + +The grand master then journeyed to Wittenberg, where he was advised by Martin Luther to abandon the rules of his order, to marry, and to convert Prussia into a hereditary duchy for himself. This proposal, which was understandably appealing to Albert, had already been discussed by some of his relatives; but it was necessary to proceed cautiously, and he assured Pope Adrian VI that he was anxious to reform the order and punish the knights who had adopted Lutheran doctrines. Luther for his part did not stop at the suggestion, but in order to facilitate the change made special efforts to spread his teaching among the Prussians, while Albert's brother, Margrave George of Brandenburg-Ansbach, laid the scheme before their uncle, Sigismund I the Old of Poland. + +Duke in Prussia + +After some delay Sigismund assented to the offer, with the provision that Prussia should be treated as a Polish fiefdom; and after this arrangement had been confirmed by a treaty concluded at Kraków, Albert pledged a personal oath to Sigismund I and was invested with the duchy for himself and his heirs on 10 February 1525. + +The Estates of the land then met at Königsberg and took the oath of allegiance to the new duke, who used his full powers to promote the doctrines of Luther. This transition did not, however, take place without protest. Summoned before the imperial court of justice, Albert refused to appear and was proscribed, while the order elected a new grand master, Walter von Cronberg, who received Prussia as a fief at the imperial Diet of Augsburg. As the German princes were experiencing the tumult of the Reformation, the German Peasants' War, and the wars against the Ottoman Turks, they did not enforce the ban on the duke, and agitation against him soon died away. + +In imperial politics Albert was fairly active. Joining the League of Torgau in 1526, he acted in unison with the Protestants, and was among the princes who banded and plotted together to overthrow Charles V after the issue of the Augsburg Interim in May 1548. For various reasons, however, poverty and personal inclination among others, he did not take a prominent part in the military operations of this period. + +The early years of Albert's rule in Prussia were fairly prosperous. Although he had some trouble with the peasantry, the lands and treasures of the church enabled him to propitiate the nobles and for a time to provide for the expenses of the court. He did something for the furtherance of learning by establishing schools in every town and by freeing serfs who adopted a scholastic life. In 1544, in spite of some opposition, he founded Königsberg University, where he appointed his friend Andreas Osiander to a professorship in 1549. Albert also paid for the printing of the Astronomical "Prutenic Tables" compiled by Erasmus Reinhold and the first maps of Prussia by Caspar Hennenberger. + +Osiander's appointment was the beginning of the troubles which clouded the closing years of Albert's reign. Osiander's divergence from Luther's doctrine of justification by faith involved him in a violent quarrel with Philip Melanchthon, who had adherents in Königsberg, and these theological disputes soon created an uproar in the town. The duke strenuously supported Osiander, and the area of the quarrel soon broadened. There were no longer church lands available with which to conciliate the nobles, the burden of taxation was heavy, and Albert's rule became unpopular. + +After Osiander's death in 1552, Albert favoured a preacher named Johann Funck, who, with an adventurer named Paul Skalić, exercised great influence over him and obtained considerable wealth at public expense. The state of turmoil caused by these religious and political disputes was increased by the possibility of Albert's early death and the need, should that happen, to appoint a regent, as his only son, Albert Frederick was still a mere youth. The duke was forced to consent to a condemnation of the teaching of Osiander, and the climax came in 1566 when the Estates appealed to King Sigismund II Augustus of Poland, Albert's cousin, who sent a commission to Königsberg. Skalić saved his life by flight, but Funck was executed. The question of the regency was settled, and a form of Lutheranism was adopted and declared binding on all teachers and preachers. + +Virtually deprived of power, the duke lived for two more years, and died at Tapiau on 20 March 1568 of the plague, along with his wife. Cornelis Floris de Vriendt designed his tomb within Königsberg Cathedral. + +Albert was a voluminous letter writer, and corresponded with many of the leading personages of the time. + +Legacy + +Albert was the first German noble to support Luther's ideas and in 1544 founded the University of Königsberg, the Albertina, as a rival to the Roman Catholic Krakow Academy. It was the second Lutheran university in the German states, after the University of Marburg. + +A relief of Albert over the Renaissance-era portal of Königsberg Castle's southern wing was created by Andreas Hess in 1551 according to plans by Christoph Römer. Another relief by an unknown artist was included in the wall of the Albertina's original campus. This depiction, which showed the duke with his sword over his shoulder, was the popular "Albertus", the symbol of the university. The original was moved to Königsberg Public Library to protect it from the elements, while the sculptor Paul Kimritz created a duplicate for the wall. Another version of the "Albertus" by Lothar Sauer was included at the entrance of the Königsberg State and Royal Library. + +In 1880 Friedrich Reusch created a sandstone bust of Albert at the Regierungsgebäude, the administrative building for Regierungsbezirk Königsberg. On 19 May 1891 Reusch premiered a famous statue of Albert at Königsberg Castle with the inscription: "Albert of Brandenburg, Last Grand Master, First Duke in Prussia". Albert Wolff also designed an equestrian statue of Albert located at the new campus of the Albertina. King's Gate contains a statue of Albert. + +Albert was oft-honored in the quarter Maraunenhof in northern Königsberg. Its main street was named Herzog-Albrecht-Allee in 1906. Its town square, König-Ottokar-Platz, was renamed Herzog-Albrecht-Platz in 1934 to match its church, the Herzog-Albrecht-Gedächtniskirche. + +Spouse and issue + +Albert married first, to Dorothea (1 August 150411 April 1547), daughter of King Frederick I of Denmark, in 1526. They had six children: + Anna Sophia (11 June 15276 February 1591), married John Albert I, Duke of Mecklenburg-Güstrow. + Katharina (b. and d. 24 February 1528). + Frederick Albert (5 December 15291 January 1530). + Lucia Dorothea (8 April 15311 February 1532). + Lucia (3 February 1537May 1539). + Albert (b. and d. March 1539). + +He married secondly to Anna Maria (1532–20 March 1568), daughter of Eric I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, in 1550. The couple had two children: + Elisabeth (20 May 155119 February 1596). + Albert Frederick (29 April 155318 August 1618), Duke of Prussia. + +Ancestors + +Notes + +References + +External links + + + William Urban on the situation in Prussia + K. P. Faber: Briefe Luthers an Herzog Albrecht (1811) letters of Martin Luther to Albrecht + +|- + +Dukes of Prussia +Protestant monarchs +1490 births +1568 deaths +16th-century dukes of Prussia +Converts to Lutheranism from Roman Catholicism +German people of Polish descent +German Lutherans +Grand Masters of the Teutonic Order +House of Hohenzollern +People excommunicated by the Catholic Church +People from Ansbach +People from the Principality of Ansbach +People from the Duchy of Prussia +People of the Polish–Teutonic War (1519–1521) +University of Königsberg +Duchy of Prussia +People of the Count's Feud +16th-century Lutheran theologians +German Lutheran hymnwriters +German people of Lithuanian descent + + +Events + +Pre-1600 +19 – The Roman general Germanicus dies near Antioch. He was convinced that the mysterious illness that ended in his death was a result of poisoning by the Syrian governor Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, whom he had ordered to leave the province. + 766 – Emperor Constantine V humiliates nineteen high-ranking officials, after discovering a plot against him. He executes the leaders, Constantine Podopagouros and his brother Strategios. +1248 – The Dutch city of Ommen receives city rights and fortification rights from Otto III, the Archbishop of Utrecht. +1258 – Regent George Mouzalon and his brothers are killed during a coup headed by the aristocratic faction under Michael VIII Palaiologos, paving the way for its leader to ultimately usurp the throne of the Empire of Nicaea. +1270 – Philip III, although suffering from dysentery, becomes King of France following the death of his father Louis IX, during the Eighth Crusade. His uncle, Charles I of Naples, is forced to begin peace negotiations with Muhammad I al-Mustansir, Hafsid Sultan of Tunis. +1537 – The Honourable Artillery Company, the oldest surviving regiment in the British Army, and the second most senior, is formed. +1543 – António Mota and a few companions become the first Europeans to visit Japan. +1580 – War of the Portuguese Succession: Spanish victory at the Battle of Alcântara brings about the Iberian Union. + +1601–1900 +1609 – Galileo Galilei demonstrates his first telescope to Venetian lawmakers. +1630 – Portuguese forces are defeated by the Kingdom of Kandy at the Battle of Randeniwela in Sri Lanka. +1758 – Seven Years' War: Frederick II of Prussia defeats the Russian army at the Battle of Zorndorf. +1814 – War of 1812: On the second day of the Burning of Washington, British troops torch the Library of Congress, United States Treasury, Department of War, and other public buildings. +1823 – American fur trapper Hugh Glass is mauled by a grizzly bear while on an expedition in South Dakota. +1825 – The Thirty-Three Orientals declare the independence of Uruguay from Brazil. +1830 – The Belgian Revolution begins. +1835 – The first Great Moon Hoax article is published in The New York Sun, announcing the discovery of life and civilization on the Moon. +1875 – Captain Matthew Webb becomes the first person to swim across the English Channel, traveling from Dover, England, to Calais, France, in 21 hours and 45 minutes. +1883 – France and Viet Nam sign the Treaty of Huế, recognizing a French protectorate over Annam and Tonkin. +1894 – Kitasato Shibasaburō discovers the infectious agent of the bubonic plague and publishes his findings in The Lancet. + +1901–present +1904 – Russo-Japanese War: The Battle of Liaoyang begins. +1912 – The Kuomintang is founded for the first time in Peking. +1914 – World War I: Japan declares war on Austria-Hungary. + 1914 – World War I: The library of the Catholic University of Leuven is deliberately destroyed by the German Army. Hundreds of thousands of irreplaceable volumes and Gothic and Renaissance manuscripts are lost. +1916 – The United States National Park Service is created. +1920 – Polish–Soviet War: Battle of Warsaw, which began on August 13, ends with the Red Army's defeat. +1933 – The Diexi earthquake strikes Mao County, Sichuan, China and kills 9,000 people. +1939 – The Irish Republican Army carries out the 1939 Coventry bombing in which five civilians were killed. +1939 – The United Kingdom and Poland form a military alliance in which the UK promises to defend Poland in case of invasion by a foreign power. +1940 – World War II: The first Bombing of Berlin by the British Royal Air Force. + 1941 – World War II: Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran: The United Kingdom and the Soviet Union jointly stage an invasion of the Imperial State of Iran. +1942 – World War II: Second day of the Battle of the Eastern Solomons; a Japanese naval transport convoy headed towards Guadalcanal is turned back by an Allied air attack. + 1942 – World War II: Battle of Milne Bay: Japanese marines assault Allied airfields at Milne Bay, New Guinea, initiating the Battle of Milne Bay. +1944 – World War II: Paris is liberated by the Allies. +1945 – Ten days after World War II ends with Japan announcing its surrender, armed supporters of the Chinese Communist Party kill U.S. intelligence officer John Birch, regarded by some of the American right as the first victim of the Cold War. + 1945 – The August Revolution ends as Emperor Bảo Đại abdicates, ending the Nguyễn dynasty. +1948 – The House Un-American Activities Committee holds first-ever televised congressional hearing: "Confrontation Day" between Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss. +1950 – To avert a threatened strike during the Korean War, President Truman orders Secretary of the Army Frank Pace to seize control of the nation's railroads. +1958 – The world’s first publicly marketed instant noodles, Chikin Ramen, are introduced by Taiwanese-Japanese businessman Momofuku Ando. +1960 – The Games of the XVII Olympiad commence in Rome, Italy. +1961 – President Jânio Quadros of Brazil resigns after just seven months in power, initiating a political crisis that culminates in a military coup in 1964. +1967 – George Lincoln Rockwell, founder of the American Nazi Party, is assassinated by a former member of his group. +1980 – Zimbabwe joins the United Nations. +1981 – Voyager 2 spacecraft makes its closest approach to Saturn. +1985 – Bar Harbor Airlines Flight 1808 crashes near Auburn, Maine, killing all eight people on board including peace activist and child actress Samantha Smith. +1989 – Voyager 2 spacecraft makes its closest approach to Neptune, the last planet in the Solar System at the time, due to Pluto being within Neptune's orbit from 1979 to 1999. + 1989 – Pakistan International Airlines Flight 404, carrying 54 people, disappears over the Himalayas after take off from Gilgit Airport in Pakistan. The aircraft was never found. +1991 – Belarus gains its independence from the Soviet Union. + 1991 – The Battle of Vukovar begins. An 87-day siege of Vukovar by the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), supported by various Serb paramilitary forces, between August and November 1991 (during the Croatian War of Independence). + 1991 – Linus Torvalds announces the first version of what will become Linux. +1997 – Egon Krenz, the former East German leader, is convicted of a shoot-to-kill policy at the Berlin Wall. +2001 – American singer Aaliyah and several members of her record company are killed as their overloaded aircraft crashes shortly after takeoff from Marsh Harbour Airport, Bahamas. +2003 – NASA successfully launches the Spitzer Space Telescope into space. +2005 – Hurricane Katrina makes landfall in Florida. +2006 – Former Prime Minister of Ukraine Pavlo Lazarenko is sentenced to nine years imprisonment for money laundering, wire fraud, and extortion. +2011 – Fifty-two people are killed during an arson attack caused by members of the drug cartel Los Zetas. +2012 – Voyager 1 spacecraft enters interstellar space becoming the first man-made object to do so. +2017 – Hurricane Harvey makes landfall in Texas as a powerful Category 4 hurricane, the strongest hurricane to make landfall in the United States since 2004. + 2017 – Conflict in Rakhine State (2016–present): One hundred seventy people are killed in at least 26 separate attacks carried out by the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army, leading to the governments of Myanmar and Malaysia designating the group as a terrorist organisation. + +Births + +Pre-1600 +1467 – Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, 2nd Duke of Alburquerque, Spanish duke (d. 1526) +1491 – Innocenzo Cybo, Italian cardinal (d. 1550) +1509 – Ippolito II d'Este, Italian cardinal and statesman (d. 1572) +1530 – Ivan the Terrible, Russian ruler (d. 1584) +1540 – Lady Catherine Grey, English noblewoman (d. 1568) +1561 – Philippe van Lansberge, Dutch astronomer and mathematician (d. 1632) + +1601–1900 +1605 – Philipp Moritz, Count of Hanau-Münzenberg, German noble (d. 1638) +1624 – François de la Chaise, French priest (d. 1709) +1662 – John Leverett the Younger, American lawyer, academic, and politician (d. 1724) +1707 – Louis I of Spain (d. 1724) +1724 – George Stubbs, English painter and academic (d. 1806) +1741 – Karl Friedrich Bahrdt, German theologian and author (d. 1792) +1744 – Johann Gottfried Herder, German poet, philosopher, and critic (d. 1803) +1758 – Franz Teyber, Austrian organist and composer (d. 1810) +1767 – Louis Antoine de Saint-Just, French soldier and politician (d. 1794) +1776 – Thomas Bladen Capel, English admiral (d. 1853) +1786 – Ludwig I of Bavaria, King of Bavaria (d. 1868) +1793 – John Neal, American writer, critic, editor, lecturer, and activist (d. 1876) +1796 – James Lick, American carpenter and piano builder (d. 1876) +1802 – Nikolaus Lenau, Romanian-Austrian poet and author (d. 1850) +1803 – Luís Alves de Lima e Silva, Duke of Caxias (d. 1880) +1812 – Nikolay Zinin, Russian organic chemist (d. 1880) +1817 – Marie-Eugénie de Jésus, French nun and saint, founded the Religious of the Assumption (d. 1898) +1819 – Allan Pinkerton, Scottish-American detective and spy (d. 1884) +1829 – Carlo Acton, Italian pianist and composer (d. 1909) +1836 – Bret Harte, American short story writer and poet (d. 1902) +1840 – George C. Magoun, American businessman (d. 1893) +1841 – Emil Theodor Kocher, Swiss physician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1917) +1845 – Ludwig II of Bavaria, King of Bavaria (d. 1886) +1850 – Charles Richet, French physiologist and occultist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1935) +1867 – James W. Gerard, American lawyer and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Germany (d. 1951) +1869 – Tom Kiely, British-Irish decathlete (d. 1951) +1877 – Joshua Lionel Cowen, American businessman, co-founded the Lionel Corporation (d. 1965) +1878 – Ted Birnie, English footballer and manager (d. 1935) +1882 – Seán T. O'Kelly, Irish journalist and politician, 2nd President of Ireland (d. 1966) +1889 – Alexander Mair, Australian politician, 26th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1969) +1891 – David Shimoni, Belarusian-Israeli poet and translator (d. 1956) +1893 – Henry Trendley Dean, American dentist (d. 1962) +1898 – Helmut Hasse, German mathematician and academic (d. 1975) + 1898 – Arthur Wood, English cricketer (d. 1973) +1899 – Paul Herman Buck, American historian and author (d. 1978) +1900 – Isobel Hogg Kerr Beattie, Scottish architect (d. 1970) + 1900 – Hans Adolf Krebs, German physician and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1981) + +1901–present +1902 – Stefan Wolpe, German-American composer and educator (d. 1972) +1903 – Arpad Elo, Hungarian-American chess player, created the Elo rating system (d. 1992) +1905 – Faustina Kowalska, Polish nun and saint (d. 1938) +1906 – Jim Smith, English cricketer (d. 1979) +1909 – Ruby Keeler, Canadian-American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 1993) + 1909 – Michael Rennie, English actor and producer (d. 1971) +1910 – George Cisar, American baseball player (d. 2010) + 1910 – Dorothea Tanning, American painter, sculptor, and poet (d. 2012) +1911 – Võ Nguyên Giáp, Vietnamese general and politician, 3rd Minister of Defence for Vietnam (d. 2013) +1912 – Erich Honecker, German politician (d. 1994) +1913 – Don DeFore, American actor (d. 1993) + 1913 – Walt Kelly, American illustrator and animator (d. 1973) +1916 – Van Johnson, American actor (d. 2008) + 1916 – Frederick Chapman Robbins, American pediatrician and virologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2003) + 1916 – Saburō Sakai, Japanese lieutenant and pilot (d. 2000) +1917 – Mel Ferrer, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2008) +1918 – Leonard Bernstein, American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1990) + 1918 – Richard Greene, English actor (d. 1985) +1919 – William P. Foster, American bandleader and educator (d. 2010) + 1919 – George Wallace, American lawyer, and politician, 45th Governor of Alabama (d. 1998) + 1919 – Jaap Rijks, Dutch Olympic medalist (d. 2017) +1921 – Monty Hall, Canadian television personality and game show host (d. 2017) + 1921 – Bryce Mackasey, Canadian businessman and politician, 20th Canadian Minister of Labour (d. 1999) + 1921 – Brian Moore, Northern Irish-Canadian author and screenwriter (d. 1999) +1923 – Álvaro Mutis, Colombian-Mexican author and poet (d. 2013) + 1923 – Allyre Sirois, Canadian lawyer and judge (d. 2012) +1924 – Zsuzsa Körmöczy, Hungarian tennis player and coach (d. 2006) +1925 – Thea Astley, Australian journalist and author (d. 2004) + 1925 – Hilmar Hoffmann, German film and culture academic (d. 2018) + 1925 – Stepas Butautas, Lithuanian basketball player and coach (d. 2001) +1927 – Althea Gibson, American tennis player and golfer (d. 2003) + 1927 – Des Renford, Australian swimmer (d. 1999) +1928 – John "Kayo" Dottley, American football player (d. 2018) + 1928 – Darrell Johnson, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 2004) + 1928 – Karl Korte, American composer and academic (d. 2022) + 1928 – Herbert Kroemer, German-American physicist, engineer, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate +1930 – Sean Connery, Scottish actor and producer (d. 2020) + 1930 – György Enyedi, Hungarian economist and geographer (d. 2012) + 1930 – Graham Jarvis, Canadian actor (d. 2003) + 1930 – Crispin Tickell, English academic and diplomat, British Permanent Representative to the United Nations (d. 2022) +1931 – Regis Philbin, American actor and television host (d. 2020) +1932 – Anatoly Kartashov, Soviet aviator and cosmonaut (d. 2005) +1933 – Patrick F. McManus, American journalist and author (d. 2018) + 1933 – Wayne Shorter, American saxophonist and composer (d. 2023) + 1933 – Tom Skerritt, American actor +1934 – Lise Bacon, Canadian judge and politician, Deputy Premier of Quebec + 1934 – Eddie Ilarde, Filipino journalist and politician (d. 2020) +1935 – Charles Wright, American poet +1936 – Giridharilal Kedia, Indian businessman, founded the Image Institute of Technology & Management (d. 2009) +1937 – Jimmy Hannan, Australian television host and singer (d. 2019) + 1937 – Virginia Euwer Wolff, American author +1938 – David Canary, American actor (d. 2015) + 1938 – Frederick Forsyth, English journalist and author +1939 – John Badham, English-American actor, director, and producer +1940 – Wilhelm von Homburg, German boxer and actor (d. 2004) +1941 – Marshall Brickman, Brazilian-American director, producer, and screenwriter + 1941 – Mario Corso, Italian footballer and coach (d. 2020) + 1941 – Ludwig Müller, German footballer (d. 2021) +1942 – Nathan Deal, American lawyer, and politician, 82nd Governor of Georgia + 1942 – Ivan Koloff, Canadian wrestler (d. 2017) +1944 – Conrad Black, Canadian historian and author + 1944 – Jacques Demers, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and politician + 1944 – Anthony Heald, American actor + 1944 – Andrew Longmore, British lawyer and judge +1945 – Daniel Hulet, Belgian cartoonist (d. 2011) + 1945 – Hannah Louise Shearer, American screenwriter and producer +1946 – Rollie Fingers, American baseball player + 1946 – Charles Ghigna, American poet and author + 1946 – Charlie Sanders, American football player and sportscaster (d. 2015) +1947 – Michael Kaluta, American author and illustrator + 1947 – Keith Tippett, British jazz pianist and composer (d. 2020) +1948 – Ledward Kaapana, American singer and guitarist + 1948 – Nicholas A. Peppas, Greek chemist and biologist +1949 – Martin Amis, British novelist (d. 2023) + 1949 – Rijkman Groenink, Dutch banker and academic + 1949 – John Savage, American actor and producer + 1949 – Gene Simmons, Israeli-American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor +1950 – Willy DeVille, American singer and songwriter (d. 2009) + 1950 – Charles Fambrough, American bassist, composer, and producer (d. 2011) +1951 – Rob Halford, English heavy metal singer-songwriter + 1951 – Bill Handel, Brazilian-American lawyer and radio host +1952 – Kurban Berdyev, Turkmen footballer and manager + 1952 – Geoff Downes, English keyboard player, songwriter, and producer + 1952 – Duleep Mendis, Sri Lankan cricketer and coach +1954 – Elvis Costello, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer + 1954 – Jim Wallace, Baron Wallace of Tankerness, Scottish lawyer and politician, First Minister of Scotland +1955 – John McGeoch, Scottish guitarist (d. 2004) + 1955 – Gerd Müller, German businessman and politician +1956 – Matt Aitken, English songwriter and record producer + 1956 – Takeshi Okada, Japanese footballer, coach, and manager + 1956 – Henri Toivonen, Finnish race car driver (d. 1986) +1957 – Sikander Bakht, Pakistani cricketer and sportscaster + 1957 – Simon McBurney, English actor and director + 1957 – Frank Serratore, American ice hockey player and coach +1958 – Tim Burton, American director, producer, and screenwriter + 1958 – Christian LeBlanc, American actor +1959 – Ian Falconer, American author and illustrator + 1959 – Steve Levy, American lawyer and politician + 1959 – Bernardo Rezende, Brazilian volleyball coach and player + 1959 – Lane Smith, American author and illustrator + 1959 – Ruth Ann Swenson, American soprano and actress +1960 – Ashley Crow, American actress + 1960 – Georg Zellhofer, Austrian footballer and manager +1961 – Billy Ray Cyrus, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor + 1961 – Dave Tippett, Canadian ice hockey player and coach + 1961 – Ally Walker, American actress + 1961 – Joanne Whalley, English actress +1962 – Taslima Nasrin, Bangladeshi author + 1962 – Theresa Andrews, American competition swimmer and Olympic champion + 1962 – Vivian Campbell, Northern Irish rock guitarist and songwriter + 1962 – Michael Zorc, German footballer +1963 – Miro Cerar, Slovenian lawyer and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Slovenia + 1963 – Shock G, American rapper and producer (d. 2021) + 1963 – Tiina Intelmann, Estonian lawyer and diplomat +1964 – Azmin Ali, Malaysian mathematician and politician + 1964 – Maxim Kontsevich, Russian-American mathematician and academic + 1964 – Blair Underwood, American actor +1965 – Cornelius Bennett, American football player + 1965 – Tim Cain, American video game designer + 1965 – Sanjeev Sharma, Indian cricketer and coach + 1965 – Mia Zapata, American singer (d. 1993) +1966 – Albert Belle, American baseball player + 1966 – Robert Maschio, American actor + 1966 – Derek Sherinian, American keyboard player, songwriter, and producer + 1966 – Terminator X, American hip-hop DJ +1967 – Tom Hollander, English actor + 1967 – Jeff Tweedy, American singer-songwriter, musician, and producer +1968 – David Alan Basche, American actor + 1968 – Yuri Mitsui, Japanese actress, model, and race car driver + 1968 – Stuart Murdoch, Scottish singer-songwriter + 1968 – Spider One, American singer-songwriter and producer + 1968 – Rachael Ray, American chef, author, and television host + 1968 – Takeshi Ueda, Japanese singer-songwriter and bass player +1969 – Olga Konkova, Norwegian-Russian pianist and composer + 1969 – Cameron Mathison, Canadian actor and television personality + 1969 – Catriona Matthew, Scottish golfer + 1969 – Vivek Razdan, Indian cricketer, coach, and sportscaster +1970 – Doug Glanville, American baseball player and sportscaster + 1970 – Debbie Graham, American tennis player + 1970 – Robert Horry, American basketball player and sportscaster + 1970 – Adrian Lam, Papua New Guinean-Australian rugby league player and coach + 1970 – Jo Dee Messina, American singer-songwriter + 1970 – Claudia Schiffer, German model and fashion designer +1971 – Jason Death, Australian rugby league player + 1971 – Nathan Page, Australian actor +1972 – Marvin Harrison, American football player +1973 – Fatih Akın, German director, producer, and screenwriter +1974 – Eric Millegan, American actor + 1974 – Pablo Ozuna, Dominican baseball player +1975 – Brad Drew, Australian rugby league player + 1975 – Petria Thomas, Australian swimmer and coach +1976 – Damon Jones, American basketball player and coach + 1976 – Javed Qadeer, Pakistani cricketer and coach + 1976 – Alexander Skarsgård, Swedish actor +1977 – Masumi Asano, Japanese voice actress and producer + 1977 – Andy McDonald, Canadian ice hockey player + 1977 – Jonathan Togo, American actor +1978 – Kel Mitchell, American actor, producer, and screenwriter + 1978 – Robert Mohr, German rugby player +1979 – Marlon Harewood, English footballer + 1979 – Philipp Mißfelder, German historian and politician (d. 2015) + 1979 – Deanna Nolan, American basketball player +1981 – Rachel Bilson, American actress + 1981 – Jan-Berrie Burger, Namibian cricketer + 1981 – Camille Pin, French tennis player +1982 – Jung Jung-suk, South Korean footballer (d. 2011) + 1982 – Nick Schultz, Canadian ice hockey player +1983 – James Rossiter, English race car driver +1984 – Florian Mohr, German footballer + 1984 – Anya Monzikova, Russian-American model and actress +1986 – Rodney Ferguson, American footballer +1987 – Stacey Farber, Canadian actress + 1987 – Velimir Jovanović, Serbian footballer + 1987 – Blake Lively, American model and actress + 1987 – Amy Macdonald, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist + 1987 – Justin Upton, American baseball player + 1987 – Adam Warren, American baseball player + 1987 – James Wesolowski, Australian footballer +1988 – Angela Park, Brazilian-American golfer + 1988 – Giga Chikadze, Georgian mixed martial artist and kickboxer +1989 – Hiram Mier, Mexican footballer +1990 – Max Muncy, American baseball player +1992 – Miyabi Natsuyaki, Japanese singer and actress + 1992 – Ricardo Rodriguez, Swiss footballer +1994 – Edmunds Augstkalns, Latvian ice hockey player + 1994 – Caris LeVert, American basketball player +1998 – China Anne McClain, American actress and singer +2003 – Rebeka Jančová, Slovak alpine ski racer + +Deaths + +Pre-1600 +AD 79 – Pliny the Elder, Roman commander and philosopher (b. 23) + 274 – Yang Yan, Jin Dynasty empress (b. 238) + 306 – Saint Maginus, Christian hermit and martyr from Tarragona +383 – Gratian, Roman emperor (b. 359) + 471 – Gennadius I, patriarch of Constantinople + 766 – Constantine Podopagouros, Byzantine official + 766 – Strategios Podopagouros, Byzantine general + 985 – Dietrich of Haldensleben, German margrave +1091 – Sisnando Davides, military leader +1192 – Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1142) +1258 – George Mouzalon, regent of the Empire of Nicaea +1270 – Louis IX of France (b. 1214) + 1270 – Alphonso of Brienne (b. c. 1225) +1271 – Joan, Countess of Toulouse (b. 1220) +1282 – Thomas de Cantilupe, English bishop and saint (b. 1218) +1322 – Beatrice of Silesia, queen consort of Germany (b. c. 1292) +1327 – Demasq Kaja, Chobanid +1330 – Sir James Douglas, Scottish guerrilla leader (b. 1286) +1339 – Henry de Cobham, 1st Baron Cobham (b. 1260) +1368 – Andrea Orcagna, Italian painter, sculptor, and architect +1482 – Margaret of Anjou (b. 1429) +1485 – William Catesby, supporter of Richard III (b. 1450) +1554 – Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk, English soldier and politician, Lord High Treasurer (b. 1473) +1592 – William IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel (b. 1532) + +1601–1900 +1603 – Ahmad al-Mansur, Sultan of the Saadi dynasty (b. 1549) +1631 – Nicholas Hyde, Lord Chief Justice of England (b.c. 1572) +1632 – Thomas Dekker, English author and playwright (b. 1572) +1688 – Henry Morgan, Welsh admiral and politician, Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica (b. 1635) +1699 – Christian V of Denmark (b. 1646) +1711 – Edward Villiers, 1st Earl of Jersey, English politician, Secretary of State for the Southern Department (b. 1656) +1742 – Carlos Seixas, Portuguese organist and composer (b. 1704) +1774 – Niccolò Jommelli, Italian composer and educator (b. 1714) +1776 – David Hume, Scottish economist, historian, and philosopher (b. 1711) +1794 – Florimond Claude, Comte de Mercy-Argenteau, Belgian-Austrian diplomat (b. 1727) +1797 – Thomas Chittenden, Governor of the Vermont Republic (later 1st Governor of the State of Vermont) (b. 1730) +1819 – James Watt, Scottish engineer and instrument maker (b. 1736) +1822 – William Herschel, German-English astronomer and composer (b. 1738) +1867 – Michael Faraday, English physicist and chemist (b. 1791) +1882 – Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald, Estonian physician and author (b. 1803) +1886 – Zinovios Valvis, Greek lawyer and politician, 35th Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1791) +1892 – William Champ, English-Australian politician, 1st Premier of Tasmania (b. 1808) +1900 – Friedrich Nietzsche, German philologist, philosopher, and critic (b. 1844) + +1901–present +1904 – Henri Fantin-Latour, French painter and lithographer (b. 1836) +1908 – Henri Becquerel, French physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1852) +1916 – Mary Tappan Wright, American novelist and short story writer (b. 1851) +1921 – Nikolay Gumilyov, Russian poet and critic (b. 1886) +1924 – Mariano Álvarez, Filipino general and politician (b. 1818) + 1924 – Velma Caldwell Melville, American editor, and writer of prose and poetry (b. 1858) +1925 – Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, Austrian field marshal (b. 1852) +1930 – Frankie Campbell, American boxer (b. 1904) +1931 – Dorothea Fairbridge, South African author and co-founder of Guild of Loyal Women (b. 1862) +1936 – Juliette Adam, French author (b. 1836) +1938 – Aleksandr Kuprin, Russian pilot, explorer, and author (b. 1870) +1939 – Babe Siebert, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1904) +1940 – Prince Jean, Duke of Guise (b. 1874) +1942 – Prince George, Duke of Kent (b. 1902) +1945 – John Birch, American soldier and missionary (b. 1918) +1956 – Alfred Kinsey, American biologist and academic (b. 1894) +1965 – Moonlight Graham, American baseball player and physician (b. 1879) +1966 – Lao She, Chinese novelist and dramatist (b. 1899) +1967 – Stanley Bruce, Australian lawyer and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1883) + 1967 – Oscar Cabalén, Argentine race car driver (b. 1928) + 1967 – Paul Muni, Ukrainian-born American actor (b. 1895) + 1967 – George Lincoln Rockwell, American commander, politician, and activist, founded the American Nazi Party (b. 1918) +1968 – Stan McCabe, Australian cricketer and coach (b. 1910) +1969 – Robert Cosgrove, Australian politician, 30th Premier of Tasmania (b. 1884) +1970 – Tachū Naitō, Japanese architect and engineer, designed the Tokyo Tower (b. 1886) +1971 – Ted Lewis, American singer and clarinet player (b. 1890) +1973 – Dezső Pattantyús-Ábrahám, Hungarian lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1875) +1976 – Eyvind Johnson, Swedish novelist and short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1900) +1977 – Károly Kós, Hungarian architect, ethnologist, and politician (b. 1883) +1979 – Stan Kenton, American pianist, composer, and bandleader (b. 1911) +1980 – Gower Champion, American dancer and choreographer (b. 1919) +1981 – Nassos Kedrakas, Greek actor and cinematographer (b. 1915) +1982 – Anna German, Polish singer (b. 1936) +1984 – Truman Capote, American novelist, playwright, and screenwriter (b. 1924) + 1984 – Viktor Chukarin, Ukrainian gymnast and coach (b. 1921) + 1984 – Waite Hoyt, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1899) +1988 – Art Rooney, American businessman, founded the Pittsburgh Steelers (b. 1901) +1990 – Morley Callaghan, Canadian author and playwright (b. 1903) +1995 – Doug Stegmeyer, American bass player and producer (b. 1951) +1998 – Lewis F. Powell, Jr., American lawyer and Supreme Court justice (b. 1907) +1999 – Rob Fisher, English keyboard player and songwriter (b. 1956) +2000 – Carl Barks, American author and illustrator (b. 1901) + 2000 – Frederick C. Bock, American soldier and pilot (b. 1918) + 2000 – Jack Nitzsche, American pianist, composer, and producer (b. 1937) + 2000 – Allen Woody, American bass player and songwriter (b. 1955) +2001 – Aaliyah, American singer and actress (b. 1979) + 2001 – Carl Brewer, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1938) + 2001 – Üzeyir Garih, Turkish engineer and businessman, co-founded Alarko Holding (b. 1929) + 2001 – Ken Tyrrell, English race car driver and businessman, founded Tyrrell Racing (b. 1924) +2002 – Dorothy Hewett, Australian author and poet (b. 1923) +2003 – Tom Feelings, American author and illustrator (b. 1933) +2005 – Peter Glotz, Czech-German academic and politician (b. 1939) +2006 – Noor Hassanali, Trinidadian-Tobagonian lawyer and politician, 2nd President of Trinidad and Tobago (b. 1918) +2007 – Benjamin Aaron, American lawyer and scholar (b. 1915) + 2007 – Ray Jones, English footballer (b. 1988) +2008 – Ahmad Faraz, Pakistani poet (b. 1931) + 2008 – Kevin Duckworth, American basketball player (b. 1964) +2009 – Ted Kennedy, American politician (b. 1932) + 2009 – Mandé Sidibé, Malian economist and politician, Prime Minister of Mali (b. 1940) +2011 – Lazar Mojsov, Macedonian politician (b. 1920) +2012 – Florencio Amarilla, Paraguayan footballer, coach, and actor (b. 1935) + 2012 – Neil Armstrong, American pilot, engineer, and astronaut (b. 1930) + 2012 – Roberto González Barrera, Mexican banker and businessman (b. 1930) + 2012 – Donald Gorrie, Scottish politician (b. 1933) +2013 – Ciril Bergles, Slovene poet and translator (b. 1934) + 2013 – António Borges, Portuguese economist and banker (b. 1949) + 2013 – William Froug, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1922) + 2013 – Liu Fuzhi, Chinese academic and politician, 3rd Minister of Justice for China (b. 1917) + 2013 – Raghunath Panigrahi, Indian singer-songwriter (b. 1932) + 2013 – Gylmar dos Santos Neves, Brazilian footballer (b. 1930) +2014 – William Greaves, American director and producer (b. 1926) + 2014 – Marcel Masse, Canadian educator and politician, 29th Canadian Minister of National Defence (b. 1936) + 2014 – Nico M. M. Nibbering, Dutch chemist and academic (b. 1938) + 2014 – Uziah Thompson, Jamaican-American drummer and producer (b. 1936) + 2014 – Enrique Zileri, Peruvian journalist and publisher (b. 1931) +2015 – José María Benegas, Spanish lawyer and politician (b. 1948) + 2015 – Francis Sejersted, Norwegian historian and academic (b. 1936) +2016 – Marvin Kaplan, American actor (b. 1927) +2017 – Rich Piana, American bodybuilder (b. 1971) +2018 – John McCain, American politician (b. 1936) +2019 – Ferdinand Piëch, Austrian business magnate and engineer (b. 1937) +2022 – Mable John, American blues vocalist (b. 1930) + +Holidays and observances + Christian feast day: + Æbbe of Coldingham + Aredius + Genesius of Arles + Genesius of Rome + Ginés de la Jara (or Genesius of Cartagena) + Gregory of Utrecht + Joseph Calasanz + Louis IX of France + Blessed Ludovicus Baba + Blessed Ludovicus Sasada + Blessed Luis Sotelo + Menas of Constantinople + Blessed Miguel de Carvalho + Patricia of Naples + Blessed Pedro Vásquez + Thomas de Cantilupe (or of Hereford) +August 25 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) + Day of Songun (North Korea) + Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Uruguay from Brazil in 1825. + Soldier's Day (Brazil) + +References + +External links + + + + + +Days of the year +August +Aachen ( , ; ; French and traditional English: Aix-la-Chapelle ) is the 13th-largest city in North Rhine-Westphalia and the 27th-largest city of Germany, with around 249,000 inhabitants. + +It is the westernmost city in Germany, and borders Belgium and the Netherlands to the west, the triborder area. It is located between Maastricht (NL) and Liège (BE) in the west, and Bonn and Cologne in the east. The Wurm River flows through the city, and together with Mönchengladbach, Aachen is the only larger German city in the drainage basin of the Meuse. Aachen is the seat of the City Region Aachen (). + +Aachen developed from a Roman settlement and (bath complex), subsequently becoming the preferred medieval Imperial residence of Emperor Charlemagne of the Frankish Empire, and, from 936 to 1531, the place where 31 Holy Roman Emperors were crowned Kings of the Germans. + +One of Germany's leading institutes of higher education in technology, the RWTH Aachen University (), is located in the city. Its university hospital Uniklinikum Aachen is Europe's largest single-building hospital. Aachen's industries include science, engineering and information technology. In 2009, Aachen was ranked eighth among cities in Germany for innovation. + +The regional dialect spoken in the city is a Central Franconian, Ripuarian variant with strong Limburgish influences from the dialects in the neighbouring Netherlands. As a Rhenish city, Aachen is one of the main centres of carnival celebrations in Germany, along with Cologne and Mainz. The culinary specialty for which the city is best known is Aachener Printen, a type of gingerbread. + +History + +Early history +Flint quarries on the Lousberg, Schneeberg, and Königshügel, first used during Neolithic times (3000–2500 BC), attest to the long occupation of the site of Aachen, as do recent finds under the modern city's Elisengarten pointing to a former settlement from the same period. Bronze Age (around 1600 BC) settlement is evidenced by the remains of barrows (burial mounds) found, for example, on the Klausberg. During the Iron Age, the area was settled by Celtic peoples who were perhaps drawn by the marshy Aachen basin's hot sulphur springs where they worshipped Grannus, god of light and healing. + +Later, the 25-hectare Roman spa resort town of Aquae Granni was, according to legend, founded by Grenus, under Hadrian, around 124 AD. Instead, the fictitious founder refers to the Celtic god, and it seems it was the Roman 6th Legion at the start of the 1st century AD that first channelled the hot springs into a spa at Büchel, adding at the end of the same century the Münstertherme spa, two water pipelines, and a probable sanctuary dedicated to Grannus. A kind of forum, surrounded by colonnades, connected the two spa complexes. There was also an extensive residential area. The Romans built bathhouses near Burtscheid. A temple precinct called Vernenum was built near the modern Kornelimünster/Walheim. Today, remains have been found of three bathhouses, including two fountains in the Elisenbrunnen and the Burtscheid bathhouse. + +Roman civil administration in Aachen eventually broke down as the baths and other public buildings (along with most of the villae rusticae of the surrounding countryside) were destroyed around AD 375 at the start of the migration period. The last Roman coin finds are from the time of Emperor Gratian (AD 375–383). Rome withdrew its troops from the area, but the town remained populated. By 470, the town came to be ruled by the Ripuarian Franks and subordinated to their capital, Cologne. + +Etymology +The name Aachen is a modern descendant, like southern German , , meaning "river" or "stream", from Old High German , meaning "water" or "stream", which directly translates (and etymologically corresponds) to Latin , referring to the springs. The location has been inhabited by humans since the Neolithic era, about 5,000 years ago, attracted to its warm mineral springs. Latin figures in Aachen's Roman name , which meant "waters of Grannus", referring to the Celtic god of healing who was worshipped at the springs. This word became in Walloon and in French, and subsequently after Charlemagne had his palatine chapel built there in the late 8th century and then made the city his empire's capital. + +As a spa city, Aachen has the right to name itself Bad Aachen, but chooses not to, so it remains on the top of alphabetical lists. + +Aachen's name in French and German evolved in parallel. The city is known by a variety of different names in other languages: + +Dialect +Aachen is at the western end of the Benrath line that divides High German to the south from the rest of the West Germanic speech area to the north. Aachen's local dialect is called Öcher Platt and belongs to Ripuarian. + +Middle Ages + +After Roman times, Pepin the Short had a castle residence built in the town, due to the proximity of the hot springs and also for strategic reasons as it is located between the Rhineland and northern France. Einhard mentions that in 765–766 Pepin spent both Christmas and Easter at Aquis villa () ("and [he] celebrated the birth of the Lord [Christmas] in the town Aquis, and similarly Easter"), which must have been sufficiently equipped to support the royal household for several months. In the year of his coronation as king of the Franks, 768, Charlemagne came to spend Christmas at Aachen for the first time. He remained there in a mansion which he may have extended, although there is no source attesting to any significant building activity at Aachen in his time, apart from the building of the Palatine Chapel (since 1930, cathedral) and the Palace. Charlemagne spent most winters in Aachen between 792 and his death in 814. Aachen became the focus of his court and the political centre of his empire. After his death, the king was buried in the church which he had built; his original tomb has been lost, while his alleged remains are preserved in the Karlsschrein, the shrine where he was reburied after being declared a saint; his saintliness, however, was never officially acknowledged by the Roman Curia as such. + +In 936, Otto I was crowned king of East Francia in the collegiate church built by Charlemagne. During the reign of Otto II, the nobles revolted and the West Franks under Lothair raided Aachen in 978. Aachen was attacked again by Odo of Champagne, who attacked the imperial palace while Conrad II was absent. Odo relinquished it quickly and was killed soon afterwards. The palace and town of Aachen had fortifying walls built by order of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa between 1172 and 1176. Over the next 500 years, most kings of Germany destined to reign over the Holy Roman Empire were crowned in Aachen. The original audience hall built by Charlemagne was torn down and replaced by the current city hall in 1330. The last king to be crowned here was Ferdinand I in 1531. During the Middle Ages, Aachen remained a city of regional importance, due to its proximity to Flanders; it achieved a modest position in the trade in woollen cloths, favoured by imperial privilege. The city remained a free imperial city, subject to the emperor only, but was politically far too weak to influence the policies of any of its neighbours. The only dominion it had was over Burtscheid, a neighbouring territory ruled by a Benedictine abbess. It was forced to accept that all of its traffic must pass through the "Aachener Reich". Even in the late 18th century the Abbess of Burtscheid was prevented from building a road linking her territory to the neighbouring estates of the duke of Jülich; the city of Aachen even deployed its handful of soldiers to chase away the road-diggers. + +As an imperial city, Aachen held certain political privileges that allowed it to remain independent of the troubles of Europe for many years. It remained a direct vassal of the Holy Roman Empire throughout most of the Middle Ages. It was also the site of many important church councils, including the Council of 837 and the Council of 1166, a council convened by the antipope Paschal III. + +Manuscript production + +Aachen has proved an important site for the production of historical manuscripts. Under Charlemagne's purview, both the Ada Gospels and the Coronation Gospels may have been produced in Aachen. In addition, quantities of the other texts in the court library were also produced locally. During the reign of Louis the Pious (814–840), substantial quantities of ancient texts were produced at Aachen, including legal manuscripts such as the leges scriptorium group, patristic texts including the five manuscripts of the Bamberg Pliny Group. Finally, under Lothair I (840–855), texts of outstanding quality were still being produced. This however marked the end of the period of manuscript production at Aachen. + +16th–18th centuries + +In 1598, following the invasion of Spanish troops from the Netherlands, Rudolf deposed all Protestant office holders in Aachen and even went as far as expelling them from the city. From the early 16th century, Aachen started to lose its power and influence. First the coronations of emperors were moved from Aachen to Frankfurt. This was followed by the religious wars and the great fire of 1656. After the destruction of most of the city in 1656, the rebuilding was mostly in the Baroque style. The decline of Aachen culminated in 1794, when the French, led by General Charles Dumouriez, occupied Aachen. + +In 1542, the Dutch humanist and physician Francis Fabricius published his study of the health benefits of the hot springs in Aachen. By the middle of the 17th century, the city had developed a considerable reputation as a spa, although this was in part because Aachen was then – and remained well into the 19th century – a place of high-level prostitution. Traces of this hidden agenda of the city's history are found in the 18th-century guidebooks to Aachen as well as to the other spas. + +The main indication for visiting patients, ironically, was syphilis; only by the end of the 19th century had rheumatism become the most important object of cures at Aachen and Burtscheid. + +Aachen was chosen as the site of several important congresses and peace treaties: the first congress of Aachen (often referred to as the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in English) on 2 May 1668, leading to the First Treaty of Aachen in the same year which ended the War of Devolution. The second congress ended with the second treaty in 1748, ending the War of the Austrian Succession. In 1789, there was a constitutional crisis in the Aachen government, and in 1794 Aachen lost its status as a free imperial city. + +19th century + +On 9 February 1801, the Peace of Lunéville removed the ownership of Aachen and the entire "left bank" of the Rhine from Germany (the Holy Roman Empire) and granted it to France. In 1815, control of the town was passed to the Kingdom of Prussia through an agreement reached by the Congress of Vienna. The third congress took place in 1818, to decide the fate of occupied Napoleonic France. + +By the middle of the 19th century, industrialisation had swept away most of the city's medieval rules of production and commerce, although the entirely corrupt remains of the city's medieval constitution were kept in place (compare the famous remarks of Georg Forster in his Ansichten vom Niederrhein) until 1801, when Aachen became the "chef-lieu du département de la Roer" in Napoleon's First French Empire. In 1815, after the Napoleonic Wars, the Kingdom of Prussia took over within the new German Confederation. The city was one of its most socially and politically backward centres until the end of the 19th century. Administered within the Rhine Province, by 1880 the population was 80,000. Starting in 1838, the railway from Cologne to Belgium passed through Aachen. The city suffered extreme overcrowding and deplorable sanitary conditions until 1875, when the medieval fortifications were finally abandoned as a limit to building and new, better housing was built in the east of the city, where sanitary drainage was easiest. In December 1880, the Aachen tramway network was opened, and in 1895 it was electrified. In the 19th century and up to the 1930s, the city was important in the production of railway locomotives and carriages, iron, pins, needles, buttons, tobacco, woollen goods, and silk goods. + +20th century + +World War II + +After World War I, Aachen was occupied by the Allies until 1930, along with the rest of German territory west of the Rhine. Aachen was one of the locations involved in the ill-fated Rhenish Republic. On 21 October 1923, an armed mob took over the city hall. Similar actions took place in Mönchen-Gladbach, Duisburg, and Krefeld. This republic lasted only about a year. Aachen was heavily damaged during World War II. According to Jörg Friedrich in The Fire (2008), two Allied air raids on 11 April and 24 May 1944 "radically destroyed" the city. The first killed 1,525, including 212 children, and bombed six hospitals. During the second, 442 aircraft hit two railway stations, killed 207, and left 15,000 homeless. The raids also destroyed Aachen-Eilendorf and Aachen-Burtscheid. + +The city and its fortified surroundings were laid siege to from 12 September to 21 October 1944 by the US 1st Infantry Division with the 3rd Armored Division assisting from the south. Around 13 October the US 2nd Armored Division played their part, coming from the north and getting as close as Würselen, while the 30th Infantry Division played a crucial role in completing the encirclement of Aachen on 16 October 1944. With reinforcements from the US 28th Infantry Division the Battle of Aachen continued involving direct assaults through the heavily defended city, which finally forced the German garrison to surrender on 21 October 1944. + +Aachen was the first German city to be captured by the Western Allies, and its residents welcomed the soldiers as liberators. What remained of the city was destroyed—in some areas completely—during the fighting, mostly by American artillery fire and demolitions carried out by the Waffen-SS defenders. Damaged buildings included the medieval churches of St. Foillan, St. Paul and St. Nicholas, and the Rathaus (city hall), although Aachen Cathedral was largely unscathed. Only 4,000 inhabitants remained in the city; the rest had followed evacuation orders. Its first Allied-appointed mayor, Franz Oppenhoff, was assassinated by an SS commando unit. + +History of Aachen Jews + +During the Roman period, Aachen was the site of a flourishing Jewish community. Later, during the Carolingian empire, a Jewish community lived near the royal palace. In 797, Isaac, a Jewish merchant, accompanied two ambassadors of Charlemagne to the court of Harun al-Rashid. He returned to Aachen in July 802, bearing an elephant called Abul-Abbas as a gift for the emperor. During the 13th century, many Jews converted to Christianity, as shown in the records of the Aachen Minster (today's Cathedral). In 1486, the Jews of Aachen offered gifts to Maximilian I during his coronation ceremony. In 1629, the Aachen Jewish community was expelled from the city. In 1667, six Jews were allowed to return. Most of the Aachen Jews settled in the nearby town of Burtscheid. On 16 May 1815, the Jewish community of the city offered an homage in its synagogue to the Prussian king, Friedrich Wilhelm III. A Jewish cemetery was acquired in 1822. 1,345 Jews lived in the city in 1933. The synagogue was destroyed during Kristallnacht in 1938. In 1939, after emigration and arrests, 782 Jews remained in the city. After World War II, only 62 Jews lived there. In 2003, 1,434 Jews were living in Aachen. In Jewish texts, the city of Aachen was called Aish or Ash (אש). + +21st century +The city of Aachen has developed into a technology hub as a by-product of hosting one of the leading universities of technology in Germany with the RWTH Aachen (Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule), known especially for mechanical engineering, automotive and manufacturing technology as well as for its research and academic hospital Klinikum Aachen, one of the largest medical facilities in Europe. + +Geography + +Aachen is located in the middle of the Meuse–Rhine Euroregion, close to the border tripoint of Germany, the Netherlands, and Belgium. The town of Vaals in the Netherlands lies nearby at about from Aachen's city centre, while the Dutch city of Heerlen and Eupen, the capital of the German-speaking Community of Belgium, are both located about from Aachen city centre. Aachen lies near the head of the open valley of the Wurm (which today flows through the city in canalised form), part of the larger basin of the Meuse, and about north of the High Fens, which form the northern edge of the Eifel uplands of the Rhenish Massif. + +The maximum dimensions of the city's territory are from north to south, and from east to west. The city limits are long, of which border Belgium and the Netherlands. The highest point in Aachen, located in the far southeast of the city, lies at an elevation of above sea level. The lowest point, in the north, and on the border with the Netherlands, is at . + +Climate +As the westernmost city in Germany (and close to the Low Countries), Aachen and the surrounding area belongs to a temperate climate zone (Cfb), with humid weather, mild winters, and warm summers. Because of its location north of the Eifel and the High Fens and its subsequent prevailing westerly weather patterns, rainfall in Aachen (on average 805 mm/year) is comparatively higher than, for example, in Bonn (with 669 mm/year). Another factor in the local weather forces of Aachen is the occurrence of Foehn winds on the southerly air currents, which results from the city's geographic location on the northern edge of the Eifel. + +Because the city is surrounded by hills, it suffers from inversion-related smog. Some areas of the city have become urban heat islands as a result of poor heat exchange, both because of the area's natural geography and from human activity. The city's numerous cold air corridors, which are slated to remain as free as possible from new construction, therefore play an important role in the urban climate of Aachen. + +The January average is +, while the July average is . Precipitation is almost evenly spread throughout the year. + +Geology + +The geology of Aachen is very structurally heterogeneous. The oldest occurring rocks in the area surrounding the city originate from the Devonian period and include carboniferous sandstone, greywacke, claystone and limestone. These formations are part of the Rhenish Massif, north of the High Fens. In the Pennsylvanian subperiod of the Carboniferous geological period, these rock layers were narrowed and folded as a result of the Variscan orogeny. After this event, and over the course of the following 200 million years, this area has been continuously flattened. + +During the Cretaceous period, the ocean penetrated the continent from the direction of the North Sea up to the mountainous area near Aachen, bringing with it clay, sand, and chalk deposits. While the clay (which was the basis for a major pottery industry in nearby Raeren) is mostly found in the lower areas of Aachen, the hills of the Aachen Forest and the Lousberg were formed from upper Cretaceous sand and chalk deposits. More recent sedimentation is mainly located in the north and east of Aachen and was formed through tertiary and quaternary river and wind activities. + +Along the major thrust fault of the Variscan orogeny, there are over 30 thermal springs in Aachen and Burtscheid. Additionally, the subsurface of Aachen is traversed by numerous active faults that belong to the Rurgraben fault system, which has been responsible for numerous earthquakes in the past, including the 1756 Düren earthquake and the 1992 Roermond earthquake, which was the strongest earthquake ever recorded in the Netherlands. + +Demographics + +Aachen has 245,885 inhabitants (as of 31 December 2015), of whom 118,272 are female, and 127,613 are male. + +At the end of 2009, the foreign-born residents of Aachen made up 13.6 percent of the total population. A significant portion of foreign residents are students at the RWTH Aachen University. + +Boroughs +The city is divided into seven administrative districts, or boroughs, each with its own district council, district leader, and district authority. The councils are elected locally by those who live within the district, and these districts are further subdivided into smaller sections for statistical purposes, with each sub-district named by a two-digit number. + +The districts of Aachen, including their constituent statistical districts, are: + Aachen-Mitte: 10 Markt, 13 Theater, 14 Lindenplatz, 15 St. Jakob, 16 Westpark, 17 Hanbruch, 18 Hörn, 21 Ponttor, 22 Hansemannplatz, 23 Soers, 24 Jülicher Straße, 25 Kalkofen, 31 Kaiserplatz, 32 Adalbertsteinweg, 33 Panneschopp, 34 Rothe Erde, 35 Trierer Straße, 36 Frankenberg, 37 Forst, 41 Beverau, 42 Burtscheid Kurgarten, 43 Burtscheid Abbey, 46 Burtscheid Steinebrück, 47 Marschiertor, 48 Hangeweiher + Brand: 51 Brand + Eilendorf: 52 Eilendorf + Haaren: 53 Haaren (including Verlautenheide) + Kornelimünster/Walheim: 61 Kornelimünster, 62 Oberforstbach, 63 Walheim + Laurensberg: 64 Vaalserquartier, 65 Laurensberg + Richterich: 88 Richterich + +Regardless of official statistical designations, there are 50 neighbourhoods and communities within Aachen, here arranged by district: + Aachen-Mitte: Beverau, Bildchen, Burtscheid, Forst, Frankenberg, Grüne Eiche, Hörn, Lintert, Pontviertel, Preuswald, Ronheide, Rosviertel, Rothe Erde, Stadtmitte, Steinebrück, West + Brand: Brand, Eich, Freund, Hitfeld, Niederforstbach + Eilendorf: Eilendorf, Nirm + Haaren: Haaren, Hüls, Verlautenheide + Kornelimünster/Walheim: Friesenrath, Hahn, Kitzenhaus, Kornelimünster, Krauthausen, Lichtenbusch, Nütheim, Oberforstbach, Sief, Schleckheim, Schmithof, Walheim + Laurensberg: Gut Kullen, Kronenberg, Laurensberg, Lemiers, Melaten, Orsbach, Seffent, Soers, Steppenberg, Vaalserquartier, Vetschau + Richterich: Horbach, Huf, Richterich + +Neighbouring communities +The following cities and communities border Aachen, clockwise from the northwest: +Herzogenrath, Würselen, Eschweiler, Stolberg and Roetgen (which are all in the district of Aachen); Raeren, Kelmis and Plombières (Liège Province in Belgium) as well as Vaals, Gulpen-Wittem, Simpelveld, Heerlen and Kerkrade (all in Limburg Province in the Netherlands). + +Politics + +Mayor +The current Mayor of Aachen is Sibylle Keupen, an independent endorsed by Alliance 90/The Greens, since 2020. The most recent mayoral election was held on 13 September 2020, with a runoff held on 27 September, and the results were as follows: + +! rowspan=2 colspan=2| Candidate +! rowspan=2| Party +! colspan=2| First round +! colspan=2| Second round +|- +! Votes +! % +! Votes +! % +|- +| bgcolor=| +| align=left| Sibylle Keupen +| align=left| Independent (Green) +| 39,662 +| 38.9 +| 53,685 +| 67.4 +|- +| bgcolor=| +| align=left| Harald Baal +| align=left| Christian Democratic Union +| 25,253 +| 24.8 +| 26,003 +| 32.6 +|- +| bgcolor=| +| align=left| Mathias Dopatka +| align=left| Social Democratic Party +| 23,031 +| 22.6 +|- +| bgcolor=| +| align=left| Markus Mohr +| align=left| Alternative for Germany +| 3,387 +| 3.3 +|- +| bgcolor=| +| align=left| Wilhelm Helg +| align=left| Free Democratic Party