{"post_id":"7xmrjn","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Is there any reason for the alphabet being in the order its in?","c_root_id_A":"dua0es8","c_root_id_B":"dua7z5o","created_at_utc_A":1518681550,"created_at_utc_B":1518699757,"score_A":130,"score_B":229,"human_ref_A":"Hindi alphabets are ordered in two different categories: all vowels preceeds the order followed by all the consonants. The ordering is very clever and when you speak in the order, you can notice the subtle movements of the tongue and muscles in a particular way.   For example, the first four consonants are 'Ka', 'Kha', 'Ga', 'Gha'. When you pronounce it you see your tongue rises with every alphabet.  See this chart for all the consonants in order.  Edit: A word.","human_ref_B":"Short answer: maybe, maybe not. No one is sure.   Longer answer: The alphabet we use today is something that evolved over ~3,000 years, through 4 iterations minimum:   Phoenician \u21d2 Greek \u21d2 Latin \u21d2 modern languages with letters like J, W, and \u00df, as well as diacriticals like \u00e5 and diphthongs like \u0153.   As a result, there\u2019s no one answer for where the order for a given modern language comes from. The alphabet for English is different from that of French, or Swedish, or Polish. Consider the Hungarian alphabet, which looks like this:  a, \u00e1, b, c, cs, d, dz, dzs, e, \u00e9, f, g, gy, h, i, \u00ed, j, k, l, ly, m, n, ny, o, \u00f3, \u00f6, \u0151, p, q, r, s, sz, t, ty, u, \u00fa, \u00fc, \u00fb, v, w, x, y, z, zs  Now, we can look at that and see that the basic order of the Latin alphabet remains. The additions are just stuck in after the related letters whose sounds they modify. As with English, we have the Latin alphabetical order, plus the later medieval insertions of j and w. The insertions are obvious and easy, because they simply follow the letters they were invented to modify\/clarify.   But for the Latin order, it\u2019s trickier. Latin is a blend of Etruscan and Greek, and they adopted neither wholesale. For example, Etruscan had 3 letters for what we would think of a \u2018k\u2019 sounds today: C, Q, and K (probably \u2018kay\u2019, \u2018qoo\u2019 and \u2018ka\u2019 but this is a guess since Etruscan remains untranslated). G was a lesser-used sound in Etruscan, but \/k\/ was very important, so they invented C from G, swapped kappa and gamma in the order, then inserted the \u2018other\u2019 k sound further down the line from \u03d8 or qoppa , a pre-standardized Greek letter used in some cities.   Long story short, there\u2019s some interesting linguistics research that suggests certain groupings of letters were created intentionally by different groups at different times, and then just kept out of habit by adopters.   So for example, the Beth Gimel Dat sequencing mentioned in a number of other posts was adopted directly into Greek as Beta Gamma Delta, but then the Gamma was replaced with C in Latin.   EDIT: Thanks for the gold, kind stranger!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":18207.0,"score_ratio":1.7615384615}
{"post_id":"fb40q7","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Numerically there have been more deaths from the common flu than from the new Corona virus, but that is because it is still contained at the moment. Just how deadly is it compared to the established influenza strains? And SARS? And the swine flu? Can we estimate the fatality rate of COVID-19 well enough for comparisons, yet?  (The initial rate was 2.3%, but it has evidently dropped some with better care.)  And if so, how does it compare?  Would it make flu season significantly more deadly if it isn't contained?   Or is that even the best metric?  Maybe the number of new people each person infects is just as important a factor?","c_root_id_A":"fj2gq88","c_root_id_B":"fj2gfjr","created_at_utc_A":1582943242,"created_at_utc_B":1582943026,"score_A":7611,"score_B":125,"human_ref_A":"Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation article covers it pretty well   https:\/\/www.gatesnotes.com\/Health\/How-to-respond-to-COVID-19  \u201cThere are two reasons that COVID-19 is such a threat. First, it can kill healthy adults in addition to elderly people with existing health problems. The data so far suggests that the virus has a case fatality risk around 1%; this rate would make it several times more severe than typical seasonal influenza and would put it somewhere between the 1957 influenza pandemic (0.6%) and the 1918 influenza pandemic (2%).  Second, COVID-19 is transmitted quite efficiently. The average infected person spreads the disease to two or three others. That\u2019s an exponential rate of increase. There is also strong evidence that it can be transmitted by people who are just mildly ill or not even showing symptoms yet. This means COVID-19 will be much harder to contain than Middle East Respiratory Syndrome or Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), which were only spread by those showing symptoms and were much less efficiently transmitted. In fact, COVID-19 has already caused 10 times as many cases as SARS in just a quarter of the time\u201d","human_ref_B":"From here: https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/9\/2\/523  >Our cCFR estimates of 5.3% and 8.4% indicate that the severity of COVID-19 is not as high as that of other diseases caused by coronaviruses, including severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), which had an estimated CFR of 17% in Hong Kong \\[9,10,20\\], and Middle East respiratory syndrome, which had an estimated CFR of 20% in South Korea \\[21\\]. Nonetheless, considering the overall magnitude of the ongoing epidemic, a 5%\u20138% risk of death is by no means insignificant. In addition to quantifying the overall risk of death, future research must identify groups at risk of death (e.g., the elderly and people with underlying comorbidities) \\[22,23\\]. Moreover, considering that about 9% of all infected individuals are ascertained and reported \\[24\\], the infection fatality risk (IFR), i.e., the risk of death among all infected individuals, would be on the order of 0.5% to 0.8%.  Takeaways:  - 5 - 8% mortality rate among those confirmed to be infected. - This mortality rate is only around 30 - 40% that of MERS and SARS. - Expected 9% of actual infections get reported, because many are mild. - **Actual mortality rate amongst all infected is 0.5 - 0.8%.**   Comparable toral mortality rate for seasonal influenza is about **0.13%** based on CDC numbers. https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/flu\/about\/burden\/index.html  So, 4- 6 x worse than influenza based on just this study.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":216.0,"score_ratio":60.888}
{"post_id":"fb40q7","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Numerically there have been more deaths from the common flu than from the new Corona virus, but that is because it is still contained at the moment. Just how deadly is it compared to the established influenza strains? And SARS? And the swine flu? Can we estimate the fatality rate of COVID-19 well enough for comparisons, yet?  (The initial rate was 2.3%, but it has evidently dropped some with better care.)  And if so, how does it compare?  Would it make flu season significantly more deadly if it isn't contained?   Or is that even the best metric?  Maybe the number of new people each person infects is just as important a factor?","c_root_id_A":"fj28yg6","c_root_id_B":"fj2gq88","created_at_utc_A":1582937547,"created_at_utc_B":1582943242,"score_A":101,"score_B":7611,"human_ref_A":"This article ...  https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/9\/2\/523  ... an analysis mostly done using informatics techniques, and therefore hypothesis generating (i.e. not hypothesis testing) suggests a much higher case fatality rate in the range of 5% or higher.  This would be a rather bad thing.  Along with that, the R0 was estimated to be between 2 and 3 ... roughly the same as influenza.  So ... this is a cool new analysis by competent people, using available (and therefore suspect) data.  The real answer is that no one knows yet.","human_ref_B":"Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation article covers it pretty well   https:\/\/www.gatesnotes.com\/Health\/How-to-respond-to-COVID-19  \u201cThere are two reasons that COVID-19 is such a threat. First, it can kill healthy adults in addition to elderly people with existing health problems. The data so far suggests that the virus has a case fatality risk around 1%; this rate would make it several times more severe than typical seasonal influenza and would put it somewhere between the 1957 influenza pandemic (0.6%) and the 1918 influenza pandemic (2%).  Second, COVID-19 is transmitted quite efficiently. The average infected person spreads the disease to two or three others. That\u2019s an exponential rate of increase. There is also strong evidence that it can be transmitted by people who are just mildly ill or not even showing symptoms yet. This means COVID-19 will be much harder to contain than Middle East Respiratory Syndrome or Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), which were only spread by those showing symptoms and were much less efficiently transmitted. In fact, COVID-19 has already caused 10 times as many cases as SARS in just a quarter of the time\u201d","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5695.0,"score_ratio":75.3564356436}
{"post_id":"fb40q7","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Numerically there have been more deaths from the common flu than from the new Corona virus, but that is because it is still contained at the moment. Just how deadly is it compared to the established influenza strains? And SARS? And the swine flu? Can we estimate the fatality rate of COVID-19 well enough for comparisons, yet?  (The initial rate was 2.3%, but it has evidently dropped some with better care.)  And if so, how does it compare?  Would it make flu season significantly more deadly if it isn't contained?   Or is that even the best metric?  Maybe the number of new people each person infects is just as important a factor?","c_root_id_A":"fj2hzpl","c_root_id_B":"fj2j6u9","created_at_utc_A":1582944159,"created_at_utc_B":1582945045,"score_A":246,"score_B":735,"human_ref_A":"The fatality rate is presently a dynamic function. You can't divide by the number of infected, as they may yet die. But you also can't divide by the number of cured because those infected may yet survive. The point is, the only correct way of calculating the fatality rate is to wait until the dynamic effects wear off, and we reach the steady state infection rate.   Professional virologists have access to some impressive, highly sophisticated modeling software which considers the limitations I mentioned above and beyond. They seem to be going with 1 - 3% HIGH end mortality rates. I consider these estimates to be conservative, but nonetheless within the realm of possibility.  Another factor to consider is the novelty of the virus. Due to containment efforts, and the aforementioned dynamic response, the current healthcare system is overwhelmed. This superficially adds to the mortality rate as we can expect persons to have reasonable access to healthcare during steady state.  So in conclusion, the most reliable \"back of envelope\" calculation you and I can make will be a gross estimate. But it can be done. Deceased \/ Cured will give an extremely conservative estimate during early dynamic states. Consider week one had a few deceased and no cured. This method leads to a mortality rate of infinity percent! As time goes on, it will approach a more stable mortality rate. In contrast Deceased \/ Infected could potentially be completely erroneous. Overall, it lacks meaning during a dynamic state for reasons mentioned previously. It doesn't add much at steady state either as a greater percentage of deaths will occur during the dynamic response and overall the rate of change regarding infected people will decrease leading the rate to continue artificially inflating with time. Best someone like you and I could do is wait another month for more data. Take a 1 - 2 month window and calculate the Deceased \/ Cured ratio within that period. It will still have dynamic effects or second order effects, so it will remain conservative. But it will isolate a window with 3 - 4 full cycles of infection, death, or recovery.  An interesting project for someone to take up would be to plot the daily *moving average* D \/ C curves over varying window lengths. Say 3 days, 1 week, 2 weeks, 1 month etc. It will start at infinity as we mentioned, and should decay to some steady value over time. Regression techniques could then give fair estimates of steady state rates ... that is until the bell gets rung again somehow.  TLDR: We're seeing the *dynamic* response of a novel virus. Mortality rates will be relatively high at first, but should decay to a steady state. 1 - 3% rates are conservative, as they are derived using dynamic data. Expect it to go down.","human_ref_B":"The two main metrics are CFR (Case Fatality Rate - the percentage of infected people who will die), and R0, which measures the spread of the disease. R0=1 when an infected person infects one other person on average. This gets more complicated as more of the population is infected, so you might see Reff (effective R0) used instead.  The CFR in Wuhan\/Hubei province is about 4% but about 1% in the rest of China (according to the official statistics). The difference is likely due to treatment availability and the heads-up the rest of the country got. That\u2019s compared to about 0.01% for seasonal flu, about 2.5% for Spanish flu and ~10% for MERS.  (EDIT: 10% for SARS, 20-60% for MERS, thanks for the correction.)  R0 is normally about 1.3 for this kind of virus, however the long incubation time means the infection rate is probably higher here. This is why the massive quarantine in China has been effective, and why there\u2019s the potential for a huge impact on countries that can\u2019t or won\u2019t impose the same level on containment.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":886.0,"score_ratio":2.987804878}
{"post_id":"fb40q7","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Numerically there have been more deaths from the common flu than from the new Corona virus, but that is because it is still contained at the moment. Just how deadly is it compared to the established influenza strains? And SARS? And the swine flu? Can we estimate the fatality rate of COVID-19 well enough for comparisons, yet?  (The initial rate was 2.3%, but it has evidently dropped some with better care.)  And if so, how does it compare?  Would it make flu season significantly more deadly if it isn't contained?   Or is that even the best metric?  Maybe the number of new people each person infects is just as important a factor?","c_root_id_A":"fj2j6u9","c_root_id_B":"fj2gfjr","created_at_utc_A":1582945045,"created_at_utc_B":1582943026,"score_A":735,"score_B":125,"human_ref_A":"The two main metrics are CFR (Case Fatality Rate - the percentage of infected people who will die), and R0, which measures the spread of the disease. R0=1 when an infected person infects one other person on average. This gets more complicated as more of the population is infected, so you might see Reff (effective R0) used instead.  The CFR in Wuhan\/Hubei province is about 4% but about 1% in the rest of China (according to the official statistics). The difference is likely due to treatment availability and the heads-up the rest of the country got. That\u2019s compared to about 0.01% for seasonal flu, about 2.5% for Spanish flu and ~10% for MERS.  (EDIT: 10% for SARS, 20-60% for MERS, thanks for the correction.)  R0 is normally about 1.3 for this kind of virus, however the long incubation time means the infection rate is probably higher here. This is why the massive quarantine in China has been effective, and why there\u2019s the potential for a huge impact on countries that can\u2019t or won\u2019t impose the same level on containment.","human_ref_B":"From here: https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/9\/2\/523  >Our cCFR estimates of 5.3% and 8.4% indicate that the severity of COVID-19 is not as high as that of other diseases caused by coronaviruses, including severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), which had an estimated CFR of 17% in Hong Kong \\[9,10,20\\], and Middle East respiratory syndrome, which had an estimated CFR of 20% in South Korea \\[21\\]. Nonetheless, considering the overall magnitude of the ongoing epidemic, a 5%\u20138% risk of death is by no means insignificant. In addition to quantifying the overall risk of death, future research must identify groups at risk of death (e.g., the elderly and people with underlying comorbidities) \\[22,23\\]. Moreover, considering that about 9% of all infected individuals are ascertained and reported \\[24\\], the infection fatality risk (IFR), i.e., the risk of death among all infected individuals, would be on the order of 0.5% to 0.8%.  Takeaways:  - 5 - 8% mortality rate among those confirmed to be infected. - This mortality rate is only around 30 - 40% that of MERS and SARS. - Expected 9% of actual infections get reported, because many are mild. - **Actual mortality rate amongst all infected is 0.5 - 0.8%.**   Comparable toral mortality rate for seasonal influenza is about **0.13%** based on CDC numbers. https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/flu\/about\/burden\/index.html  So, 4- 6 x worse than influenza based on just this study.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2019.0,"score_ratio":5.88}
{"post_id":"fb40q7","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Numerically there have been more deaths from the common flu than from the new Corona virus, but that is because it is still contained at the moment. Just how deadly is it compared to the established influenza strains? And SARS? And the swine flu? Can we estimate the fatality rate of COVID-19 well enough for comparisons, yet?  (The initial rate was 2.3%, but it has evidently dropped some with better care.)  And if so, how does it compare?  Would it make flu season significantly more deadly if it isn't contained?   Or is that even the best metric?  Maybe the number of new people each person infects is just as important a factor?","c_root_id_A":"fj28yg6","c_root_id_B":"fj2j6u9","created_at_utc_A":1582937547,"created_at_utc_B":1582945045,"score_A":101,"score_B":735,"human_ref_A":"This article ...  https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/9\/2\/523  ... an analysis mostly done using informatics techniques, and therefore hypothesis generating (i.e. not hypothesis testing) suggests a much higher case fatality rate in the range of 5% or higher.  This would be a rather bad thing.  Along with that, the R0 was estimated to be between 2 and 3 ... roughly the same as influenza.  So ... this is a cool new analysis by competent people, using available (and therefore suspect) data.  The real answer is that no one knows yet.","human_ref_B":"The two main metrics are CFR (Case Fatality Rate - the percentage of infected people who will die), and R0, which measures the spread of the disease. R0=1 when an infected person infects one other person on average. This gets more complicated as more of the population is infected, so you might see Reff (effective R0) used instead.  The CFR in Wuhan\/Hubei province is about 4% but about 1% in the rest of China (according to the official statistics). The difference is likely due to treatment availability and the heads-up the rest of the country got. That\u2019s compared to about 0.01% for seasonal flu, about 2.5% for Spanish flu and ~10% for MERS.  (EDIT: 10% for SARS, 20-60% for MERS, thanks for the correction.)  R0 is normally about 1.3 for this kind of virus, however the long incubation time means the infection rate is probably higher here. This is why the massive quarantine in China has been effective, and why there\u2019s the potential for a huge impact on countries that can\u2019t or won\u2019t impose the same level on containment.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7498.0,"score_ratio":7.2772277228}
{"post_id":"fb40q7","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Numerically there have been more deaths from the common flu than from the new Corona virus, but that is because it is still contained at the moment. Just how deadly is it compared to the established influenza strains? And SARS? And the swine flu? Can we estimate the fatality rate of COVID-19 well enough for comparisons, yet?  (The initial rate was 2.3%, but it has evidently dropped some with better care.)  And if so, how does it compare?  Would it make flu season significantly more deadly if it isn't contained?   Or is that even the best metric?  Maybe the number of new people each person infects is just as important a factor?","c_root_id_A":"fj2xhv4","c_root_id_B":"fj2hzpl","created_at_utc_A":1582957627,"created_at_utc_B":1582944159,"score_A":708,"score_B":246,"human_ref_A":"This is a quickly moving pandemic - our knowledge of the virus is shallow and its potential to evolve with time is greater than 0. That said, the initial outbreak in Hubei province allows for a detailed breakdown of mortality by age and sex. The following comes from a paper in the China CCDC weekly that evaluated 72,000 case studies, along with about 56,000 case studies from the World Health Organization (WHO). The full integration and interpretation of these two sources can be found here. A partial summary follows.  By age:  |Age|Death Rate| |:-|:-| |80+ years|14.8%| |70-79 years|8.0 %| |60-69 years|3.6%| |50-59 years|1.3%| |40-49 years|0.4%| |30-39 years|0.2%| |20-29 years|0.2%| |10-19 years|0.2%| |0-9 years|no known fatalities|  ​  And by sex:  |Sex|Death Rate| |:-|:-| |Male|2.8%| |Female|1.7%|  ​  It is unclear why men and women are affected, but an intriguing possibility is an X-linked gene that creates the ACE-2 receptor, which is exploited by some coronaviruses to enter cells. Females are XX, while males are XY, meaning they only have one copy of the gene and a subpopulation may be more vulnerable. Primary research can be found here and here, with a more accessible summary here This matches a similar pattern with the 2003 SARS outbreak, where 13% of females died while 22% of men did.  The origins of the virus are unknown, but genetically it is very close to a similar virus in pangolins, which unfortunately are poached for traditional medicinal purposes. While it is not definitely known where the virus comes from originally, it is most likely an episode of zoonosis - where a virus spreads to a new species from another. Many human pandemics have their roots in animal transfer, including influenza (chickens), Ebola (chimpanzees), HVI\/AIDS (chimpanzees again), measles (cattle), among hundreds of others. If you are interested in the history of these kinds of disease species jumps, I recommend Spillover by David Quammen.  My background is as an archaeologist, and I've been researching the emergence of epidemics for the past few years (no pubs on the topic though, sorry). If you are interested in this too, I recommend William McNeill's Plagues and Peoples. Historically, diseases seem to have gone through an initial high mortality phase, followed by a more contagious phase. This is only an hypothesis - and by a non-specialist at that - but I wonder if the SARS to COVID-19 infections follow that pattern. The difference being that a modern medical system can isolate the more lethal first step (SARS). Unfortunately, for more contagious diseases (like COVID-19), only massive containment measures are likely to be effective. Not all governments are capable (or willing) to do this.  Lastly, some may read the low infection rates for young people as a reason not to worry. As a parent of an infant, I take some solace on them. But keep in mind that even if you get a mild infection, you may spread it to someone you care about who will have a much harder time with it. While masks (N95 or greater) may be effective at preventing contamination, the most effective measures will be simply hygiene like frequent showers and washing your hands thoroughly. WHO recommendations for hygiene habits to reduce disease transmission can be found here.  Lastly, I caution agains the normalcy bias. It is easy to assume that this will blow over like so many other supposed crises have. But the only comparable disease in the modern era is the 1918 influenza epidemic that infected 500 million, and killed 40-50 million. If the numbers from Hubei are representative of the infection (and keep in mind - that is with extraordinary containment measures), then a 2.8% mortality infecting 500 million today would be 14 million people. It is unknown how international travel through airports and crowded cities of 10+ million will factor into this pandemic - we don't have a historical precedent for that. We also don't have a precedent for how pandemics interact with modern medical systems. There are a lot of unknowns. Wash you hands.  I hope this helps. Stay safe everyone.  ps. sorry for the weird text changes, wrote this in markdown first, which did not turn out well","human_ref_B":"The fatality rate is presently a dynamic function. You can't divide by the number of infected, as they may yet die. But you also can't divide by the number of cured because those infected may yet survive. The point is, the only correct way of calculating the fatality rate is to wait until the dynamic effects wear off, and we reach the steady state infection rate.   Professional virologists have access to some impressive, highly sophisticated modeling software which considers the limitations I mentioned above and beyond. They seem to be going with 1 - 3% HIGH end mortality rates. I consider these estimates to be conservative, but nonetheless within the realm of possibility.  Another factor to consider is the novelty of the virus. Due to containment efforts, and the aforementioned dynamic response, the current healthcare system is overwhelmed. This superficially adds to the mortality rate as we can expect persons to have reasonable access to healthcare during steady state.  So in conclusion, the most reliable \"back of envelope\" calculation you and I can make will be a gross estimate. But it can be done. Deceased \/ Cured will give an extremely conservative estimate during early dynamic states. Consider week one had a few deceased and no cured. This method leads to a mortality rate of infinity percent! As time goes on, it will approach a more stable mortality rate. In contrast Deceased \/ Infected could potentially be completely erroneous. Overall, it lacks meaning during a dynamic state for reasons mentioned previously. It doesn't add much at steady state either as a greater percentage of deaths will occur during the dynamic response and overall the rate of change regarding infected people will decrease leading the rate to continue artificially inflating with time. Best someone like you and I could do is wait another month for more data. Take a 1 - 2 month window and calculate the Deceased \/ Cured ratio within that period. It will still have dynamic effects or second order effects, so it will remain conservative. But it will isolate a window with 3 - 4 full cycles of infection, death, or recovery.  An interesting project for someone to take up would be to plot the daily *moving average* D \/ C curves over varying window lengths. Say 3 days, 1 week, 2 weeks, 1 month etc. It will start at infinity as we mentioned, and should decay to some steady value over time. Regression techniques could then give fair estimates of steady state rates ... that is until the bell gets rung again somehow.  TLDR: We're seeing the *dynamic* response of a novel virus. Mortality rates will be relatively high at first, but should decay to a steady state. 1 - 3% rates are conservative, as they are derived using dynamic data. Expect it to go down.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":13468.0,"score_ratio":2.8780487805}
{"post_id":"fb40q7","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Numerically there have been more deaths from the common flu than from the new Corona virus, but that is because it is still contained at the moment. Just how deadly is it compared to the established influenza strains? And SARS? And the swine flu? Can we estimate the fatality rate of COVID-19 well enough for comparisons, yet?  (The initial rate was 2.3%, but it has evidently dropped some with better care.)  And if so, how does it compare?  Would it make flu season significantly more deadly if it isn't contained?   Or is that even the best metric?  Maybe the number of new people each person infects is just as important a factor?","c_root_id_A":"fj2xhv4","c_root_id_B":"fj2gfjr","created_at_utc_A":1582957627,"created_at_utc_B":1582943026,"score_A":708,"score_B":125,"human_ref_A":"This is a quickly moving pandemic - our knowledge of the virus is shallow and its potential to evolve with time is greater than 0. That said, the initial outbreak in Hubei province allows for a detailed breakdown of mortality by age and sex. The following comes from a paper in the China CCDC weekly that evaluated 72,000 case studies, along with about 56,000 case studies from the World Health Organization (WHO). The full integration and interpretation of these two sources can be found here. A partial summary follows.  By age:  |Age|Death Rate| |:-|:-| |80+ years|14.8%| |70-79 years|8.0 %| |60-69 years|3.6%| |50-59 years|1.3%| |40-49 years|0.4%| |30-39 years|0.2%| |20-29 years|0.2%| |10-19 years|0.2%| |0-9 years|no known fatalities|  ​  And by sex:  |Sex|Death Rate| |:-|:-| |Male|2.8%| |Female|1.7%|  ​  It is unclear why men and women are affected, but an intriguing possibility is an X-linked gene that creates the ACE-2 receptor, which is exploited by some coronaviruses to enter cells. Females are XX, while males are XY, meaning they only have one copy of the gene and a subpopulation may be more vulnerable. Primary research can be found here and here, with a more accessible summary here This matches a similar pattern with the 2003 SARS outbreak, where 13% of females died while 22% of men did.  The origins of the virus are unknown, but genetically it is very close to a similar virus in pangolins, which unfortunately are poached for traditional medicinal purposes. While it is not definitely known where the virus comes from originally, it is most likely an episode of zoonosis - where a virus spreads to a new species from another. Many human pandemics have their roots in animal transfer, including influenza (chickens), Ebola (chimpanzees), HVI\/AIDS (chimpanzees again), measles (cattle), among hundreds of others. If you are interested in the history of these kinds of disease species jumps, I recommend Spillover by David Quammen.  My background is as an archaeologist, and I've been researching the emergence of epidemics for the past few years (no pubs on the topic though, sorry). If you are interested in this too, I recommend William McNeill's Plagues and Peoples. Historically, diseases seem to have gone through an initial high mortality phase, followed by a more contagious phase. This is only an hypothesis - and by a non-specialist at that - but I wonder if the SARS to COVID-19 infections follow that pattern. The difference being that a modern medical system can isolate the more lethal first step (SARS). Unfortunately, for more contagious diseases (like COVID-19), only massive containment measures are likely to be effective. Not all governments are capable (or willing) to do this.  Lastly, some may read the low infection rates for young people as a reason not to worry. As a parent of an infant, I take some solace on them. But keep in mind that even if you get a mild infection, you may spread it to someone you care about who will have a much harder time with it. While masks (N95 or greater) may be effective at preventing contamination, the most effective measures will be simply hygiene like frequent showers and washing your hands thoroughly. WHO recommendations for hygiene habits to reduce disease transmission can be found here.  Lastly, I caution agains the normalcy bias. It is easy to assume that this will blow over like so many other supposed crises have. But the only comparable disease in the modern era is the 1918 influenza epidemic that infected 500 million, and killed 40-50 million. If the numbers from Hubei are representative of the infection (and keep in mind - that is with extraordinary containment measures), then a 2.8% mortality infecting 500 million today would be 14 million people. It is unknown how international travel through airports and crowded cities of 10+ million will factor into this pandemic - we don't have a historical precedent for that. We also don't have a precedent for how pandemics interact with modern medical systems. There are a lot of unknowns. Wash you hands.  I hope this helps. Stay safe everyone.  ps. sorry for the weird text changes, wrote this in markdown first, which did not turn out well","human_ref_B":"From here: https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/9\/2\/523  >Our cCFR estimates of 5.3% and 8.4% indicate that the severity of COVID-19 is not as high as that of other diseases caused by coronaviruses, including severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), which had an estimated CFR of 17% in Hong Kong \\[9,10,20\\], and Middle East respiratory syndrome, which had an estimated CFR of 20% in South Korea \\[21\\]. Nonetheless, considering the overall magnitude of the ongoing epidemic, a 5%\u20138% risk of death is by no means insignificant. In addition to quantifying the overall risk of death, future research must identify groups at risk of death (e.g., the elderly and people with underlying comorbidities) \\[22,23\\]. Moreover, considering that about 9% of all infected individuals are ascertained and reported \\[24\\], the infection fatality risk (IFR), i.e., the risk of death among all infected individuals, would be on the order of 0.5% to 0.8%.  Takeaways:  - 5 - 8% mortality rate among those confirmed to be infected. - This mortality rate is only around 30 - 40% that of MERS and SARS. - Expected 9% of actual infections get reported, because many are mild. - **Actual mortality rate amongst all infected is 0.5 - 0.8%.**   Comparable toral mortality rate for seasonal influenza is about **0.13%** based on CDC numbers. https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/flu\/about\/burden\/index.html  So, 4- 6 x worse than influenza based on just this study.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":14601.0,"score_ratio":5.664}
{"post_id":"fb40q7","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Numerically there have been more deaths from the common flu than from the new Corona virus, but that is because it is still contained at the moment. Just how deadly is it compared to the established influenza strains? And SARS? And the swine flu? Can we estimate the fatality rate of COVID-19 well enough for comparisons, yet?  (The initial rate was 2.3%, but it has evidently dropped some with better care.)  And if so, how does it compare?  Would it make flu season significantly more deadly if it isn't contained?   Or is that even the best metric?  Maybe the number of new people each person infects is just as important a factor?","c_root_id_A":"fj2xhv4","c_root_id_B":"fj28yg6","created_at_utc_A":1582957627,"created_at_utc_B":1582937547,"score_A":708,"score_B":101,"human_ref_A":"This is a quickly moving pandemic - our knowledge of the virus is shallow and its potential to evolve with time is greater than 0. That said, the initial outbreak in Hubei province allows for a detailed breakdown of mortality by age and sex. The following comes from a paper in the China CCDC weekly that evaluated 72,000 case studies, along with about 56,000 case studies from the World Health Organization (WHO). The full integration and interpretation of these two sources can be found here. A partial summary follows.  By age:  |Age|Death Rate| |:-|:-| |80+ years|14.8%| |70-79 years|8.0 %| |60-69 years|3.6%| |50-59 years|1.3%| |40-49 years|0.4%| |30-39 years|0.2%| |20-29 years|0.2%| |10-19 years|0.2%| |0-9 years|no known fatalities|  ​  And by sex:  |Sex|Death Rate| |:-|:-| |Male|2.8%| |Female|1.7%|  ​  It is unclear why men and women are affected, but an intriguing possibility is an X-linked gene that creates the ACE-2 receptor, which is exploited by some coronaviruses to enter cells. Females are XX, while males are XY, meaning they only have one copy of the gene and a subpopulation may be more vulnerable. Primary research can be found here and here, with a more accessible summary here This matches a similar pattern with the 2003 SARS outbreak, where 13% of females died while 22% of men did.  The origins of the virus are unknown, but genetically it is very close to a similar virus in pangolins, which unfortunately are poached for traditional medicinal purposes. While it is not definitely known where the virus comes from originally, it is most likely an episode of zoonosis - where a virus spreads to a new species from another. Many human pandemics have their roots in animal transfer, including influenza (chickens), Ebola (chimpanzees), HVI\/AIDS (chimpanzees again), measles (cattle), among hundreds of others. If you are interested in the history of these kinds of disease species jumps, I recommend Spillover by David Quammen.  My background is as an archaeologist, and I've been researching the emergence of epidemics for the past few years (no pubs on the topic though, sorry). If you are interested in this too, I recommend William McNeill's Plagues and Peoples. Historically, diseases seem to have gone through an initial high mortality phase, followed by a more contagious phase. This is only an hypothesis - and by a non-specialist at that - but I wonder if the SARS to COVID-19 infections follow that pattern. The difference being that a modern medical system can isolate the more lethal first step (SARS). Unfortunately, for more contagious diseases (like COVID-19), only massive containment measures are likely to be effective. Not all governments are capable (or willing) to do this.  Lastly, some may read the low infection rates for young people as a reason not to worry. As a parent of an infant, I take some solace on them. But keep in mind that even if you get a mild infection, you may spread it to someone you care about who will have a much harder time with it. While masks (N95 or greater) may be effective at preventing contamination, the most effective measures will be simply hygiene like frequent showers and washing your hands thoroughly. WHO recommendations for hygiene habits to reduce disease transmission can be found here.  Lastly, I caution agains the normalcy bias. It is easy to assume that this will blow over like so many other supposed crises have. But the only comparable disease in the modern era is the 1918 influenza epidemic that infected 500 million, and killed 40-50 million. If the numbers from Hubei are representative of the infection (and keep in mind - that is with extraordinary containment measures), then a 2.8% mortality infecting 500 million today would be 14 million people. It is unknown how international travel through airports and crowded cities of 10+ million will factor into this pandemic - we don't have a historical precedent for that. We also don't have a precedent for how pandemics interact with modern medical systems. There are a lot of unknowns. Wash you hands.  I hope this helps. Stay safe everyone.  ps. sorry for the weird text changes, wrote this in markdown first, which did not turn out well","human_ref_B":"This article ...  https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/9\/2\/523  ... an analysis mostly done using informatics techniques, and therefore hypothesis generating (i.e. not hypothesis testing) suggests a much higher case fatality rate in the range of 5% or higher.  This would be a rather bad thing.  Along with that, the R0 was estimated to be between 2 and 3 ... roughly the same as influenza.  So ... this is a cool new analysis by competent people, using available (and therefore suspect) data.  The real answer is that no one knows yet.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":20080.0,"score_ratio":7.0099009901}
{"post_id":"fb40q7","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Numerically there have been more deaths from the common flu than from the new Corona virus, but that is because it is still contained at the moment. Just how deadly is it compared to the established influenza strains? And SARS? And the swine flu? Can we estimate the fatality rate of COVID-19 well enough for comparisons, yet?  (The initial rate was 2.3%, but it has evidently dropped some with better care.)  And if so, how does it compare?  Would it make flu season significantly more deadly if it isn't contained?   Or is that even the best metric?  Maybe the number of new people each person infects is just as important a factor?","c_root_id_A":"fj2hzpl","c_root_id_B":"fj2gfjr","created_at_utc_A":1582944159,"created_at_utc_B":1582943026,"score_A":246,"score_B":125,"human_ref_A":"The fatality rate is presently a dynamic function. You can't divide by the number of infected, as they may yet die. But you also can't divide by the number of cured because those infected may yet survive. The point is, the only correct way of calculating the fatality rate is to wait until the dynamic effects wear off, and we reach the steady state infection rate.   Professional virologists have access to some impressive, highly sophisticated modeling software which considers the limitations I mentioned above and beyond. They seem to be going with 1 - 3% HIGH end mortality rates. I consider these estimates to be conservative, but nonetheless within the realm of possibility.  Another factor to consider is the novelty of the virus. Due to containment efforts, and the aforementioned dynamic response, the current healthcare system is overwhelmed. This superficially adds to the mortality rate as we can expect persons to have reasonable access to healthcare during steady state.  So in conclusion, the most reliable \"back of envelope\" calculation you and I can make will be a gross estimate. But it can be done. Deceased \/ Cured will give an extremely conservative estimate during early dynamic states. Consider week one had a few deceased and no cured. This method leads to a mortality rate of infinity percent! As time goes on, it will approach a more stable mortality rate. In contrast Deceased \/ Infected could potentially be completely erroneous. Overall, it lacks meaning during a dynamic state for reasons mentioned previously. It doesn't add much at steady state either as a greater percentage of deaths will occur during the dynamic response and overall the rate of change regarding infected people will decrease leading the rate to continue artificially inflating with time. Best someone like you and I could do is wait another month for more data. Take a 1 - 2 month window and calculate the Deceased \/ Cured ratio within that period. It will still have dynamic effects or second order effects, so it will remain conservative. But it will isolate a window with 3 - 4 full cycles of infection, death, or recovery.  An interesting project for someone to take up would be to plot the daily *moving average* D \/ C curves over varying window lengths. Say 3 days, 1 week, 2 weeks, 1 month etc. It will start at infinity as we mentioned, and should decay to some steady value over time. Regression techniques could then give fair estimates of steady state rates ... that is until the bell gets rung again somehow.  TLDR: We're seeing the *dynamic* response of a novel virus. Mortality rates will be relatively high at first, but should decay to a steady state. 1 - 3% rates are conservative, as they are derived using dynamic data. Expect it to go down.","human_ref_B":"From here: https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/9\/2\/523  >Our cCFR estimates of 5.3% and 8.4% indicate that the severity of COVID-19 is not as high as that of other diseases caused by coronaviruses, including severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), which had an estimated CFR of 17% in Hong Kong \\[9,10,20\\], and Middle East respiratory syndrome, which had an estimated CFR of 20% in South Korea \\[21\\]. Nonetheless, considering the overall magnitude of the ongoing epidemic, a 5%\u20138% risk of death is by no means insignificant. In addition to quantifying the overall risk of death, future research must identify groups at risk of death (e.g., the elderly and people with underlying comorbidities) \\[22,23\\]. Moreover, considering that about 9% of all infected individuals are ascertained and reported \\[24\\], the infection fatality risk (IFR), i.e., the risk of death among all infected individuals, would be on the order of 0.5% to 0.8%.  Takeaways:  - 5 - 8% mortality rate among those confirmed to be infected. - This mortality rate is only around 30 - 40% that of MERS and SARS. - Expected 9% of actual infections get reported, because many are mild. - **Actual mortality rate amongst all infected is 0.5 - 0.8%.**   Comparable toral mortality rate for seasonal influenza is about **0.13%** based on CDC numbers. https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/flu\/about\/burden\/index.html  So, 4- 6 x worse than influenza based on just this study.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1133.0,"score_ratio":1.968}
{"post_id":"fb40q7","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Numerically there have been more deaths from the common flu than from the new Corona virus, but that is because it is still contained at the moment. Just how deadly is it compared to the established influenza strains? And SARS? And the swine flu? Can we estimate the fatality rate of COVID-19 well enough for comparisons, yet?  (The initial rate was 2.3%, but it has evidently dropped some with better care.)  And if so, how does it compare?  Would it make flu season significantly more deadly if it isn't contained?   Or is that even the best metric?  Maybe the number of new people each person infects is just as important a factor?","c_root_id_A":"fj2hzpl","c_root_id_B":"fj28yg6","created_at_utc_A":1582944159,"created_at_utc_B":1582937547,"score_A":246,"score_B":101,"human_ref_A":"The fatality rate is presently a dynamic function. You can't divide by the number of infected, as they may yet die. But you also can't divide by the number of cured because those infected may yet survive. The point is, the only correct way of calculating the fatality rate is to wait until the dynamic effects wear off, and we reach the steady state infection rate.   Professional virologists have access to some impressive, highly sophisticated modeling software which considers the limitations I mentioned above and beyond. They seem to be going with 1 - 3% HIGH end mortality rates. I consider these estimates to be conservative, but nonetheless within the realm of possibility.  Another factor to consider is the novelty of the virus. Due to containment efforts, and the aforementioned dynamic response, the current healthcare system is overwhelmed. This superficially adds to the mortality rate as we can expect persons to have reasonable access to healthcare during steady state.  So in conclusion, the most reliable \"back of envelope\" calculation you and I can make will be a gross estimate. But it can be done. Deceased \/ Cured will give an extremely conservative estimate during early dynamic states. Consider week one had a few deceased and no cured. This method leads to a mortality rate of infinity percent! As time goes on, it will approach a more stable mortality rate. In contrast Deceased \/ Infected could potentially be completely erroneous. Overall, it lacks meaning during a dynamic state for reasons mentioned previously. It doesn't add much at steady state either as a greater percentage of deaths will occur during the dynamic response and overall the rate of change regarding infected people will decrease leading the rate to continue artificially inflating with time. Best someone like you and I could do is wait another month for more data. Take a 1 - 2 month window and calculate the Deceased \/ Cured ratio within that period. It will still have dynamic effects or second order effects, so it will remain conservative. But it will isolate a window with 3 - 4 full cycles of infection, death, or recovery.  An interesting project for someone to take up would be to plot the daily *moving average* D \/ C curves over varying window lengths. Say 3 days, 1 week, 2 weeks, 1 month etc. It will start at infinity as we mentioned, and should decay to some steady value over time. Regression techniques could then give fair estimates of steady state rates ... that is until the bell gets rung again somehow.  TLDR: We're seeing the *dynamic* response of a novel virus. Mortality rates will be relatively high at first, but should decay to a steady state. 1 - 3% rates are conservative, as they are derived using dynamic data. Expect it to go down.","human_ref_B":"This article ...  https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/9\/2\/523  ... an analysis mostly done using informatics techniques, and therefore hypothesis generating (i.e. not hypothesis testing) suggests a much higher case fatality rate in the range of 5% or higher.  This would be a rather bad thing.  Along with that, the R0 was estimated to be between 2 and 3 ... roughly the same as influenza.  So ... this is a cool new analysis by competent people, using available (and therefore suspect) data.  The real answer is that no one knows yet.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6612.0,"score_ratio":2.4356435644}
{"post_id":"fb40q7","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Numerically there have been more deaths from the common flu than from the new Corona virus, but that is because it is still contained at the moment. Just how deadly is it compared to the established influenza strains? And SARS? And the swine flu? Can we estimate the fatality rate of COVID-19 well enough for comparisons, yet?  (The initial rate was 2.3%, but it has evidently dropped some with better care.)  And if so, how does it compare?  Would it make flu season significantly more deadly if it isn't contained?   Or is that even the best metric?  Maybe the number of new people each person infects is just as important a factor?","c_root_id_A":"fj28yg6","c_root_id_B":"fj2gfjr","created_at_utc_A":1582937547,"created_at_utc_B":1582943026,"score_A":101,"score_B":125,"human_ref_A":"This article ...  https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/9\/2\/523  ... an analysis mostly done using informatics techniques, and therefore hypothesis generating (i.e. not hypothesis testing) suggests a much higher case fatality rate in the range of 5% or higher.  This would be a rather bad thing.  Along with that, the R0 was estimated to be between 2 and 3 ... roughly the same as influenza.  So ... this is a cool new analysis by competent people, using available (and therefore suspect) data.  The real answer is that no one knows yet.","human_ref_B":"From here: https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/9\/2\/523  >Our cCFR estimates of 5.3% and 8.4% indicate that the severity of COVID-19 is not as high as that of other diseases caused by coronaviruses, including severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), which had an estimated CFR of 17% in Hong Kong \\[9,10,20\\], and Middle East respiratory syndrome, which had an estimated CFR of 20% in South Korea \\[21\\]. Nonetheless, considering the overall magnitude of the ongoing epidemic, a 5%\u20138% risk of death is by no means insignificant. In addition to quantifying the overall risk of death, future research must identify groups at risk of death (e.g., the elderly and people with underlying comorbidities) \\[22,23\\]. Moreover, considering that about 9% of all infected individuals are ascertained and reported \\[24\\], the infection fatality risk (IFR), i.e., the risk of death among all infected individuals, would be on the order of 0.5% to 0.8%.  Takeaways:  - 5 - 8% mortality rate among those confirmed to be infected. - This mortality rate is only around 30 - 40% that of MERS and SARS. - Expected 9% of actual infections get reported, because many are mild. - **Actual mortality rate amongst all infected is 0.5 - 0.8%.**   Comparable toral mortality rate for seasonal influenza is about **0.13%** based on CDC numbers. https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/flu\/about\/burden\/index.html  So, 4- 6 x worse than influenza based on just this study.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5479.0,"score_ratio":1.2376237624}
{"post_id":"fx3ejn","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Theoretically, if the whole world isolates itself for a month, could the flu, it's various strains, and future mutated strains be a thing of the past? Like, can we kill two birds with one stone?","c_root_id_A":"fms16m6","c_root_id_B":"fms1mwp","created_at_utc_A":1586343015,"created_at_utc_B":1586343490,"score_A":276,"score_B":8514,"human_ref_A":"For that to work it would rely on:  * Having a short enough incubation\/transmission lifetime so that every infection becomes known during the lockdown. If something can be dormant for 14 days, then in a house of 3 people you could potentially have someone catch it right before they go in, transmit it to another person on the 14th day, then they transmit it to the 3rd person on their 14th day (28th overall) and then you're right at the end of your month isolation with a freshly infected case. That's expected to happen *somewhere* because there would be so many houses with multiple people. * Every case being 'cured' (fought off by the immune system) in that time or at least obvious enough for additional isolation and *not* becoming dormant in some carrier person. * The flu dies off on any outside surfaces etc. * No other outside animals can carry it and put it right back into humanity when lockdown is over * Everybody is actually in full lockdown - so how do garbage bins get picked up? How are power plant operations controlled? How do people get groceries? * How do you get everybody on board? You need co-operation to a point that is effectively impossible. * What happens when a flu evolves back from another animal, like 2003-SARS and the current covid? Your lockdown can hypothetically knock off things in humans, but won't prevent future mutations crossing species.","human_ref_B":"Influenza, along with many other viruses, such as coronaviruses, have animal reservoirs of disease that the virus exists within. For influenza this is the bird population.   These reservoirs are a major focus of investigation for the medical community, as they provide a point of reinfection for the human population, even if we were to eliminate the circulating virus in our own population.   https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jid\/article\/216\/suppl_4\/S493\/4162042  Some infections, such as measles and polio could theoretically eliminated by isolation, but vaccines are proving to be a more effective mechanism for their elimination.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":475.0,"score_ratio":30.847826087}
{"post_id":"fx3ejn","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Theoretically, if the whole world isolates itself for a month, could the flu, it's various strains, and future mutated strains be a thing of the past? Like, can we kill two birds with one stone?","c_root_id_A":"fmt4zfh","c_root_id_B":"fmt10gr","created_at_utc_A":1586366951,"created_at_utc_B":1586365135,"score_A":149,"score_B":96,"human_ref_A":"Lots of flu strains live in other animals, too. Influenza A can live in birds and pigs. Influenza B infects seals. Influenza C lives in pigs. Even if you could isolate all the humans until none of them had influenza anymore, someone would eventually get it again from an animal.","human_ref_B":"Viruses frozen in bodies for 30,000 years have become active when thawed: https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/science-environment-26387276  I wouldn't be surprised if a virus could be trapped in some part of a live human's body (maybe in an abscess or pore) that is inaccessible to the immune system, and then infect the body when that area is punctured or exposed sometime later.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1816.0,"score_ratio":1.5520833333}
{"post_id":"o8cmbg","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"How do we know we\u2019ve discovered a new species of human based on a single fossil, and not just a really ugly dude? This article claims they\u2019ve discovered a new species of human, which is awesome, but since the claim is based off a single fossil, how do we know that it wasn\u2019t just one person with some sort of genetic defect?","c_root_id_A":"h34mjz0","c_root_id_B":"h34n0ff","created_at_utc_A":1624730278,"created_at_utc_B":1624730501,"score_A":356,"score_B":2315,"human_ref_A":"That article repeats the *claims* of the team that found the skull \"*It could be a new species of human*\", but also puts it into the context of other old human remains discovered in the region.  >Dragon Man joins a number of early human remains uncovered in China that have proven difficult to categorise. These include remains from Dali, Jinniushan, Hualongdong and the Xiahe jawbone from the Tibetan Plateau.   >   >There has been a fierce debate about whether these remains represent primitive examples of Homo sapiens, Neanderthals, a human group called the Denisovans, or something else entirely.  So it's one piece of pretty interesting evidence, the hard part is determining where it fits in the human evolution story and it's offshoots, predecessors and extinct or assimilated competitors etcetera. Because yeah, it's just one skull.","human_ref_B":"I'll start by saying that we actually don't know if this is a new human species or not. The authors who found this fossil argue that it is because:  > \"A combination of primitive and derived features in the Harbin cranium establishes a good set of diagnostic features that were used to define a new Homo species.\" via Shao et al: https:\/\/www.cell.com\/the-innovation\/fulltext\/S2666-6758(21)00056-4, published yesterday.   Basically, there are certain features that tend to be specifically diagnostic of species difference when we look at hominids. Things like brain size, face length, brow size, tooth differences, cheek bone size, etc. The reason we look at these things is because they tend to be variable between species, but fairly consistent within species. And, even in cases where one or more of these traits is variable (e.g., a baby born with microcephaly), all the concomitant traits probably won't change much. For example, the authors note that this fossil has a mix of features that are commonly seen in more human-like hominids, and those more common in \"primitive\" hominids:   Like humans: > \"large cranial capacity, short face, and small check bones\"   More \"primitive:\" > \"low vault, strong browridges, large molars, and alveolar prognathism\" via Ni et al: https:\/\/www.cell.com\/the-innovation\/fulltext\/S2666-6758(21)00055-2, published yesterday.   Because this combination of traits isn't known in any other hominid, and because it doesn't seem to showcase signs of any known disease or deformity, it's unlikely (although never impossible) that this is just, like, some guy who looked real weird.    Still, the leap that this is a brand new species just from one skull is problematic. First of all, there are known species of hominid that have unknown skull structures. The article you linked to mentions Devisovans as an example of this. They are a close relative species of ours, and some people of east Asian descent have their DNA in their genomes! We only know they exist because we sequenced the DNA of some non-skull bones, so we have no idea what their heads would have looked like. That means it's possible that this is just a skull of a species we already knew about. Even if this is the case, that's still a really cool find!    I should also mention that even if this is a species we already knew about, it's almost certainly not *H. sapiens*, as the time and place it was found doesn't match up with human migration. Present evidence suggests that modern humans probably didn't make it to East Asia until about 50,000 years ago, and this individual lived in present day China over 146,000 years ago.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":223.0,"score_ratio":6.5028089888}
{"post_id":"9nu9ck","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Are there any chemicals so deadly a mere drop on skin could kill? My grandpa (a known story stretcher) told me he used to haul tankers full of this chemical. It was supposed to absorb really fast and that it was so deadly a drop on your skin would kill you in a minute or two. It was used in the production of tires. He said it was phenol but phenol doesn't match up with his description. He's told me this story since I was a kid but now at 23 I'm curious as to if there are any chemicals that deadly and what they would possibly be used for.","c_root_id_A":"e7p6pk5","c_root_id_B":"e7pbd1g","created_at_utc_A":1539448980,"created_at_utc_B":1539453274,"score_A":1127,"score_B":2414,"human_ref_A":"Nerve agents such as VX)or Novichok (keeping it topical, no pun intended) will certainly do the job. Several types of alkaloid would be classed as deadly enough that a drop would kill you e.g. Nicotine, Batrachotoxin, Epibatidine, Tetrodotoxin. Methylated mercury, as another comment stated, will certainly kill you albeit not quickly.   Very often the lethality of a substance is lower than might be expected due to poor absorption upon skin contact e.g. Fentanyl.   ​","human_ref_B":"TMAH (tetramethylammonium hydroxide) is a nasty chemical that a spill roughly the size of your hand will kill you.   Like start making phone calls to the people you love sort of kill you. It is also used in industry so it is possible that he was hauling it.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4294.0,"score_ratio":2.1419698314}
{"post_id":"9nu9ck","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Are there any chemicals so deadly a mere drop on skin could kill? My grandpa (a known story stretcher) told me he used to haul tankers full of this chemical. It was supposed to absorb really fast and that it was so deadly a drop on your skin would kill you in a minute or two. It was used in the production of tires. He said it was phenol but phenol doesn't match up with his description. He's told me this story since I was a kid but now at 23 I'm curious as to if there are any chemicals that deadly and what they would possibly be used for.","c_root_id_A":"e7pbd1g","c_root_id_B":"e7p9y70","created_at_utc_A":1539453274,"created_at_utc_B":1539451937,"score_A":2414,"score_B":320,"human_ref_A":"TMAH (tetramethylammonium hydroxide) is a nasty chemical that a spill roughly the size of your hand will kill you.   Like start making phone calls to the people you love sort of kill you. It is also used in industry so it is possible that he was hauling it.","human_ref_B":"There are a lot of common chemicals that would be lethal in higher concentrations than we commonly see. One that I am familiar with is Nicotine. Nicotine can be absorbed through the skin, and the lethal dose of nicotine is 500-1000 mg.  When you buy ejuice for vapes in a store, the nicotine concentration is commonly between 3 mg\/mL and 18 mg\/mL (.3 - 1.8%).  When making ejuice for vapes, it is possible to buy nicotine in 250 mg\/mL concentrations(25%), meaning as little as 2 mL on your skin could potentially be lethal. If you had pure nicotine, one mL would be fatal to almost anyone.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1337.0,"score_ratio":7.54375}
{"post_id":"9nu9ck","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Are there any chemicals so deadly a mere drop on skin could kill? My grandpa (a known story stretcher) told me he used to haul tankers full of this chemical. It was supposed to absorb really fast and that it was so deadly a drop on your skin would kill you in a minute or two. It was used in the production of tires. He said it was phenol but phenol doesn't match up with his description. He's told me this story since I was a kid but now at 23 I'm curious as to if there are any chemicals that deadly and what they would possibly be used for.","c_root_id_A":"e7p9y70","c_root_id_B":"e7pbupr","created_at_utc_A":1539451937,"created_at_utc_B":1539453739,"score_A":320,"score_B":931,"human_ref_A":"There are a lot of common chemicals that would be lethal in higher concentrations than we commonly see. One that I am familiar with is Nicotine. Nicotine can be absorbed through the skin, and the lethal dose of nicotine is 500-1000 mg.  When you buy ejuice for vapes in a store, the nicotine concentration is commonly between 3 mg\/mL and 18 mg\/mL (.3 - 1.8%).  When making ejuice for vapes, it is possible to buy nicotine in 250 mg\/mL concentrations(25%), meaning as little as 2 mL on your skin could potentially be lethal. If you had pure nicotine, one mL would be fatal to almost anyone.","human_ref_B":"hydrofluoric acid in the right concentrations will do some pretty gnarly stuff to you. Get a drop or two on your skin and it'll eat away to your bone. It'll react w the calcium phosphate in your bone to give calcium fluoride, which travels around in your bloodstream to your heart.      My old mineralogy professor in undergrad used the stuff to dissolve zircons for chemical analysis, probably well before these things called \"safety standards\"","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1802.0,"score_ratio":2.909375}
{"post_id":"9nu9ck","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Are there any chemicals so deadly a mere drop on skin could kill? My grandpa (a known story stretcher) told me he used to haul tankers full of this chemical. It was supposed to absorb really fast and that it was so deadly a drop on your skin would kill you in a minute or two. It was used in the production of tires. He said it was phenol but phenol doesn't match up with his description. He's told me this story since I was a kid but now at 23 I'm curious as to if there are any chemicals that deadly and what they would possibly be used for.","c_root_id_A":"e7pbupr","c_root_id_B":"e7pbs47","created_at_utc_A":1539453739,"created_at_utc_B":1539453670,"score_A":931,"score_B":208,"human_ref_A":"hydrofluoric acid in the right concentrations will do some pretty gnarly stuff to you. Get a drop or two on your skin and it'll eat away to your bone. It'll react w the calcium phosphate in your bone to give calcium fluoride, which travels around in your bloodstream to your heart.      My old mineralogy professor in undergrad used the stuff to dissolve zircons for chemical analysis, probably well before these things called \"safety standards\"","human_ref_B":"I currently work in a chemical company and deal with some nasty stuff. Certain chemicals we get in drums we resell as is without transferring them. hydrofluoric acid is one of those chemicals. Not sure it would kill immediately but I know it burn immediately and will eat all the calcium in your body if not treated properly and immediately.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":69.0,"score_ratio":4.4759615385}
{"post_id":"9nu9ck","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Are there any chemicals so deadly a mere drop on skin could kill? My grandpa (a known story stretcher) told me he used to haul tankers full of this chemical. It was supposed to absorb really fast and that it was so deadly a drop on your skin would kill you in a minute or two. It was used in the production of tires. He said it was phenol but phenol doesn't match up with his description. He's told me this story since I was a kid but now at 23 I'm curious as to if there are any chemicals that deadly and what they would possibly be used for.","c_root_id_A":"e7peae0","c_root_id_B":"e7p9y70","created_at_utc_A":1539455998,"created_at_utc_B":1539451937,"score_A":507,"score_B":320,"human_ref_A":"A less likely but still somewhat plausible candidate is chlorine trifluoride, whose properties are described in vivid detail by Dr Derek Lowe here. A droplet of *that* hell-brew doesn't even need to hit your skin to kill you.","human_ref_B":"There are a lot of common chemicals that would be lethal in higher concentrations than we commonly see. One that I am familiar with is Nicotine. Nicotine can be absorbed through the skin, and the lethal dose of nicotine is 500-1000 mg.  When you buy ejuice for vapes in a store, the nicotine concentration is commonly between 3 mg\/mL and 18 mg\/mL (.3 - 1.8%).  When making ejuice for vapes, it is possible to buy nicotine in 250 mg\/mL concentrations(25%), meaning as little as 2 mL on your skin could potentially be lethal. If you had pure nicotine, one mL would be fatal to almost anyone.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4061.0,"score_ratio":1.584375}
{"post_id":"9nu9ck","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Are there any chemicals so deadly a mere drop on skin could kill? My grandpa (a known story stretcher) told me he used to haul tankers full of this chemical. It was supposed to absorb really fast and that it was so deadly a drop on your skin would kill you in a minute or two. It was used in the production of tires. He said it was phenol but phenol doesn't match up with his description. He's told me this story since I was a kid but now at 23 I'm curious as to if there are any chemicals that deadly and what they would possibly be used for.","c_root_id_A":"e7pbs47","c_root_id_B":"e7peae0","created_at_utc_A":1539453670,"created_at_utc_B":1539455998,"score_A":208,"score_B":507,"human_ref_A":"I currently work in a chemical company and deal with some nasty stuff. Certain chemicals we get in drums we resell as is without transferring them. hydrofluoric acid is one of those chemicals. Not sure it would kill immediately but I know it burn immediately and will eat all the calcium in your body if not treated properly and immediately.","human_ref_B":"A less likely but still somewhat plausible candidate is chlorine trifluoride, whose properties are described in vivid detail by Dr Derek Lowe here. A droplet of *that* hell-brew doesn't even need to hit your skin to kill you.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2328.0,"score_ratio":2.4375}
{"post_id":"9nu9ck","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Are there any chemicals so deadly a mere drop on skin could kill? My grandpa (a known story stretcher) told me he used to haul tankers full of this chemical. It was supposed to absorb really fast and that it was so deadly a drop on your skin would kill you in a minute or two. It was used in the production of tires. He said it was phenol but phenol doesn't match up with his description. He's told me this story since I was a kid but now at 23 I'm curious as to if there are any chemicals that deadly and what they would possibly be used for.","c_root_id_A":"e7pbs47","c_root_id_B":"e7pfmf1","created_at_utc_A":1539453670,"created_at_utc_B":1539457162,"score_A":208,"score_B":229,"human_ref_A":"I currently work in a chemical company and deal with some nasty stuff. Certain chemicals we get in drums we resell as is without transferring them. hydrofluoric acid is one of those chemicals. Not sure it would kill immediately but I know it burn immediately and will eat all the calcium in your body if not treated properly and immediately.","human_ref_B":"Along with what others said, DMSO is incredibly good at both solvating things and going through your skin.  Almost any compound dissolved in DMSO would immediately get to the bloodstream if spilled, so that relaxes the skin absorption requirement.  Fun fact, DMSO will also make you taste garlic immediately upon absorption on any part of your body.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3492.0,"score_ratio":1.1009615385}
{"post_id":"95xwpw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"If you were a human floating towards the sun, at what distance from the sun would you feel an Earth-like temperature?","c_root_id_A":"e3wp97z","c_root_id_B":"e3wch6n","created_at_utc_A":1533845569,"created_at_utc_B":1533835172,"score_A":5191,"score_B":4752,"human_ref_A":"tl;dr: If you're near Earth's orbit, you're already way too close. You'd need to drift outward quite a bit.   On Earth, if you leave something lying in the sun indefinitely, it will heat up until the heat it loses to the surrounding air (and the ground) is balanced with the heat it absorbs from the sun. In space, it works the same way, except that without air, the only way for an object to lose heat is by radiation (infrared, at normal body temperatures).  If we want to keep our body temperature roughly constant, the heat we radiate needs to balance out the heat we absorb from the sun plus the heat generated by our own metabolism.  I found a page estimating our own power output as 100W. Let's say we are a perfect blackbody radiator with a surface area of 2m^2 and our skin were to be 307K - we're in \"spherical cow\" territory here, but this should be the right order of magnitude.  The power our skin radiates is then given by the Stefan-Boltzman law as 5.67e-8 Wm^(-2)K^(-4), or 5.67e-8 * 2 * 307^4 W = about 1000W. (So the good news is, we're losing more heat than we produce on our own, even without air-cooling. Without the sun, we'd freeze instead of overheating.)  So how much sun do we need? This one is a bit more complicated, because it depends on how we're oriented. The bigger our cross-section facing the sun, the more we absorb.  The total power output of the sun is 3.828e26 W. To get around 1000W of that, we need to capture 1 part in 3.828e23. So if we present a cross-section of about 1m^2, then our distance should be the radius of a sphere with a surface area of 3.828e23 m^2.  Result: 1.75e11 meters, or about 9.7 light minutes. To give you a picture, Earth's and Mars's orbits are about 8.3 and 12.5 light minutes from the sun on average, so we'd have to go (very, very roughly) a third of the way from Earth to Mars orbit to feel comfortable.  (Not double-checked; it's entirely possible there's a massive error in the above calculation, on top of all the ballpark guessing.)  Edit: Mind you, the ballpark guessing already introduces some *wild* inaccuracy. If we drop the cross section to 0.5m^2, suddenly we're closer to 6.9 light minutes. And we're not perfect blackbody radiators, anyway.","human_ref_B":"The unsatisfying answer is \"it depends.\" Here on Earth, the temperature you experience is largely determined by the ambient temperature of the matter (air) around you. But in space, you would be in near vacuum. The random particles around you might have some temperature, but there simply won't be enough of them to transfer a meaningful amount of energy to or from you.   Instead, your temperature will be determined by radiation: how much sunlight are you absorbing, and how much infrared are you radiating away from yourself. When the magnitude of both of these are equal, that will be your equilibrium temperature. These will be determined by your albedo (e.g. what color are you wearing), your geometry (e.g. how fat are you), how well heat is conducted within your body, and how much heat are you generating yourself. In other words, it's complicated. But, to give you some idea, an astronaut in a normal space suit in Earth orbit can't spend much time in direct sunlight without getting cooked.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":10397.0,"score_ratio":1.0923821549}
{"post_id":"95xwpw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"If you were a human floating towards the sun, at what distance from the sun would you feel an Earth-like temperature?","c_root_id_A":"e3wdbfm","c_root_id_B":"e3wp97z","created_at_utc_A":1533835833,"created_at_utc_B":1533845569,"score_A":217,"score_B":5191,"human_ref_A":"Over at NASA, they mention that the  > temperature of the orbiting Space Station's Sun-facing side would soar to 250 degrees F (121 C),  so I guess if you have a clear view of the sun, you'd need to be further away than the Earth is.  I also found this, which states  > At the Earth's distance from the sun, a space thermometer with roughly half its surface is absorbing sunlightwould register 45 degrees Fahrenheit.","human_ref_B":"tl;dr: If you're near Earth's orbit, you're already way too close. You'd need to drift outward quite a bit.   On Earth, if you leave something lying in the sun indefinitely, it will heat up until the heat it loses to the surrounding air (and the ground) is balanced with the heat it absorbs from the sun. In space, it works the same way, except that without air, the only way for an object to lose heat is by radiation (infrared, at normal body temperatures).  If we want to keep our body temperature roughly constant, the heat we radiate needs to balance out the heat we absorb from the sun plus the heat generated by our own metabolism.  I found a page estimating our own power output as 100W. Let's say we are a perfect blackbody radiator with a surface area of 2m^2 and our skin were to be 307K - we're in \"spherical cow\" territory here, but this should be the right order of magnitude.  The power our skin radiates is then given by the Stefan-Boltzman law as 5.67e-8 Wm^(-2)K^(-4), or 5.67e-8 * 2 * 307^4 W = about 1000W. (So the good news is, we're losing more heat than we produce on our own, even without air-cooling. Without the sun, we'd freeze instead of overheating.)  So how much sun do we need? This one is a bit more complicated, because it depends on how we're oriented. The bigger our cross-section facing the sun, the more we absorb.  The total power output of the sun is 3.828e26 W. To get around 1000W of that, we need to capture 1 part in 3.828e23. So if we present a cross-section of about 1m^2, then our distance should be the radius of a sphere with a surface area of 3.828e23 m^2.  Result: 1.75e11 meters, or about 9.7 light minutes. To give you a picture, Earth's and Mars's orbits are about 8.3 and 12.5 light minutes from the sun on average, so we'd have to go (very, very roughly) a third of the way from Earth to Mars orbit to feel comfortable.  (Not double-checked; it's entirely possible there's a massive error in the above calculation, on top of all the ballpark guessing.)  Edit: Mind you, the ballpark guessing already introduces some *wild* inaccuracy. If we drop the cross section to 0.5m^2, suddenly we're closer to 6.9 light minutes. And we're not perfect blackbody radiators, anyway.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9736.0,"score_ratio":23.9216589862}
{"post_id":"95xwpw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"If you were a human floating towards the sun, at what distance from the sun would you feel an Earth-like temperature?","c_root_id_A":"e3wdysa","c_root_id_B":"e3wp97z","created_at_utc_A":1533836353,"created_at_utc_B":1533845569,"score_A":58,"score_B":5191,"human_ref_A":"So temperature doesn't quite work the same way in space that it does on Earth because space is a vacuum with few particles floating around bumping into things, transferring energy that we feel as a temperature.  When people design spacecraft they actually have to account for temperature differences between parts that are illuminated and parts that are shaded, because parts in shadow get quite cold. So if you were floating toward the sun, at some point the front of you would be at Earth temperature, but the back of you would still be ~ interplanetary space temperature, depending on how good your body tissue is at conducting heat.","human_ref_B":"tl;dr: If you're near Earth's orbit, you're already way too close. You'd need to drift outward quite a bit.   On Earth, if you leave something lying in the sun indefinitely, it will heat up until the heat it loses to the surrounding air (and the ground) is balanced with the heat it absorbs from the sun. In space, it works the same way, except that without air, the only way for an object to lose heat is by radiation (infrared, at normal body temperatures).  If we want to keep our body temperature roughly constant, the heat we radiate needs to balance out the heat we absorb from the sun plus the heat generated by our own metabolism.  I found a page estimating our own power output as 100W. Let's say we are a perfect blackbody radiator with a surface area of 2m^2 and our skin were to be 307K - we're in \"spherical cow\" territory here, but this should be the right order of magnitude.  The power our skin radiates is then given by the Stefan-Boltzman law as 5.67e-8 Wm^(-2)K^(-4), or 5.67e-8 * 2 * 307^4 W = about 1000W. (So the good news is, we're losing more heat than we produce on our own, even without air-cooling. Without the sun, we'd freeze instead of overheating.)  So how much sun do we need? This one is a bit more complicated, because it depends on how we're oriented. The bigger our cross-section facing the sun, the more we absorb.  The total power output of the sun is 3.828e26 W. To get around 1000W of that, we need to capture 1 part in 3.828e23. So if we present a cross-section of about 1m^2, then our distance should be the radius of a sphere with a surface area of 3.828e23 m^2.  Result: 1.75e11 meters, or about 9.7 light minutes. To give you a picture, Earth's and Mars's orbits are about 8.3 and 12.5 light minutes from the sun on average, so we'd have to go (very, very roughly) a third of the way from Earth to Mars orbit to feel comfortable.  (Not double-checked; it's entirely possible there's a massive error in the above calculation, on top of all the ballpark guessing.)  Edit: Mind you, the ballpark guessing already introduces some *wild* inaccuracy. If we drop the cross section to 0.5m^2, suddenly we're closer to 6.9 light minutes. And we're not perfect blackbody radiators, anyway.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9216.0,"score_ratio":89.5}
{"post_id":"95xwpw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"If you were a human floating towards the sun, at what distance from the sun would you feel an Earth-like temperature?","c_root_id_A":"e3wecro","c_root_id_B":"e3wp97z","created_at_utc_A":1533836661,"created_at_utc_B":1533845569,"score_A":30,"score_B":5191,"human_ref_A":"The energy density of photons can be converted to temperature using E = 4\/c sigma T\\^4, where c is speed of light and sigma is the Stephan-Boltzmann constant.  For T = 300 K (about room temperature) this is about 6e-6 J\/m\\^3  The total energy released by the sun per second is 3.8\\*10\\^26 J\/s  so at a distance of R from the sun, the energy per square meter is:  3.8\\*10\\^26\/4pi R\\^2  To go from radiant flux to energy density we divide by c (3\\*10\\^8 m\/s) \\~= 1e17\/R\\^2 J\/m\\^3  6 R\\^2 = 1e23 gives R = 1.29\\*10\\^11 meters, or 0.86 AU.  This is not surprisingly close to the distance of the Earth from the Sun (1 AU).  We are hotter than our distance would suggest due to greenhouse effects.","human_ref_B":"tl;dr: If you're near Earth's orbit, you're already way too close. You'd need to drift outward quite a bit.   On Earth, if you leave something lying in the sun indefinitely, it will heat up until the heat it loses to the surrounding air (and the ground) is balanced with the heat it absorbs from the sun. In space, it works the same way, except that without air, the only way for an object to lose heat is by radiation (infrared, at normal body temperatures).  If we want to keep our body temperature roughly constant, the heat we radiate needs to balance out the heat we absorb from the sun plus the heat generated by our own metabolism.  I found a page estimating our own power output as 100W. Let's say we are a perfect blackbody radiator with a surface area of 2m^2 and our skin were to be 307K - we're in \"spherical cow\" territory here, but this should be the right order of magnitude.  The power our skin radiates is then given by the Stefan-Boltzman law as 5.67e-8 Wm^(-2)K^(-4), or 5.67e-8 * 2 * 307^4 W = about 1000W. (So the good news is, we're losing more heat than we produce on our own, even without air-cooling. Without the sun, we'd freeze instead of overheating.)  So how much sun do we need? This one is a bit more complicated, because it depends on how we're oriented. The bigger our cross-section facing the sun, the more we absorb.  The total power output of the sun is 3.828e26 W. To get around 1000W of that, we need to capture 1 part in 3.828e23. So if we present a cross-section of about 1m^2, then our distance should be the radius of a sphere with a surface area of 3.828e23 m^2.  Result: 1.75e11 meters, or about 9.7 light minutes. To give you a picture, Earth's and Mars's orbits are about 8.3 and 12.5 light minutes from the sun on average, so we'd have to go (very, very roughly) a third of the way from Earth to Mars orbit to feel comfortable.  (Not double-checked; it's entirely possible there's a massive error in the above calculation, on top of all the ballpark guessing.)  Edit: Mind you, the ballpark guessing already introduces some *wild* inaccuracy. If we drop the cross section to 0.5m^2, suddenly we're closer to 6.9 light minutes. And we're not perfect blackbody radiators, anyway.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8908.0,"score_ratio":173.0333333333}
{"post_id":"95xwpw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"If you were a human floating towards the sun, at what distance from the sun would you feel an Earth-like temperature?","c_root_id_A":"e3wh3c3","c_root_id_B":"e3wp97z","created_at_utc_A":1533838847,"created_at_utc_B":1533845569,"score_A":18,"score_B":5191,"human_ref_A":"There is nowhere a naked human would feel at equilibrium because human tissue is a poor conductor of heat. One side would be scorched, and the other would freeze. You're dead any distance from the sun, not even considering the effects of intense radiation of vacuum on the person.","human_ref_B":"tl;dr: If you're near Earth's orbit, you're already way too close. You'd need to drift outward quite a bit.   On Earth, if you leave something lying in the sun indefinitely, it will heat up until the heat it loses to the surrounding air (and the ground) is balanced with the heat it absorbs from the sun. In space, it works the same way, except that without air, the only way for an object to lose heat is by radiation (infrared, at normal body temperatures).  If we want to keep our body temperature roughly constant, the heat we radiate needs to balance out the heat we absorb from the sun plus the heat generated by our own metabolism.  I found a page estimating our own power output as 100W. Let's say we are a perfect blackbody radiator with a surface area of 2m^2 and our skin were to be 307K - we're in \"spherical cow\" territory here, but this should be the right order of magnitude.  The power our skin radiates is then given by the Stefan-Boltzman law as 5.67e-8 Wm^(-2)K^(-4), or 5.67e-8 * 2 * 307^4 W = about 1000W. (So the good news is, we're losing more heat than we produce on our own, even without air-cooling. Without the sun, we'd freeze instead of overheating.)  So how much sun do we need? This one is a bit more complicated, because it depends on how we're oriented. The bigger our cross-section facing the sun, the more we absorb.  The total power output of the sun is 3.828e26 W. To get around 1000W of that, we need to capture 1 part in 3.828e23. So if we present a cross-section of about 1m^2, then our distance should be the radius of a sphere with a surface area of 3.828e23 m^2.  Result: 1.75e11 meters, or about 9.7 light minutes. To give you a picture, Earth's and Mars's orbits are about 8.3 and 12.5 light minutes from the sun on average, so we'd have to go (very, very roughly) a third of the way from Earth to Mars orbit to feel comfortable.  (Not double-checked; it's entirely possible there's a massive error in the above calculation, on top of all the ballpark guessing.)  Edit: Mind you, the ballpark guessing already introduces some *wild* inaccuracy. If we drop the cross section to 0.5m^2, suddenly we're closer to 6.9 light minutes. And we're not perfect blackbody radiators, anyway.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6722.0,"score_ratio":288.3888888889}
{"post_id":"io8zax","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"When someone has cancer they typically lose a lot of weight. Is this due to an inability to eat due to nausea or is there something about fighting cancer that is metabolically expensive?","c_root_id_A":"g4cthe2","c_root_id_B":"g4ct1gh","created_at_utc_A":1599500590,"created_at_utc_B":1599500421,"score_A":4846,"score_B":366,"human_ref_A":"Cancer itself can cause weight loss because of the metabolic expenditure (see: other comments explaining cachexia).  Cancers in the GI tract especially around the stomach, pancreas and initial small bowel can cause anorexia (lack of appetite), early satiety (feeling full quickly) and nausea, through tumour mass taking up physical space in the gut, through chemical release and through invasion of the nerves supplying the gut. It is because of these effects that unintentional weight loss over a relatively short period of time sets off alarm bells and is seen as a \"red flag symptom\".  Treatments of cancer can also affect weight: - chemotherapy can cause horrendous nausea and vomiting but can also strip away the lining of the bowel, causing inadequate absorption of your food.  - chemotherapy is also very metabolically demanding; by essentially damaging cells throughout the body (hence why hair falls out), the body is forced to replenish them, those using energy - radiation treatments of the mouth, throat and chest can cause burns and scarring of the oesophagus and make it difficult or even uncomfortable to eat - plus surgeries etc are hugely demanding, not including bowel surgery affecting ingestion and absorption of food!!  Hope that helps.","human_ref_B":"Nurse here. Weight loss can be either directly or indirectly tied to cancer. Some cancers have a massive metabolic requirement, others can directly interfere with food consumption, ingestion, or absorption which can individually or collectively result in weight loss. The treatments for cancer can cause blisters in the mouth which can be extremely painful. Chemotherapy and radiation can also cause nausea and vomiting which result in weight loss. As the above posters have mentioned cachexia is a component as well. Cachexia is a symptom of severe metabolic imbalance, basically the calories burned are exceeding the calories ingested which can happen in a variety of situations not just cancer.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":169.0,"score_ratio":13.2404371585}
{"post_id":"f7ymun","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"If there was a tank that could hold 10000 tons of water and had a finger - width hole at the bottom and you put your finger on\/in the hole, would the water not drain or push your finger out?","c_root_id_A":"fiitb0v","c_root_id_B":"fiiswkx","created_at_utc_A":1582426373,"created_at_utc_B":1582426114,"score_A":961,"score_B":112,"human_ref_A":"The amount of water makes no difference. Only the height of the column of water. The taller the column the higher the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom.   Not sure how much you could contain with your finger. Maybe 50-100 psi.   For a column of water weighing 8.3lb\/gal pressure=0.052 x 8.3 lb\/gal x depth  Assuming you can hold 100 psi then using the above formula, anything over 231 ft deep you couldnt hold back the water pressure any more.  These are calcs I use in the oilfield all the time.","human_ref_B":"Depends on the shape of the tank. What matters is the pressure at the bottom, & the air intake - if any - at the top. Gravity only exerts so much force, if there was no dedicated intake for air to take the place of the water, then water & air would fight each other over the same amount of space, disrupting the flow.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":259.0,"score_ratio":8.5803571429}
{"post_id":"64xl01","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"What is a \"zip file\" or \"compressed file?\" How does formatting it that way compress it and what is compressing? I understand the basic concept. It compresses the data to use less drive space. But how does it do that? How does my folder's data become smaller? Where does the \"extra\" or non-compressed data go?","c_root_id_A":"dg607re","c_root_id_B":"dg61udm","created_at_utc_A":1492010330,"created_at_utc_B":1492012117,"score_A":11,"score_B":32,"human_ref_A":"As other commenters have pointed out compression takes advantage of redundancy. Here are some common compression algorithms:  * https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Huffman_coding -- circa 1952, an old compression algorithm, modified forms of it was used in fax machines, has a drawback that the compression tree has to be included in the output so it can be decompressed on other end, this adds overhead to the resulting compressed file * https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Run-length_encoding -- circa 1967, pretty simplistic, not used on its own but sometimes used as a step of other algorithms * https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LZ77_and_LZ78 -- circa 1977\/78, very important development in compression technology, used a dictionary table (or sliding window), dictionary _does not_ need to be included in output as the dictionary can be reconstructed on-the-fly on the other end.   * https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lempel\u2013Ziv\u2013Welch -- circa 1984, An improvement on LZ77\/78. Usually referred to as LZW. * https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Burrows\u2013Wheeler_transform -- circa 1994, used in the popular bzip2 unix utility, compresses better than dictionary algorithms at the cost of memory and CPU usage.  The dictionary algorithms are the basis for most of the popular tools today like WinZip and gzip. People made slight alterations to dictionary algorithms to get around patents associated with LZ77\/78 and LZW.","human_ref_B":"Let's compress OP's question by replacing certain 3 and 4 character sequences with a single character:   * = \"ing\"   ! = \"hat\"   % = \" is \"   Compressed: W!%a \"zip file\" or \"compressed file?\" How does formatt* it t! way compress it and w!%compress*?   Original: What is a \"zip file\" or \"compressed file?\" How does formatting it that way compress it and what is compressing?  In this compression, 23 characters were replaced by 7, a saving of 16 characters.  Because we chose a single character that never appears in the original text, our compression can be reversed without error.  There is some overhead, however, because we also need to send the translation key along with the message.  In very long messages, there are often large and frequent repetitions that can be squeezed down enough to be worth the overhead.  If the compression \/ decompression rules are built in to the software, there is no need to transmit the compression key.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1787.0,"score_ratio":2.9090909091}
{"post_id":"64xl01","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"What is a \"zip file\" or \"compressed file?\" How does formatting it that way compress it and what is compressing? I understand the basic concept. It compresses the data to use less drive space. But how does it do that? How does my folder's data become smaller? Where does the \"extra\" or non-compressed data go?","c_root_id_A":"dg6ly4u","c_root_id_B":"dg607re","created_at_utc_A":1492033150,"created_at_utc_B":1492010330,"score_A":14,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"So i imagine you already know that files are made up of just ones and zeroes and that the bigger the file, the more ones and zeroes are used.   Imagine a similar concept, but in real life.  You have to memorize 3 phone numbers -  123-555-0632  123-555-0555  555-655-5123  Imagine your brain can't remember all that.  So what you can do is compress it.   Replace any reference to 123 with o (for Onetwothree), f for 555 (Fivefivefive).   Now you have  of0632  of0f  f6fo  That should be a lot easier to remember because it takes up less space, but it's only highly compressed because of favorable data (lots of repeats).  Of course, this only works because you have a code to work with (you need to know f means 555), and you cannot do anything if you don't uncompress first (a phone can use 555,  but not f).  That's why you have to unzip.","human_ref_B":"As other commenters have pointed out compression takes advantage of redundancy. Here are some common compression algorithms:  * https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Huffman_coding -- circa 1952, an old compression algorithm, modified forms of it was used in fax machines, has a drawback that the compression tree has to be included in the output so it can be decompressed on other end, this adds overhead to the resulting compressed file * https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Run-length_encoding -- circa 1967, pretty simplistic, not used on its own but sometimes used as a step of other algorithms * https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LZ77_and_LZ78 -- circa 1977\/78, very important development in compression technology, used a dictionary table (or sliding window), dictionary _does not_ need to be included in output as the dictionary can be reconstructed on-the-fly on the other end.   * https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lempel\u2013Ziv\u2013Welch -- circa 1984, An improvement on LZ77\/78. Usually referred to as LZW. * https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Burrows\u2013Wheeler_transform -- circa 1994, used in the popular bzip2 unix utility, compresses better than dictionary algorithms at the cost of memory and CPU usage.  The dictionary algorithms are the basis for most of the popular tools today like WinZip and gzip. People made slight alterations to dictionary algorithms to get around patents associated with LZ77\/78 and LZW.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":22820.0,"score_ratio":1.2727272727}
{"post_id":"7pw56k","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Why can completely paralyzed people often blink voluntarily?","c_root_id_A":"dsktrne","c_root_id_B":"dskvqua","created_at_utc_A":1515776618,"created_at_utc_B":1515778505,"score_A":16,"score_B":40,"human_ref_A":"Because no one is \"completely paralyzed\". A body part become paralyzed when the nerves leading to it become damaged. To be \"completely paralyzed\" would mean that the brain would be completely \"cut off\" from the rest of the body, in which case your vital organs would stop working and you'd die.  Edit: You wouldn't necessarily die, but machines would be needed to keep you alive, as pointed out by \/u\/racc0815.","human_ref_B":"Your eyelids (and eyeballs) are innervated by the oculomotor nerve, which doesn't pass through the spinal cord. It goes straight from your brain to your eyes. So if the paralysis is caused by a spinal cord injury, blinking would not be affect. However, a paralysis that is caused by damage to the central nervous system could affect blinking, depending on the extent of the damage.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1887.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"ignajo","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Could an identical twin who recovered from an infection donate some of their T-cells to the other twin as a form of vaccine? Could this work with any two people? I assume it would work best with identical twins since their lymphocytes would be genetically identical.","c_root_id_A":"g2v267r","c_root_id_B":"g2uykiw","created_at_utc_A":1598403246,"created_at_utc_B":1598401255,"score_A":83,"score_B":43,"human_ref_A":"In theory yes, in a genetically identical twin (so complete HLA match at all loci). This is based on what we now do in treatment of cell therapy for cancer patients (it also happens to be my own research :) where we take patient's own anti-tumor T cells expand and infuse back to them   You can do it two ways.    1) Find and isolate  T cells reactive against the virus or infection, expand them in large flasks and infuse them back into acceptor. Advantage here is that you can take a pool of reactive T cells so you get broader repertoire targeting the infection. But this has to be like you said HLA matched so your acceptor T cells don't kill donor T cells, so genetically identical twin might work  2) If you already know the specific protein and Epitopes from the infection you are targeting say SARS COV2 protein S1 some epitope restricted by patient's HLA A0201 (one type) for e.g. you can also isolate the specific T cell receptor (TCR) gene responsible for the targeting and engineer your acceptor twin's healthy T cells to express the TCR. *This is called TCR therapy*. The advantage here is that you control the specificity since you know exactly what you're targeting, so there is less chance of off target effects. Now the con is if you're targeting say SARS COV2 you likely need multiple proteins targeted on the virus and you lose the advantage of the broad repertoire that's available in #1 (each TCR from a T cell only recognizes one epitope from a given protein region).  #2 however has the huuuuge advantage that you don't need to have perfect HLA match since you can still use the acceptor's own T cells. All you're engineering into it is the actual TCR gene that is targeting the infection. *So forget your identical twin example, if I currently have a disease and you have already recovered from it, if you and I share even 1-2 HLAs it's possible we can take your TCR against the virus and genetically engineer the TCR into my T-cells*. Cool huh.  However, I have to warn if you're thinking in terms of COVID19 you likely have to intervene much much earlier in their disease course. The reason being, the disease causes severe respiratory failure like ARDs and symptoms are similar to when you have cytokine release syndrome in patients undergoing T cell therapy. So it unclear if you will be helping the patient if you give this amount of cells at a late stage of the disease, since the first stop all the billions of T-cells you infuse into patients are going to go straight to guess where : Lungs. They might severely damage the lungs which is already fighting an infection. Nevertheless it's unexplored and opportunities abound.  Edit: minor details","human_ref_B":"You would somehow have to ensure you transfer a Stem cell memory T cell capable of producing the correct T cell receptor against a COVID antigen, and that may be able to expand sufficiently to confer immunity.  Typically t effector cells are already committed to a particular target - so it wouldn\u2019t matter how many of those guys you transfer if they aren\u2019t committed to the correct antigen.  So, I would guess no, unless you enrich for the covid t cells.  But, if you meant enriching for covid attacking t cells, then sure!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1991.0,"score_ratio":1.9302325581}
{"post_id":"ignajo","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Could an identical twin who recovered from an infection donate some of their T-cells to the other twin as a form of vaccine? Could this work with any two people? I assume it would work best with identical twins since their lymphocytes would be genetically identical.","c_root_id_A":"g2v32gb","c_root_id_B":"g2uykiw","created_at_utc_A":1598403750,"created_at_utc_B":1598401255,"score_A":47,"score_B":43,"human_ref_A":"Twin donation (not sure if it's T-cells though) is done in some cancers already. I worked with a woman who thought she was non-identical with her twin. She was surprised to find out that sequencing showed they were identical.  The catch here is, even when the two are raised together, each immune system makes its own decisions, so they diverge over time.  Thus you get graft vs. host disease even from identical twin donors. (There are things you can do to mitigate this; the article's from 1979 when GvHD was less well understood.) Graft vs. host disease arises when donated bone marrow is used to eradicate leukemia, but then, being \"different\" than everything else in the body, decides to go on a rampage and kill all the things.","human_ref_B":"You would somehow have to ensure you transfer a Stem cell memory T cell capable of producing the correct T cell receptor against a COVID antigen, and that may be able to expand sufficiently to confer immunity.  Typically t effector cells are already committed to a particular target - so it wouldn\u2019t matter how many of those guys you transfer if they aren\u2019t committed to the correct antigen.  So, I would guess no, unless you enrich for the covid t cells.  But, if you meant enriching for covid attacking t cells, then sure!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2495.0,"score_ratio":1.0930232558}
{"post_id":"ignajo","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Could an identical twin who recovered from an infection donate some of their T-cells to the other twin as a form of vaccine? Could this work with any two people? I assume it would work best with identical twins since their lymphocytes would be genetically identical.","c_root_id_A":"g2vvi1z","c_root_id_B":"g2vaghw","created_at_utc_A":1598421721,"created_at_utc_B":1598407793,"score_A":7,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Bone Marrow Transplant Dr here. Yes this would be perfectly feasible. I wouldn't call it a vaccine, but treatment. From an identical twin there should be no Graft versus host disease.  We do this exact process in post transplant patients who develop viral infections. Most notably, CMV, EBV and adenovirus. Viral infections post BMT is the 2nd biggest complication after graft versus host disease. There's no good antiviral. We can select out CMV specific T cells for example, although this is very difficult and very expensive.  We are beginning to give a top up (or add back) of T cells from the same donor as the original bone marrow stem cells. There is a massive risk of graft versus host disease so we aim to deplete the GvHD T cells (CD45RA) and leave the memory virus fighting T Cells behind (CD45RO)  https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4636007\/","human_ref_B":"This can actually work with other people's T cells as well, doesn't have to be a twin. Look up allogeneic (donor) stem cell transplants. Similarly, allogeneic Car T cell therapies are used but to fight cancer, but these cells are engineered to attack a specific target.   I imagine if the \"engineering\" happened somewhere else, such as another humans immune response, these cells can continue to produce the antibodies if transplanted.  But, those cells do die eventually, so transplanted cells wouldn't be a lifetime immunity. I guess if it was B-cells, it could work if they just kept dividing.   Vaccines, it is always best to have a humoral immunity from the patient themselves as of now.   There are also other options of neutralizing antibodies which do not last long but work for short term such as RSV treatments.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":13928.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"ignajo","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Could an identical twin who recovered from an infection donate some of their T-cells to the other twin as a form of vaccine? Could this work with any two people? I assume it would work best with identical twins since their lymphocytes would be genetically identical.","c_root_id_A":"g2vvi1z","c_root_id_B":"g2v7wp1","created_at_utc_A":1598421721,"created_at_utc_B":1598406410,"score_A":7,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Bone Marrow Transplant Dr here. Yes this would be perfectly feasible. I wouldn't call it a vaccine, but treatment. From an identical twin there should be no Graft versus host disease.  We do this exact process in post transplant patients who develop viral infections. Most notably, CMV, EBV and adenovirus. Viral infections post BMT is the 2nd biggest complication after graft versus host disease. There's no good antiviral. We can select out CMV specific T cells for example, although this is very difficult and very expensive.  We are beginning to give a top up (or add back) of T cells from the same donor as the original bone marrow stem cells. There is a massive risk of graft versus host disease so we aim to deplete the GvHD T cells (CD45RA) and leave the memory virus fighting T Cells behind (CD45RO)  https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4636007\/","human_ref_B":"While genetically identical, during development could antibodies develop in the two individuals differently enough due to environmental factors that cells from one individual could still be seen as hostile to the other individual despite hating identical DNA?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":15311.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"ignajo","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Could an identical twin who recovered from an infection donate some of their T-cells to the other twin as a form of vaccine? Could this work with any two people? I assume it would work best with identical twins since their lymphocytes would be genetically identical.","c_root_id_A":"g2vx6sf","c_root_id_B":"g2vaghw","created_at_utc_A":1598423234,"created_at_utc_B":1598407793,"score_A":6,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"The population of T cells in the body consists of a repertoire where individual cells have their own set of target antigens that they can recognize. This repertoire can consist of millions of distinct clones, some of which can be present in the peripheral blood at a frequency of 1 in a million or even lower.   For the scenario you're suggesting, you could sample bulk T cells from donor and transfer them to their twin without rejection or graft-versus-host, but if you are trying to endow immunity against a particular virus or something, it's very unlikely that any of the T cell clones your transfer will be relevant. You would need an intermediate step where you enrich for T cell clones with the right reactivities, or else engineer them into the cells, before you infuse them into a recipient.  This step of discovering reactive T cells that can be leveraged into fighting disease (either in the donor or in other people) is the area that I work in, and is a key area of research towards developing new types of treatments called adoptive T cell therapies. The vision is to do pretty much exactly what you're describing, but in a much more precise way: what we can do is take a patient's own T cells from a blood sample and select out the ones with reactivity to the appropriate targets or, alternatively, engineer them with a gene that allows them to recognize the appropriate targets, grow them into massive numbers in the lab, and then re-infuse them back into the patient (no twin required).  Right now, all this work is entirely focused on doing this to fight cancer. It's a really onerous process in terms of cell manufacturing and clinical infusion at the moment, which makes applying it to diseases other than cancer kind of difficult to justify.  So the tl;dr for the original question, it's theoretically possible, but practically not really. The right T cells out of the bulk population would need to be picked out in order to create a useful therapeutic or vaccine.","human_ref_B":"This can actually work with other people's T cells as well, doesn't have to be a twin. Look up allogeneic (donor) stem cell transplants. Similarly, allogeneic Car T cell therapies are used but to fight cancer, but these cells are engineered to attack a specific target.   I imagine if the \"engineering\" happened somewhere else, such as another humans immune response, these cells can continue to produce the antibodies if transplanted.  But, those cells do die eventually, so transplanted cells wouldn't be a lifetime immunity. I guess if it was B-cells, it could work if they just kept dividing.   Vaccines, it is always best to have a humoral immunity from the patient themselves as of now.   There are also other options of neutralizing antibodies which do not last long but work for short term such as RSV treatments.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":15441.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"ignajo","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Could an identical twin who recovered from an infection donate some of their T-cells to the other twin as a form of vaccine? Could this work with any two people? I assume it would work best with identical twins since their lymphocytes would be genetically identical.","c_root_id_A":"g2vx6sf","c_root_id_B":"g2v7wp1","created_at_utc_A":1598423234,"created_at_utc_B":1598406410,"score_A":6,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"The population of T cells in the body consists of a repertoire where individual cells have their own set of target antigens that they can recognize. This repertoire can consist of millions of distinct clones, some of which can be present in the peripheral blood at a frequency of 1 in a million or even lower.   For the scenario you're suggesting, you could sample bulk T cells from donor and transfer them to their twin without rejection or graft-versus-host, but if you are trying to endow immunity against a particular virus or something, it's very unlikely that any of the T cell clones your transfer will be relevant. You would need an intermediate step where you enrich for T cell clones with the right reactivities, or else engineer them into the cells, before you infuse them into a recipient.  This step of discovering reactive T cells that can be leveraged into fighting disease (either in the donor or in other people) is the area that I work in, and is a key area of research towards developing new types of treatments called adoptive T cell therapies. The vision is to do pretty much exactly what you're describing, but in a much more precise way: what we can do is take a patient's own T cells from a blood sample and select out the ones with reactivity to the appropriate targets or, alternatively, engineer them with a gene that allows them to recognize the appropriate targets, grow them into massive numbers in the lab, and then re-infuse them back into the patient (no twin required).  Right now, all this work is entirely focused on doing this to fight cancer. It's a really onerous process in terms of cell manufacturing and clinical infusion at the moment, which makes applying it to diseases other than cancer kind of difficult to justify.  So the tl;dr for the original question, it's theoretically possible, but practically not really. The right T cells out of the bulk population would need to be picked out in order to create a useful therapeutic or vaccine.","human_ref_B":"While genetically identical, during development could antibodies develop in the two individuals differently enough due to environmental factors that cells from one individual could still be seen as hostile to the other individual despite hating identical DNA?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":16824.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"n5qoyq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"If a person catches a cold and COVID-19 at the same time, will that person get seriously sick from both illnesses, or one of the viruses will \"win\" the fight against the other?","c_root_id_A":"gx3r7il","c_root_id_B":"gx3ilpx","created_at_utc_A":1620267172,"created_at_utc_B":1620262921,"score_A":6269,"score_B":471,"human_ref_A":"Surprised I don't see this already, but there was recently a study to attempt and answer this exact question!!  Here's a link to \"Human rhinovirus infection blocks SARS-CoV-2 replication within the respiratory epithelium: implications for COVID-19 epidemiology\".    A brief summary is that the HRV appears to inhibit transmission of SARS-CoV-2, possibly due to the former triggering an increased production of interferon.    TL;DR: The cold will win.","human_ref_B":"The research of viral coinfection was a topic at my university. The answer wasn't clean, but depending on the combination of viruses in the infection, the infection was cleared better OR worse, but both were present as ZedZeroth said.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4251.0,"score_ratio":13.3099787686}
{"post_id":"n5qoyq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"If a person catches a cold and COVID-19 at the same time, will that person get seriously sick from both illnesses, or one of the viruses will \"win\" the fight against the other?","c_root_id_A":"gx3r7il","c_root_id_B":"gx3gdg0","created_at_utc_A":1620267172,"created_at_utc_B":1620261811,"score_A":6269,"score_B":148,"human_ref_A":"Surprised I don't see this already, but there was recently a study to attempt and answer this exact question!!  Here's a link to \"Human rhinovirus infection blocks SARS-CoV-2 replication within the respiratory epithelium: implications for COVID-19 epidemiology\".    A brief summary is that the HRV appears to inhibit transmission of SARS-CoV-2, possibly due to the former triggering an increased production of interferon.    TL;DR: The cold will win.","human_ref_B":"The trouble with your question is that there are several different viruses that cause what we commonly call a \"cold\" - rhinoviruses, adenoviruses, coronaviruses, etc.  If you are dually infected with COVID-19 and another coronavirus, there's a chance there'll be genomic recombination - giving us something new altogether. It's likely this is how COVID-19 arose from the start.   https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-020-78703-6","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5361.0,"score_ratio":42.3581081081}
{"post_id":"n5qoyq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"If a person catches a cold and COVID-19 at the same time, will that person get seriously sick from both illnesses, or one of the viruses will \"win\" the fight against the other?","c_root_id_A":"gx3r7il","c_root_id_B":"gx3j0ej","created_at_utc_A":1620267172,"created_at_utc_B":1620263123,"score_A":6269,"score_B":114,"human_ref_A":"Surprised I don't see this already, but there was recently a study to attempt and answer this exact question!!  Here's a link to \"Human rhinovirus infection blocks SARS-CoV-2 replication within the respiratory epithelium: implications for COVID-19 epidemiology\".    A brief summary is that the HRV appears to inhibit transmission of SARS-CoV-2, possibly due to the former triggering an increased production of interferon.    TL;DR: The cold will win.","human_ref_B":"More broadly, there's no reason you can't have simultaneous infections by two different viruses. The main cause of death from HIV isn't the human immunodeficiency virus itself, it's secondary infections that can run rampant thanks to the AIDS part (acquired immunodefficiency syndrome).  For COVID specifically, secondary infections do appear to be an issue, including viral infections. See e.g.:  * *Risks and features of secondary infections in severe and critical ill COVID-19 patients*, Emerging Microbes & Infections \\[link\\] * *Secondary infections in patients hospitalized with COVID-19: incidence and predictive factors*, Clinical Microbiology and Infection \\[link\\]","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4049.0,"score_ratio":54.9912280702}
{"post_id":"n5qoyq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"If a person catches a cold and COVID-19 at the same time, will that person get seriously sick from both illnesses, or one of the viruses will \"win\" the fight against the other?","c_root_id_A":"gx3gdg0","c_root_id_B":"gx3ilpx","created_at_utc_A":1620261811,"created_at_utc_B":1620262921,"score_A":148,"score_B":471,"human_ref_A":"The trouble with your question is that there are several different viruses that cause what we commonly call a \"cold\" - rhinoviruses, adenoviruses, coronaviruses, etc.  If you are dually infected with COVID-19 and another coronavirus, there's a chance there'll be genomic recombination - giving us something new altogether. It's likely this is how COVID-19 arose from the start.   https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-020-78703-6","human_ref_B":"The research of viral coinfection was a topic at my university. The answer wasn't clean, but depending on the combination of viruses in the infection, the infection was cleared better OR worse, but both were present as ZedZeroth said.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1110.0,"score_ratio":3.1824324324}
{"post_id":"rgyvwm","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"From my 7 year old: Do the things in our bodies ever get tired? Like cells and antibodies? Do they have to rest?","c_root_id_A":"honr21p","c_root_id_B":"honm8h6","created_at_utc_A":1639585013,"created_at_utc_B":1639583132,"score_A":543,"score_B":74,"human_ref_A":"To add to what other people have said, while many individual cells don't \"rest\" they also die pretty quickly in comparison to our lifespan.   In a matter of speaking, they burn the wick at both ends of the candle until they die, getting replaced by a younger version. And on and on.   Some have shorter lifespans than others. Colon cells die after a few days. Sperm cells last a few days. Skin cells last a few weeks. Red blood cells last a few months. White blood cells last about a year.","human_ref_B":"an individual cell that is used up and *tired* is usually put to death by apoptosis (programmed cell death)     if apoptosis does not happen on its own, it can be triggered by immune systems cells. however, even that can fail, and this can lead to cancer. tumors, and by extension cancer, are cells that wont die on their own. instead, they just start multiplying uncontrollably.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1881.0,"score_ratio":7.3378378378}
{"post_id":"rgyvwm","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"From my 7 year old: Do the things in our bodies ever get tired? Like cells and antibodies? Do they have to rest?","c_root_id_A":"honr21p","c_root_id_B":"honf82c","created_at_utc_A":1639585013,"created_at_utc_B":1639580242,"score_A":543,"score_B":34,"human_ref_A":"To add to what other people have said, while many individual cells don't \"rest\" they also die pretty quickly in comparison to our lifespan.   In a matter of speaking, they burn the wick at both ends of the candle until they die, getting replaced by a younger version. And on and on.   Some have shorter lifespans than others. Colon cells die after a few days. Sperm cells last a few days. Skin cells last a few weeks. Red blood cells last a few months. White blood cells last about a year.","human_ref_B":"You can think of this in terms of the example of **neurons**: \u2018tiring\u2019 in this context can mean 1.) not enough energy eg. Glucose for metabolism 2.) too many toxic byproducts of metabolism 3.) not enough neurotransmitters available 4.) not enough time to rest (the cells need to \u2018recover\u2019 after firing) but in reality all of this will be happening in tandem. eg. uve been playing chess all day you've been activating more neurons and faster and longer :) [note: if you use a group of cells more, then more resources will be allocated to them and they will grow in number to divide that labour. So playing chess after 3 months will feel easier]  A liver metabolizing alcohol all day will get tired and that is reflected by breakdown of cells and accumulation of toxins. Its difficult to carry over this definition from the subjective realm of *feeling tired* into that of biology. But its a great question! When we get tired we rest but actually we *could* work more. Cells and organs just do what they must with the resources they have to keep things in an acceptable range. If not, they can get more resources (eg. body adapts by pumping more blood), switch to another pool of resources (eg. aerobic to anaerobic in muscles) and finally get damaged (eg. hypoxia) and die ... evolution has provided cells with a 'self-destruct' sequence if it comes to this and they can't fulfill their function.   So, to recap: The whole body is tightly regulated to divert resources as appropriate (the circadian rhythm, as u\/turingading mentioned). The resources are too many to enumerate, but the most important is oxygen and glucose, which gets converted to ATP. The cells use this and when we run out of glucose, we can use our fatty acids or muscle breakdown product for ATP and this is another of those pathway switches that can keep the cells going.   \u0395dited for clarity purposes","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4771.0,"score_ratio":15.9705882353}
{"post_id":"rgyvwm","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"From my 7 year old: Do the things in our bodies ever get tired? Like cells and antibodies? Do they have to rest?","c_root_id_A":"honqsru","c_root_id_B":"honr21p","created_at_utc_A":1639584909,"created_at_utc_B":1639585013,"score_A":23,"score_B":543,"human_ref_A":"There is an animated show called Cells at Work that does a good job explaining the immune system in an understandable way.  The spin off series, Cells at Work: Code Black specifically goes in to detail about cells getting \u201ctired\u201d in an aging body!","human_ref_B":"To add to what other people have said, while many individual cells don't \"rest\" they also die pretty quickly in comparison to our lifespan.   In a matter of speaking, they burn the wick at both ends of the candle until they die, getting replaced by a younger version. And on and on.   Some have shorter lifespans than others. Colon cells die after a few days. Sperm cells last a few days. Skin cells last a few weeks. Red blood cells last a few months. White blood cells last about a year.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":104.0,"score_ratio":23.6086956522}
{"post_id":"rgyvwm","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"From my 7 year old: Do the things in our bodies ever get tired? Like cells and antibodies? Do they have to rest?","c_root_id_A":"honm8h6","c_root_id_B":"honf82c","created_at_utc_A":1639583132,"created_at_utc_B":1639580242,"score_A":74,"score_B":34,"human_ref_A":"an individual cell that is used up and *tired* is usually put to death by apoptosis (programmed cell death)     if apoptosis does not happen on its own, it can be triggered by immune systems cells. however, even that can fail, and this can lead to cancer. tumors, and by extension cancer, are cells that wont die on their own. instead, they just start multiplying uncontrollably.","human_ref_B":"You can think of this in terms of the example of **neurons**: \u2018tiring\u2019 in this context can mean 1.) not enough energy eg. Glucose for metabolism 2.) too many toxic byproducts of metabolism 3.) not enough neurotransmitters available 4.) not enough time to rest (the cells need to \u2018recover\u2019 after firing) but in reality all of this will be happening in tandem. eg. uve been playing chess all day you've been activating more neurons and faster and longer :) [note: if you use a group of cells more, then more resources will be allocated to them and they will grow in number to divide that labour. So playing chess after 3 months will feel easier]  A liver metabolizing alcohol all day will get tired and that is reflected by breakdown of cells and accumulation of toxins. Its difficult to carry over this definition from the subjective realm of *feeling tired* into that of biology. But its a great question! When we get tired we rest but actually we *could* work more. Cells and organs just do what they must with the resources they have to keep things in an acceptable range. If not, they can get more resources (eg. body adapts by pumping more blood), switch to another pool of resources (eg. aerobic to anaerobic in muscles) and finally get damaged (eg. hypoxia) and die ... evolution has provided cells with a 'self-destruct' sequence if it comes to this and they can't fulfill their function.   So, to recap: The whole body is tightly regulated to divert resources as appropriate (the circadian rhythm, as u\/turingading mentioned). The resources are too many to enumerate, but the most important is oxygen and glucose, which gets converted to ATP. The cells use this and when we run out of glucose, we can use our fatty acids or muscle breakdown product for ATP and this is another of those pathway switches that can keep the cells going.   \u0395dited for clarity purposes","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2890.0,"score_ratio":2.1764705882}
{"post_id":"rgyvwm","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"From my 7 year old: Do the things in our bodies ever get tired? Like cells and antibodies? Do they have to rest?","c_root_id_A":"honqsru","c_root_id_B":"hoogyrw","created_at_utc_A":1639584909,"created_at_utc_B":1639595070,"score_A":23,"score_B":34,"human_ref_A":"There is an animated show called Cells at Work that does a good job explaining the immune system in an understandable way.  The spin off series, Cells at Work: Code Black specifically goes in to detail about cells getting \u201ctired\u201d in an aging body!","human_ref_B":"I'm a plant scientist and plants do need rest on the micro level. Cells have organelles, specialised structures that can do one thing, quite a bit like organs (hence the name).   Chloroplasts are the organelles that turn light, carbon dioxide and water into sugar to be used for energy. However this also produces reactive oxygen species (unbound oxygen that likes to rip stuff apart so it can bind to that molecule). That's why plants are full of antioxidants to capture ROSs. While the sun is shinning and the plant produces sugars the antioxidant production can't keep up with the ROS production. That's why plants need night, so they can produce enough antioxidants for the next day.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":10161.0,"score_ratio":1.4782608696}
{"post_id":"rgyvwm","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"From my 7 year old: Do the things in our bodies ever get tired? Like cells and antibodies? Do they have to rest?","c_root_id_A":"honszoq","c_root_id_B":"hoogyrw","created_at_utc_A":1639585781,"created_at_utc_B":1639595070,"score_A":18,"score_B":34,"human_ref_A":"yes. In fact even cells need to rest. \"In 2016, Japanese scientist Yoshinori Ohsumi won the Nobel Prize for his discoveries into the mechanisms of autophagy.\" It really is fascinating.  metabolic syndrome and many degenerative diseases that manifest on a cell level can be seen as symptoms of 'lack of rest'. Interesting examples, metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, Parkinson's (dopamine levels in the brain).  Most cells and bacteria have feeding \/ activity \/ rest cycles that lead to optimal health, DNA health, and reproductive health","human_ref_B":"I'm a plant scientist and plants do need rest on the micro level. Cells have organelles, specialised structures that can do one thing, quite a bit like organs (hence the name).   Chloroplasts are the organelles that turn light, carbon dioxide and water into sugar to be used for energy. However this also produces reactive oxygen species (unbound oxygen that likes to rip stuff apart so it can bind to that molecule). That's why plants are full of antioxidants to capture ROSs. While the sun is shinning and the plant produces sugars the antioxidant production can't keep up with the ROS production. That's why plants need night, so they can produce enough antioxidants for the next day.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9289.0,"score_ratio":1.8888888889}
{"post_id":"rgyvwm","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"From my 7 year old: Do the things in our bodies ever get tired? Like cells and antibodies? Do they have to rest?","c_root_id_A":"hoogyrw","c_root_id_B":"honrp2e","created_at_utc_A":1639595070,"created_at_utc_B":1639585264,"score_A":34,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"I'm a plant scientist and plants do need rest on the micro level. Cells have organelles, specialised structures that can do one thing, quite a bit like organs (hence the name).   Chloroplasts are the organelles that turn light, carbon dioxide and water into sugar to be used for energy. However this also produces reactive oxygen species (unbound oxygen that likes to rip stuff apart so it can bind to that molecule). That's why plants are full of antioxidants to capture ROSs. While the sun is shinning and the plant produces sugars the antioxidant production can't keep up with the ROS production. That's why plants need night, so they can produce enough antioxidants for the next day.","human_ref_B":"Interesting question: if you ask me tired\/fatigue is a feeling of your physical state. So a cell doesn't \"know\" when it's \"exhausted\".  Honestly, cells are just hyper-complex biochemical nano-machines that fulfill their purpose through chains of chemical reactions. But, like all machines, a lot of them wear out. The most common wear-out is DNA damage from replication; DNA replication isn't perfect (it happens astoundingly fast and errors are bound to happen. Try copying a document by typing as fast as you can but you can't backspace.) We do have mechanisms to detect these mismatches, but some slip through the cracks. This can be harmless, but if the error somehow shuts down a regulatory protein for cell division, or hyper-activates the same protein then we have problems. Fortunately, we have different checkpoints to prevent this if a cell gets too \"hyper\". If any of these checkpoints are triggered, the cell is essentially programmed to kill itself (also some forms of physical damage to the cell also trigger a similar pathway).  We do have some cells that don't replicate and are essentially \"immortal\" as long as they get energy. These are usually our skeletal muscles, cardiac muscles, and neurons. These can become \"tired\" in the sense that we feel fatigue; but on the cellular scale this is just buildup or metabolic waste and depletion of necessary molecules for function (e.g. myocyte fatigue is from depletion of ATP and Ca++; neuronal fatigue is the buildup of adenosine - which we have receptors in our brain to tell us that we're tired; caffeine blocks these receptors giving us a feeling of wakefulness).  As for antibodies, they are just a glob of protein that floats through the blood. They're highly specific, as in one antibody per one pathogen (e.g. a Covid antibody will only tag covid; a flu antibody will only tag the flu). These proteins help tag the pathogen so the immune cells can find them and do their job.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9806.0,"score_ratio":2.6153846154}
{"post_id":"rgyvwm","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"From my 7 year old: Do the things in our bodies ever get tired? Like cells and antibodies? Do they have to rest?","c_root_id_A":"honrp2e","c_root_id_B":"honszoq","created_at_utc_A":1639585264,"created_at_utc_B":1639585781,"score_A":13,"score_B":18,"human_ref_A":"Interesting question: if you ask me tired\/fatigue is a feeling of your physical state. So a cell doesn't \"know\" when it's \"exhausted\".  Honestly, cells are just hyper-complex biochemical nano-machines that fulfill their purpose through chains of chemical reactions. But, like all machines, a lot of them wear out. The most common wear-out is DNA damage from replication; DNA replication isn't perfect (it happens astoundingly fast and errors are bound to happen. Try copying a document by typing as fast as you can but you can't backspace.) We do have mechanisms to detect these mismatches, but some slip through the cracks. This can be harmless, but if the error somehow shuts down a regulatory protein for cell division, or hyper-activates the same protein then we have problems. Fortunately, we have different checkpoints to prevent this if a cell gets too \"hyper\". If any of these checkpoints are triggered, the cell is essentially programmed to kill itself (also some forms of physical damage to the cell also trigger a similar pathway).  We do have some cells that don't replicate and are essentially \"immortal\" as long as they get energy. These are usually our skeletal muscles, cardiac muscles, and neurons. These can become \"tired\" in the sense that we feel fatigue; but on the cellular scale this is just buildup or metabolic waste and depletion of necessary molecules for function (e.g. myocyte fatigue is from depletion of ATP and Ca++; neuronal fatigue is the buildup of adenosine - which we have receptors in our brain to tell us that we're tired; caffeine blocks these receptors giving us a feeling of wakefulness).  As for antibodies, they are just a glob of protein that floats through the blood. They're highly specific, as in one antibody per one pathogen (e.g. a Covid antibody will only tag covid; a flu antibody will only tag the flu). These proteins help tag the pathogen so the immune cells can find them and do their job.","human_ref_B":"yes. In fact even cells need to rest. \"In 2016, Japanese scientist Yoshinori Ohsumi won the Nobel Prize for his discoveries into the mechanisms of autophagy.\" It really is fascinating.  metabolic syndrome and many degenerative diseases that manifest on a cell level can be seen as symptoms of 'lack of rest'. Interesting examples, metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, Parkinson's (dopamine levels in the brain).  Most cells and bacteria have feeding \/ activity \/ rest cycles that lead to optimal health, DNA health, and reproductive health","labels":0,"seconds_difference":517.0,"score_ratio":1.3846153846}
{"post_id":"ck7l3x","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Why is 18 the maximum amount of electrons an atomic shell can hold?","c_root_id_A":"evkh9qj","c_root_id_B":"evkdlpq","created_at_utc_A":1564581487,"created_at_utc_B":1564579903,"score_A":4116,"score_B":347,"human_ref_A":">Why is 18 the maximum amount of electrons an atomic shell can hold?  It's not.  18 is the maximum amount of electrons that the *third* shell can hold.  Other shells have different maxima:  the first shell can only hold 2 electrons; the second shell can hold 8, the third can hold 18, the fourth can hold 32, and so on.  Each shell can hold 2n^(2) electrons.  This formula arises because electrons are fermions (particles with half-integer spin) and fermions are required to occupy distinct quantum states.  Electrons in atoms have four separate quantum numbers that can take different integer values, with the allowed ranges of some quantum numbers determined by the value of others.  For example, the principle quantum number n denotes the shell number -- it starts at 1, counting up from there until that shell is filled with electrons; once it is full, additional electrons occupy the next shell with n=2, and so on.  The azimuthal quantum number l (lowercase L) starts at 0 and increases up to a maximum of n-1 ... so when n=1, then l=0, but when n=2, l can have a value of either 0 or 1, and when n=3 then l can have a value of 0, 1, or 2.  Then there's the magnetic quantum number m which has the same range as l except it can also take on negative values.  So at n=2, m can be any of -1, 0, and 1.  And at n=3, m can be -2, -1, 0, 1, or 2.  And finally, for every unique pair of n, l, and m, each electron also has a spin projection of either +1\/2 or -1\/2 depending on whether it is spin-up or spin-down.  So then, the first electron must have (n=1, l=0, m=0) and either possible value of s, and the second electron must have the same numbers but the opposite-signed value of s.  Then the first shell is filled.  The third and fourth electrons will have (n=2, l=0, m=0), the fifth and sixth will have (n=2, l=1, m=0), the seventh and eigth (n=2, l=1, m=1), ninth and tenth (n=2, l=1, m=-1), and then the second shell is filled, and so on.  For a more detailed explanation why, you may want to read the Wiki article on electron configurations.","human_ref_B":"It's not. The number of possible electrons in each shell is dictated by the principal quantum number, n. For each n there are a set of other possible quantum numbers (these numbers describe certain properties of the electrons) that must be within certain ranges (which are dictated by the value of n or another quantum number, although ultimately they all indirectly depend on n) and each electron can only have one particular configuration of those numbers (groups of these numbers are called subshells).   So that limits how many electrons can be in a shell, there can only be as many electrons as the subshells can hold and thus as many available choices of quantum numbers. But you can make n as big as you want and if you add enough electrons you can get higher and higher numbers and so add more and more electrons to each shell.  The reason we only see a maximum of 18 for atoms we see commonly in the world around us (though not all natural atoms) is that they don't have enough electrons to reach these higher principal numbers because electrons repel each other and the reason there's a maximum for natural atoms is big enough atoms become unstable. Also generally it's more energetically favourable, i.e it takes less energy, to fill higher up low subshells, like 5s, than it does to fill lower down high subshells, like 4f, for a lot of reasons. For example it's more favourable to have a full higher subshell than a half full lower one.   If you look at carbon for example it has 12 electrons, so if it just went in order it would have it's electron configuration as 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 2d^2, because those are the first 12 available slots for electrons with the lowest possible n. However if you check you'll see that carbon has an electron configuration of 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1584.0,"score_ratio":11.8616714697}
{"post_id":"ck7l3x","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Why is 18 the maximum amount of electrons an atomic shell can hold?","c_root_id_A":"evkegju","c_root_id_B":"evkh9qj","created_at_utc_A":1564580278,"created_at_utc_B":1564581487,"score_A":175,"score_B":4116,"human_ref_A":"The 2, 8, 8, 18, 18 thing is really just an oversimplification of a far more complicated thing in the quantum model of the atom called electron orbitals. Crash course does a pretty decent video about it (The Electron: Crash Course Chemistry #5). I'll give it a shot assuming you're in early high school and just learning this stuff for the first time.  Every time we get to a new noble gas, the periodic table starts to repeat its properties. In the early days, this was taken as evidence that we had reached a new valence shell which shielded the previous shells. The evidence came from the energy levels of the electrons that were added or taken away from the atoms.  As scientists got better at studying the atom, a pattern emerged: in the first shell, both electrons had the same energy, but in the second and third \"shells\", two electrons had a lower energy than the other six.  This led to subshell theory. There are 4 subshells, which can hold (in order) 2, 6, 10, and 14 electrons. There are further subshells (that pattern continues), but they are not commonly observed in everyday atoms or molecules.  So where does 2, 8, 8, 18, 18 come from? Well the first shell can only have the first subshell (2 electrons), but the second can have the first and second (2 + 6 = 8). The third technically has all three subshells (2 + 6 + 10 = 18), but as you get higher in energy the shells start to get closer to each other so the first two electrons in the fourth shell kind of sneak in before the last ten in the third shell.  Those first two electrons make a big spherical bubble around the atom, shielding the subshells beneath them, so that's where the periodic table restarts. That's why the third row of the table only has 8 elements. The other 10 electrons are only used in the 4th row (mind you, having those subshells available does change the chemistry of the atoms, making molecules like POCl3 possible).  To answer your initial question, 18 is not the limit, even in the old school periodic table. The 6th and 7th row already contain 32 elements (2 + 6 + 10 + 14) and theoretically the next row would have 50!","human_ref_B":">Why is 18 the maximum amount of electrons an atomic shell can hold?  It's not.  18 is the maximum amount of electrons that the *third* shell can hold.  Other shells have different maxima:  the first shell can only hold 2 electrons; the second shell can hold 8, the third can hold 18, the fourth can hold 32, and so on.  Each shell can hold 2n^(2) electrons.  This formula arises because electrons are fermions (particles with half-integer spin) and fermions are required to occupy distinct quantum states.  Electrons in atoms have four separate quantum numbers that can take different integer values, with the allowed ranges of some quantum numbers determined by the value of others.  For example, the principle quantum number n denotes the shell number -- it starts at 1, counting up from there until that shell is filled with electrons; once it is full, additional electrons occupy the next shell with n=2, and so on.  The azimuthal quantum number l (lowercase L) starts at 0 and increases up to a maximum of n-1 ... so when n=1, then l=0, but when n=2, l can have a value of either 0 or 1, and when n=3 then l can have a value of 0, 1, or 2.  Then there's the magnetic quantum number m which has the same range as l except it can also take on negative values.  So at n=2, m can be any of -1, 0, and 1.  And at n=3, m can be -2, -1, 0, 1, or 2.  And finally, for every unique pair of n, l, and m, each electron also has a spin projection of either +1\/2 or -1\/2 depending on whether it is spin-up or spin-down.  So then, the first electron must have (n=1, l=0, m=0) and either possible value of s, and the second electron must have the same numbers but the opposite-signed value of s.  Then the first shell is filled.  The third and fourth electrons will have (n=2, l=0, m=0), the fifth and sixth will have (n=2, l=1, m=0), the seventh and eigth (n=2, l=1, m=1), ninth and tenth (n=2, l=1, m=-1), and then the second shell is filled, and so on.  For a more detailed explanation why, you may want to read the Wiki article on electron configurations.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1209.0,"score_ratio":23.52}
{"post_id":"ihhbxp","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"What is the theoretical maximum depth of the ocean? We've only mapped like less than 1% of the ocean floor, so the chances of a deeper area than Challenger's Deep seems likely. What is that potential depth?","c_root_id_A":"g31pkah","c_root_id_B":"g31um19","created_at_utc_A":1598551770,"created_at_utc_B":1598553910,"score_A":16,"score_B":40,"human_ref_A":"Another limit to this is due to istostacy, or the boyance of the crust ontop of the mantle. Right now, both the Marianas trench and mt Everest are in the ballpark of how deep\/tall structures can be, as if you make the mountain larger, the plate it is on wants to sink, and if you make a trench deeper, the mantle around it will want to push up on and make it \"float\".   Two edge cases to illustrate this are that you could never pile a mountain to outer space, or dig a hole to the core. So there must be a limit somewhere, and these two are in the ballpark of that.   This is one of the reasons olympus mons on mars can be so tall. There is less gravity, so a larger mass can be boyantly suported, all things being equal.","human_ref_B":"I think the assumption in the question is wrong.   We have mapped the ENTIRE ocean.    But different parts of the ocean are mapped to different degrees of detail.  But \"How deep could the ocean be?\" is a good question.   We know it's current depth but maybe 200 million years ago or 200M years from now the depth could be different.  Is there a maximum.  My guess is the maximum depth is determined by the maximum speed that two tectonic plates can diverge","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2140.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"4jbni1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.74,"history":"If diamonds are the hardest material on Earth, why are they possible to break in a hydraulic press? Hydraulic press channel just posted this video on Youtube https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=69fr5bNiEfc, where he claims to break a diamond with his hydraulic press. I thought that diamonds were unbreakable, is this simply not true?","c_root_id_A":"d35cgx5","c_root_id_B":"d35gd4r","created_at_utc_A":1463242151,"created_at_utc_B":1463249135,"score_A":61,"score_B":129,"human_ref_A":"Also, hardness isn't perfectly correlated with \"breakability\". Some things are incredibly hard, but can be chipped or shattered relatively easily in the right conditions.","human_ref_B":"Most materials with high hardness will have low ductility (making them highly brittle, e.g. diamonds, ceramics, martensitic steel). This implies that while a high hardness material will resist deformation and initial fracture, but once the fracture occurs it is more catastrophic. A highly ductile material (like copper, tin, pearlitic steel, or the clay model in the video) will deform easier (require less force to deform) but are much less likely to fracture and catastrophically break.  There is another measure of a material's structural performance, termed fracture toughness (not to be confused with strength), which is the material's resistance to fracturing. High strength steels and titanium will generally have a higher fracture toughness than other materials.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6984.0,"score_ratio":2.1147540984}
{"post_id":"4jbni1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.74,"history":"If diamonds are the hardest material on Earth, why are they possible to break in a hydraulic press? Hydraulic press channel just posted this video on Youtube https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=69fr5bNiEfc, where he claims to break a diamond with his hydraulic press. I thought that diamonds were unbreakable, is this simply not true?","c_root_id_A":"d35j2xo","c_root_id_B":"d35iw5d","created_at_utc_A":1463254038,"created_at_utc_B":1463253710,"score_A":31,"score_B":28,"human_ref_A":"The problem is hardness doesn't mean what you think it means. Usually when we talk about hardness we are talking about scratch hardness, so that a harder material can scratch a softer material. This is a complicated property of the material, which you can tell by the fact that we measure hardness in dimensionless scales, i.e. we only measure the hardness relative to other objects rather than defining it with a real unit. So let's actually get away from hardness and talk about some properties that are more quantifiable.  A concept related to hardness is stiffness, which we can measure as the Young's modulus of a material and it has units of pressure. We can measure the stiffness by plotting the stress vs. strain for a material. A stiff material has a very high slope on a stress-strain curve. By this measure, diamond has a very high slope (Young's modulus), about 5-6 times as high as steel.   So why does the diamond break before the steel does? Because it is brittle. Although it doesn't deform much in response to strain initially, once a rupture starts it spreads and the diamond cleaves. Steel may be softer, but it is also ductile. Think of a sheet of paper vs a rubber sheet: the paper doesn't stretch as much but it is much easier to tear apart.  So the steel deforms a little more at first, but eventually the diamond shatters first.","human_ref_B":"Tungsten-carbide is incredibly hard you may be satisfied to see that (attempt to be) crushed compared to the diamond.   A guy on YouTube with a channel called AVE tried to crush one but it bent the plate on the press and didn't scratch the bit.   Warning he's very Canadian so to anyone not from here you may need a translator lol.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":328.0,"score_ratio":1.1071428571}
{"post_id":"ausel1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"How close would you have to get to the sun for the vacuum of space to be at room temperature?","c_root_id_A":"ehao0tr","c_root_id_B":"ehalsbo","created_at_utc_A":1551151502,"created_at_utc_B":1551149832,"score_A":4611,"score_B":219,"human_ref_A":"The vacuum of space does not have a temperature, temperature is a property that materials have. For example, it's commonly said that deep space has a temperature of about 2.7 K, but that's misleading. 2.7 K is the equilibrium temperature that an ideal blackbody would reach in deep space due to cosmic microwave background radiation.  So a better question would be, how close would you have to get to the sun for an ideal black body to be at room temperature? Spoiler alert: close to where the earth is. The answer is found by balancing incoming solar radiation with the outgoing blackbody radiation of the object, a common problem in introductory thermo classes. The derivation here, usually used to find the temperature of a hypothetical planet at a given distance, can be rearranged to solve for distance when given temperature, and the result is about 84 million miles, or 0.9 AU. This assumes the body is spherical, but an arbitrary shape would reach a similar temperature.  The difference between our hypothetical blackbody and the earth comes down to albedo (reflection), emissivity, and various greenhouse effects; if the earth were a perfect blackbody it would be about ~~40~~ 10 \u00b0C colder.  Edit: note, this only applies to something that isn't producing its own heat like a person or anything electronic. Any internal heat production means the body has to radiate more heat to reach equilibrium, resulting in a higher temperature. Additionally, it's hard to say how a person would *perceive* temperature in the vacuum of space (before dying, of course) since our perception of temperature is largely dependent on heat transfer and not necessarily absolute temperature.","human_ref_B":"On Earth the *air*  has a temperature.  (Which varies from place to place and time to time.)  A total vacuum can't have a temperature  - whether we're talking room temperature,  colder than room temperature,  warmer than room temperature,  whatever.    Other things that  are  *in*  the vacuum -  such as a rock  or a spaceship  - can have a temperature.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1670.0,"score_ratio":21.0547945205}
{"post_id":"7ficf3","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"What is the velocity of the edge of a bubble as it is \"popping\"? Take a bubble - soap\/water, milk or otherwise - and initiate a \"pop\" from a single point on the surface. What would be the velocity of the bursting edge, as it propagates away from the initiation point?  Here is a video of some bursting bubbles in slow-motion. Notice that the bursting edge recedes from the initiation point; the intact surface remains unaffected until the bursting edge reaches it.  For simplicity, assume a *perfect bubble*:  - Perfectly spherical - Evenly distributed surface - No external forces (i.e. gravity, which would cause deformation and pooling of the medium) - \"Pop\" or burst initiated from a single point on the surface  It seems intuitive that the *upper limit* would be the **speed of sound** for whatever medium the bubble was made from, because the speed of sound would be the physical limit that the information could be passed along that the bubble was popping. But I'm unsure what role the pressure differential might play - if any at all.","c_root_id_A":"dqclam6","c_root_id_B":"dqck1ef","created_at_utc_A":1511674613,"created_at_utc_B":1511672543,"score_A":1000,"score_B":17,"human_ref_A":"A rough approximation can be calculated:  * Determine frame rate of the original video recording * Determine size of bubble in video * Measure time for bubble to pop * Calculate speed: distance divided by time     Looking at the bubble at 1m43s: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=ktvZ2Z_s4Bo&t=103s  * video is recorded at 18,000 FPS. * bubble size is about 15 cm. * time to pop is about 13 seconds. * 13s of video at 18,000 FPS is 0.72ms of real time. 0.15m\/0.72ms  = 208 m\/s * edit: MorRobots did the speed calculation for a spherical surface: 362.2 m\/s     The bubble size and duration of the popping are just rough numbers and can be approximated better but it'll get you in the right ballpark.  For homework, you can do the math for traversing a sphereical surface instead of the simpler calculation I'm using.","human_ref_B":"On mobile, so sorry for the spelling errors and typos.    I imagine that the viscosity of the bubble material and the shear force of the liquid plane traveling through the gas are important factors.  We typically use liquids containing surfactants (such as soap) to achieve a liquid with low surface tension and viscosity.    I also think the upper limit is significantly less than the speed of sound in the material for a couple different reasons. First, when a bubble bursts the matter travels *around* the surface of the bubble, in a circle. This requires a change of momentum not required if the material is traveling in a straight line. Second, when a bubble bursts, all of the material goes *with* the \u201cshock wave.\u201d When sound travels through a material, there is just a slight movement of each molecule; the energy from one molecule is passed along to the next (minus some frictional losses). In a popped bubble on the other hand, all of the material \u201cclumps\u201d together moving at the same speed. This means that enough energy is needed to accelerate all of the atoms to some top speed.    The best analogy I can think of is a train accelerating from a stop. In the \u201dspeed of sound\u201d case, the \u201cspeed\u201d would be CLUNK CLUNK CLUNK of each train car\u2019s hitch getting pulled taught. This happens really quickly and the CLUNk travels all the way to the last car in almost no time. In the bubble example, we have to accelerate all of the actual train cars to some top speed.     TD;DR I have no idea how to calculate the top speed outside of experimentation, but I am guessing that it is significantly less than the speed of sound in the material. Like 1-3 orders of magnitude less.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2070.0,"score_ratio":58.8235294118}
{"post_id":"7ficf3","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"What is the velocity of the edge of a bubble as it is \"popping\"? Take a bubble - soap\/water, milk or otherwise - and initiate a \"pop\" from a single point on the surface. What would be the velocity of the bursting edge, as it propagates away from the initiation point?  Here is a video of some bursting bubbles in slow-motion. Notice that the bursting edge recedes from the initiation point; the intact surface remains unaffected until the bursting edge reaches it.  For simplicity, assume a *perfect bubble*:  - Perfectly spherical - Evenly distributed surface - No external forces (i.e. gravity, which would cause deformation and pooling of the medium) - \"Pop\" or burst initiated from a single point on the surface  It seems intuitive that the *upper limit* would be the **speed of sound** for whatever medium the bubble was made from, because the speed of sound would be the physical limit that the information could be passed along that the bubble was popping. But I'm unsure what role the pressure differential might play - if any at all.","c_root_id_A":"dqcn9jp","c_root_id_B":"dqck1ef","created_at_utc_A":1511678214,"created_at_utc_B":1511672543,"score_A":65,"score_B":17,"human_ref_A":"This thread had me smiling. I love how innocent the prompt is. A bubble popping. Something we have all seen before and probably have all wondered about what\u2019s happening when it pops. I\u2019m very thankful for the informed guess of OP as well as the science behind most of the answers! I know this is r\/science but sometimes it\u2019s nice to smile and think of things other than wars and politics :) have a good day everyone!","human_ref_B":"On mobile, so sorry for the spelling errors and typos.    I imagine that the viscosity of the bubble material and the shear force of the liquid plane traveling through the gas are important factors.  We typically use liquids containing surfactants (such as soap) to achieve a liquid with low surface tension and viscosity.    I also think the upper limit is significantly less than the speed of sound in the material for a couple different reasons. First, when a bubble bursts the matter travels *around* the surface of the bubble, in a circle. This requires a change of momentum not required if the material is traveling in a straight line. Second, when a bubble bursts, all of the material goes *with* the \u201cshock wave.\u201d When sound travels through a material, there is just a slight movement of each molecule; the energy from one molecule is passed along to the next (minus some frictional losses). In a popped bubble on the other hand, all of the material \u201cclumps\u201d together moving at the same speed. This means that enough energy is needed to accelerate all of the atoms to some top speed.    The best analogy I can think of is a train accelerating from a stop. In the \u201dspeed of sound\u201d case, the \u201cspeed\u201d would be CLUNK CLUNK CLUNK of each train car\u2019s hitch getting pulled taught. This happens really quickly and the CLUNk travels all the way to the last car in almost no time. In the bubble example, we have to accelerate all of the actual train cars to some top speed.     TD;DR I have no idea how to calculate the top speed outside of experimentation, but I am guessing that it is significantly less than the speed of sound in the material. Like 1-3 orders of magnitude less.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5671.0,"score_ratio":3.8235294118}
{"post_id":"7ficf3","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"What is the velocity of the edge of a bubble as it is \"popping\"? Take a bubble - soap\/water, milk or otherwise - and initiate a \"pop\" from a single point on the surface. What would be the velocity of the bursting edge, as it propagates away from the initiation point?  Here is a video of some bursting bubbles in slow-motion. Notice that the bursting edge recedes from the initiation point; the intact surface remains unaffected until the bursting edge reaches it.  For simplicity, assume a *perfect bubble*:  - Perfectly spherical - Evenly distributed surface - No external forces (i.e. gravity, which would cause deformation and pooling of the medium) - \"Pop\" or burst initiated from a single point on the surface  It seems intuitive that the *upper limit* would be the **speed of sound** for whatever medium the bubble was made from, because the speed of sound would be the physical limit that the information could be passed along that the bubble was popping. But I'm unsure what role the pressure differential might play - if any at all.","c_root_id_A":"dqcrieq","c_root_id_B":"dqck1ef","created_at_utc_A":1511688797,"created_at_utc_B":1511672543,"score_A":22,"score_B":17,"human_ref_A":"A typical retraction velocity is 10 m\/s Lee et al. 2011  The velocity is influenced by surface tension and viscosity as described by the Ohnesorg number (https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ohnesorge_number)","human_ref_B":"On mobile, so sorry for the spelling errors and typos.    I imagine that the viscosity of the bubble material and the shear force of the liquid plane traveling through the gas are important factors.  We typically use liquids containing surfactants (such as soap) to achieve a liquid with low surface tension and viscosity.    I also think the upper limit is significantly less than the speed of sound in the material for a couple different reasons. First, when a bubble bursts the matter travels *around* the surface of the bubble, in a circle. This requires a change of momentum not required if the material is traveling in a straight line. Second, when a bubble bursts, all of the material goes *with* the \u201cshock wave.\u201d When sound travels through a material, there is just a slight movement of each molecule; the energy from one molecule is passed along to the next (minus some frictional losses). In a popped bubble on the other hand, all of the material \u201cclumps\u201d together moving at the same speed. This means that enough energy is needed to accelerate all of the atoms to some top speed.    The best analogy I can think of is a train accelerating from a stop. In the \u201dspeed of sound\u201d case, the \u201cspeed\u201d would be CLUNK CLUNK CLUNK of each train car\u2019s hitch getting pulled taught. This happens really quickly and the CLUNk travels all the way to the last car in almost no time. In the bubble example, we have to accelerate all of the actual train cars to some top speed.     TD;DR I have no idea how to calculate the top speed outside of experimentation, but I am guessing that it is significantly less than the speed of sound in the material. Like 1-3 orders of magnitude less.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":16254.0,"score_ratio":1.2941176471}
{"post_id":"7ficf3","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"What is the velocity of the edge of a bubble as it is \"popping\"? Take a bubble - soap\/water, milk or otherwise - and initiate a \"pop\" from a single point on the surface. What would be the velocity of the bursting edge, as it propagates away from the initiation point?  Here is a video of some bursting bubbles in slow-motion. Notice that the bursting edge recedes from the initiation point; the intact surface remains unaffected until the bursting edge reaches it.  For simplicity, assume a *perfect bubble*:  - Perfectly spherical - Evenly distributed surface - No external forces (i.e. gravity, which would cause deformation and pooling of the medium) - \"Pop\" or burst initiated from a single point on the surface  It seems intuitive that the *upper limit* would be the **speed of sound** for whatever medium the bubble was made from, because the speed of sound would be the physical limit that the information could be passed along that the bubble was popping. But I'm unsure what role the pressure differential might play - if any at all.","c_root_id_A":"dqcrieq","c_root_id_B":"dqcoxtm","created_at_utc_A":1511688797,"created_at_utc_B":1511681911,"score_A":22,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"A typical retraction velocity is 10 m\/s Lee et al. 2011  The velocity is influenced by surface tension and viscosity as described by the Ohnesorg number (https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ohnesorge_number)","human_ref_B":"From the video, it looks like the process goes as follows:  - the edge of the bubble has an imbalance of forces because it has surface tension on one side and nothing on the other  - this causes the edge to accelerate for a short distance d_step - after accelerating for a bit, turbulence occurs and the accelerating edge vaporizes  Let's turn this picture into an order of magnitude estimate of the velocity. Let the surface tension be gamma. Consider an edge of length L (L will cancel out of the result). The force on the edge is F=2 gamma L (the factor of 2 is because there is both an inside and outside surface).  What is the mass of the edge? Naively it's zero because the edge is a 2-dimensional surface of size L d_thick, where d_thick is the thickness of the bubble. But this leads to an infinite acceleration which is obviously wrong. Instead there's some distribution of accelerations near the edge that depends on the actual shape of the water near the edge. We can model this by saying that the edge has some effective \"depth\" d_depth (that we'll fix soon). Thus, the mass is m=rho L d_thick d_depth.  Thus the acceleration is a = 2 gamma L \/ (rho L d_thick d_depth). The acceleration occurs over a distance of d_step before turbulence sets in. The velocity accrued over this distance is   - v = sqrt(2 a d_step) = 4 sqrt(gamma d_step \/ (rho d_thick d_depth)).  Now what do we plug in for these values? I don't know what d_step and d_depth should be, but it's reasonable to expect that they should be similar to d_thick. From wikipedia,  - gamma_water ~ 0.07 N\/m - d_thick ~ 100 nm  - rho = 1g\/cm^3  which gives  - v ~ 50 m\/s  This seems like roughly the order of magnitude of other estimates in this thread, though maybe a bit slow. That can perhaps be fixed by coming up with a better model for d_step and d_depth.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6886.0,"score_ratio":1.8333333333}
{"post_id":"4las7y","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why do many materials, such as rock and wood, appear darker when wet? While at the same time, materials like metal don't appear darker when wet.","c_root_id_A":"d3m2zos","c_root_id_B":"d3lvzma","created_at_utc_A":1464374679,"created_at_utc_B":1464365152,"score_A":16,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Because the probability of your eye being hit by a reflected photon is higher when the material is dry.  When you wet the material, you increase the number of paths photons can take so fewer of them hit your eye so the material looks darker.","human_ref_B":"The manual for the physically based renderer Mitsuba has some really nice explanations and diagrams about the appearance of materials:  http:\/\/www.mitsuba-renderer.org\/docs.html  The chapters \u201csurface scattering models\u201d and \u201csubsurface scattering models\u201d might help to understand the phenomenon.  A dry rock surface reflects light more or less diffusely, a thin layer of water or varnish leads to specular reflection on top of the water layer. At the same time, part of the light is reflected many times between the rock surface and the water-to-air surface, leading to a loss of energy. So the surface appears darker. The light is \u201ccaught\u201d in that thin water layer, so to speak.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9527.0,"score_ratio":3.2}
{"post_id":"4las7y","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why do many materials, such as rock and wood, appear darker when wet? While at the same time, materials like metal don't appear darker when wet.","c_root_id_A":"d3mc0an","c_root_id_B":"d3ma6uo","created_at_utc_A":1464388106,"created_at_utc_B":1464385154,"score_A":5,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Not a compete answer, but a useful point of view: Conservation of energy.  Either you reflect a little bit in all directions (diffuse), or you reflect a lot in one direction and nothing in the others (specular). Wet materials are more specular. A wet road can blind you when the angle of the sun is just right; a dry road won't. Same energy, just more focused.","human_ref_B":"The short answer is that many materials often appear darker when it is wet, because the water reduces the amount of diffuse reflection from outermost layer of that material. Since how \"dark\" we perceive a material to be depends on how much light it reflects towards our eyes, the net effect is that the object will now seem darker. As a good example, we can look at fabric (e.g. cotton), which under high magnification looks something like this. As you can see the fabric is made up of a bunch of irregular micrometer sized fibers, the gaps of which are usually filled by air. Now what is important for the optical properties of the material is that the fibers and the air have different refractive indices (about n=1.5 and n=1 respectively). This mismatch between the refractive indices gives rise to a lot of scattering, and because the length-scale of the variation is on the order of hundreds of microns nanometers (similar to the wavelength of visible light), the specific mechanism at play will be so-called Mie scattering. Mie scattering has the property that light of all (visible) wavelengths is scattered more or less equally and it's the mechanism for why say paper appears white (as well as clouds or milk for that matter). The net effect of the description above is that when air fills the pores in the fabric, you will get a lot of scattering events, which will result in a lot of diffuse reflection. Now when you add water, the water molecules will displace the air inside the pores, and this is important because water has a refractive index (n=1.3) closer to that of the fabric (n=1.5). Because you are reducing the refractive index mismatch, less light will be scattered, which means you will get less of the hazy reflection you get from dry fabric. Instead, more of the light will either be simply transmitted through the fabric, or it will bounce around in the fabric\/water layer due to a process called total internal reflection as shown here and eventually absorbed. The net effect is that the material will appear darker. As an aside, this is the exact same reason why paper appears more transparent when wet, since less scattering leads to a greater transmittance of light through the material.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2952.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"b9y8ct","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"How did scientists know the first astronauts\u2019 spacesuits would withstand the pressure differences in space and fully protect the astronauts inside?","c_root_id_A":"ek8l4pp","c_root_id_B":"ek8iwbh","created_at_utc_A":1554543138,"created_at_utc_B":1554538976,"score_A":137,"score_B":28,"human_ref_A":"The suit\u2019s performance is about the pressure differential across the suit. So, in a vacuum when the inside of the suit is pressurized at 1 atm the situation is not at all different from the situation where the outside pressure is 1 atm and the inside is pressurized at 2 atm. Sure, in a microscopic level the two scenarios are not identical but at the macroscopic level it makes no difference. Therefore, you can test the suit for vacuum in normal atmospheric conditions by pressurizing the inside of the suit. You could even have a person inside since 1 atm overpressure corresponds to about 10 m water column, which, as divers have shown, is easily tolerated by humans.","human_ref_B":"OP it\u2019s relatively simple to build an airtight vessel. The only pressure is from the air inside the vessel  Conversely it\u2019s more challenging to do the same under the sea as you have a lot of water pressure in the opposite direction","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4162.0,"score_ratio":4.8928571429}
{"post_id":"b9y8ct","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"How did scientists know the first astronauts\u2019 spacesuits would withstand the pressure differences in space and fully protect the astronauts inside?","c_root_id_A":"ek8iwbh","c_root_id_B":"ek8nvvj","created_at_utc_A":1554538976,"created_at_utc_B":1554548229,"score_A":28,"score_B":50,"human_ref_A":"OP it\u2019s relatively simple to build an airtight vessel. The only pressure is from the air inside the vessel  Conversely it\u2019s more challenging to do the same under the sea as you have a lot of water pressure in the opposite direction","human_ref_B":"Adding on the what has already been said here.  The suits were also based off of a design already battle tested by SR71 and U2 pilots.  You might be interested in a documentary by James May called Edge of Space (90% sure) or Man on the Moon, where he goes into detail about this. It's a 2 part documentary and the second part he takes s flight on a U2... It's some of the coolest footage I've ever seen.  https:\/\/youtu.be\/1PmYItnlY5M","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9253.0,"score_ratio":1.7857142857}
{"post_id":"b9y8ct","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"How did scientists know the first astronauts\u2019 spacesuits would withstand the pressure differences in space and fully protect the astronauts inside?","c_root_id_A":"ek8m67j","c_root_id_B":"ek8nvvj","created_at_utc_A":1554545132,"created_at_utc_B":1554548229,"score_A":15,"score_B":50,"human_ref_A":"Because we sent a chimp into space before a human. The capsule suffered a pressure loss issue and the chimps spacesuit saved him!       https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ham_(chimpanzee)          From wikipedia:  On January 31, 1961, Ham was secured in a\u00a0Project Mercury\u00a0mission designated\u00a0MR-2\u00a0and launched from\u00a0Cape Canaveral, Florida, on a suborbital flight.[1][12]:314\u2013315\u00a0Ham's vital signs and tasks were monitored by sensors and computers on\u00a0Earth.[14]The capsule suffered a partial loss of pressure during the flight, but Ham's\u00a0space suit\u00a0prevented him from suffering any harm.[12]:315\u00a0Ham's lever-pushing performance in space was only a fraction of a second slower than on Earth, demonstrating that tasks could be performed in space.[12]:316\u00a0Ham's capsule splashed down in the\u00a0Atlantic Ocean\u00a0and was recovered by a rescue ship later that day.[12]:316His only physical injury was a bruised nose.[14]\u00a0His flight was 16\u00a0minutes and 39\u00a0seconds long.[15] **** Edit: Intresting fact, Ham's grave is at the\u00a0New Mexico Museum of Space History\u00a0in\u00a0Alamogordo, New Mexico.  Edit2: Is it possible that the lever they trained Ham to pull caused the depressurization to test and answer this exact question?","human_ref_B":"Adding on the what has already been said here.  The suits were also based off of a design already battle tested by SR71 and U2 pilots.  You might be interested in a documentary by James May called Edge of Space (90% sure) or Man on the Moon, where he goes into detail about this. It's a 2 part documentary and the second part he takes s flight on a U2... It's some of the coolest footage I've ever seen.  https:\/\/youtu.be\/1PmYItnlY5M","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3097.0,"score_ratio":3.3333333333}
{"post_id":"5n2mi2","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Is there anything the human body has three of?","c_root_id_A":"dc8gqka","c_root_id_B":"dc8i1pc","created_at_utc_A":1484035079,"created_at_utc_B":1484038831,"score_A":1496,"score_B":4816,"human_ref_A":"I suppose you could go with three arteries supplying the thyroid. Two fairly identical supplies coming from the sides split into superior and inferior portions, with a midline third artery, the thyroid ima, which ascends superiorly. This is only present in about 1 in 20 people however","human_ref_B":"There are three cusps\/leaflets to the tricuspid, pulmonary and aortic valves  Slightly off topic but each kidney is created three times - the first two (pronephros and mesonephros) degenerate and the third (metanephros) becomes your kidney and urinary tract","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3752.0,"score_ratio":3.2192513369}
{"post_id":"5n2mi2","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Is there anything the human body has three of?","c_root_id_A":"dc8i1pc","c_root_id_B":"dc8h48d","created_at_utc_A":1484038831,"created_at_utc_B":1484036130,"score_A":4816,"score_B":66,"human_ref_A":"There are three cusps\/leaflets to the tricuspid, pulmonary and aortic valves  Slightly off topic but each kidney is created three times - the first two (pronephros and mesonephros) degenerate and the third (metanephros) becomes your kidney and urinary tract","human_ref_B":"Three muscles that make up the triceps: long head, lateral head, medial head. And in order to strengthen your medial head, one must perform a supinated tricep extension.   There's actually a few groups of 3 like that.   Ex. Shoulder muscles, anterior, lateral, posterior. And glutes, Maximus, medius, and minimus.   Edit: You strengthen your medial head through any given tricep exercise when the arm is at full extension. You can, however, put more emphasis on the medial head by doing an underhand or supinated tricep extension.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2701.0,"score_ratio":72.9696969697}
{"post_id":"5n2mi2","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Is there anything the human body has three of?","c_root_id_A":"dc8j6gx","c_root_id_B":"dc8h48d","created_at_utc_A":1484042404,"created_at_utc_B":1484036130,"score_A":307,"score_B":66,"human_ref_A":"Med student here.   While the other replies are technically correct in stating that a muscle has three heads,a lung may have 3 lobes, or the Triceps Surae (Achilles) Tendon, I don't consider them as *'truly'* having 3 parts.  For one, the muscle heads may have variations, for example the Biceps brachii. It has two heads(Long head and a Short head) at present, but it was also thought that it had 3 heads, the third being the coracobrachialis, which we now identify as a separate muscle, because of evolutionary changes which made it have a different function than the Biceps.  Next, the lungs do not always have 3 lobes. I've dissected lungs where there were only 2 lobes on each side or both had 3 lobes.  The functional, anatomical and surgical units of lungs are the Bronchopulmonary segments, of which there are 10 on each side.   I consider the following to be 'truly' 3 parted:  1. The germ layers. There are three of these (Endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm), each giving rise to specific organs\/structures. Sometimes these three form separate parts of the same structure(your ear for example)   2. The semicircular canals in the vestibular apparatus. These are responsible for balancing, as well as some unpleasant experiences like motion sickness.  There are three of these canals, one for each axis of 3D space.  3. The muscles of the Anterior abdominal wall: External oblique,  Internal oblique and the Transversus Abdominis.   There are a lot of structures in the body that work together in groups of 3 though such as the Triceps Surae tendon (2 heads of Gastrocnemius muscle and 1 Soleus muscle),   3 parts of the aorta giving rise to different arterial branches,   3 cranial nerves controlling different movements of the eyeball( Cranial nerves 3,4,6)  ~~And the 3 Adductor muscles or the leg, which Adduct (bring the leg closer to the body):  Brevis, Longus and Magnus.~~  The 3 major nerves in the forearm,  Radial, Ulnar, and Median, responsible for various motor actions and sensations.   There is quite a big gray zone when it comes to answering this question, no answer is set in stone.   Hope this answers your question.   Edit: There's more than just 3 muscles adducting the leg. There's 6.  Edit 2: +New example","human_ref_B":"Three muscles that make up the triceps: long head, lateral head, medial head. And in order to strengthen your medial head, one must perform a supinated tricep extension.   There's actually a few groups of 3 like that.   Ex. Shoulder muscles, anterior, lateral, posterior. And glutes, Maximus, medius, and minimus.   Edit: You strengthen your medial head through any given tricep exercise when the arm is at full extension. You can, however, put more emphasis on the medial head by doing an underhand or supinated tricep extension.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6274.0,"score_ratio":4.6515151515}
{"post_id":"5n2mi2","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Is there anything the human body has three of?","c_root_id_A":"dc8h48d","c_root_id_B":"dc8owjo","created_at_utc_A":1484036130,"created_at_utc_B":1484056767,"score_A":66,"score_B":146,"human_ref_A":"Three muscles that make up the triceps: long head, lateral head, medial head. And in order to strengthen your medial head, one must perform a supinated tricep extension.   There's actually a few groups of 3 like that.   Ex. Shoulder muscles, anterior, lateral, posterior. And glutes, Maximus, medius, and minimus.   Edit: You strengthen your medial head through any given tricep exercise when the arm is at full extension. You can, however, put more emphasis on the medial head by doing an underhand or supinated tricep extension.","human_ref_B":"The right lung has 3 lobes [the left one has 2 - go figure]","labels":0,"seconds_difference":20637.0,"score_ratio":2.2121212121}
{"post_id":"5n2mi2","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Is there anything the human body has three of?","c_root_id_A":"dc8owjo","c_root_id_B":"dc8nxus","created_at_utc_A":1484056767,"created_at_utc_B":1484055024,"score_A":146,"score_B":24,"human_ref_A":"The right lung has 3 lobes [the left one has 2 - go figure]","human_ref_B":"There are a lot of great in-depth replies from experts here but I immediately thought of the three bones in each finger other than the thumb.   The term is the phalanges and (in order of distance from the wrist) they're called proximal, intermediate, and distal phalanges. The thumb doesn't have the intermediate phalanges.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1743.0,"score_ratio":6.0833333333}
{"post_id":"5n2mi2","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Is there anything the human body has three of?","c_root_id_A":"dc8pomk","c_root_id_B":"dc8h48d","created_at_utc_A":1484058055,"created_at_utc_B":1484036130,"score_A":116,"score_B":66,"human_ref_A":"This question seems to be asking about gross anatomic structures (e.g. Eyes, ears, limbs, etc). If that is the case, I cannot think of any that humans normally have three. Many good examples of gross structures that are made up of three components have been given, but that just seems like it wasn't the question they were trying to convey.  Just an assumption and you know what that means...","human_ref_B":"Three muscles that make up the triceps: long head, lateral head, medial head. And in order to strengthen your medial head, one must perform a supinated tricep extension.   There's actually a few groups of 3 like that.   Ex. Shoulder muscles, anterior, lateral, posterior. And glutes, Maximus, medius, and minimus.   Edit: You strengthen your medial head through any given tricep exercise when the arm is at full extension. You can, however, put more emphasis on the medial head by doing an underhand or supinated tricep extension.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":21925.0,"score_ratio":1.7575757576}
{"post_id":"5n2mi2","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Is there anything the human body has three of?","c_root_id_A":"dc8pomk","c_root_id_B":"dc8nxus","created_at_utc_A":1484058055,"created_at_utc_B":1484055024,"score_A":116,"score_B":24,"human_ref_A":"This question seems to be asking about gross anatomic structures (e.g. Eyes, ears, limbs, etc). If that is the case, I cannot think of any that humans normally have three. Many good examples of gross structures that are made up of three components have been given, but that just seems like it wasn't the question they were trying to convey.  Just an assumption and you know what that means...","human_ref_B":"There are a lot of great in-depth replies from experts here but I immediately thought of the three bones in each finger other than the thumb.   The term is the phalanges and (in order of distance from the wrist) they're called proximal, intermediate, and distal phalanges. The thumb doesn't have the intermediate phalanges.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3031.0,"score_ratio":4.8333333333}
{"post_id":"5xzt4s","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"when I shine a flashlight at Mars, does a small amount of the light actually reach it?","c_root_id_A":"dem8jgx","c_root_id_B":"dem4ou7","created_at_utc_A":1488895190,"created_at_utc_B":1488887258,"score_A":4421,"score_B":289,"human_ref_A":"Yes, you need to be careful with phrases like \"a small amount\".   Mars is around 225 million km away at ~~closest approach~~ average distance.  Lets say you have a 1W flashlight and aim it at Mars, the intensity very far away from this flashlight will drop off as the distance squared (also a little extra from absorption and scattering in the atmosphere).  Without doing any exact calculations, if we assume scattering is negligible we can say the intensity that hits Mars will be larger than  I > 1W \/ (2 pi * (225 million km)^2) ~ 3 \u00d7 10^-24 W \/m^2  Mars has a surface area of 144.8 million km\u00b2, so the power hitting Mars will be around  I * A\/4 ~ 2.3 \u00d7 10^-10 W  This isn't a lot of power, but a single photon at optical wavelengths has an energy of around 3 \u00d7 10^-19 J, so this is still billions of photons a second hitting Mars.    Edit: Lots of people are pointing out the beam divergence and scattering I ignored. Scattering I still don't think is very significant, about a fraction 10^\u22125 of the light will be scattered for every meter of travel, most of earths atmosphere is within 20 km of the surface so the intensity is reduced by a factor of around  I\/I_0 = exp(-20000*10^-5) ~ 0.8  which is a 20% loss and thus not significant.  If you aimed the beam through more atmosphere or if you had a blue flashlight this gets worse, but never significant.  The beam divergence depends heavily on how wide a flashlight you have to start with, if you had something which is quite compact the divergence is worse than something with a large output.  Most of the power is actually in a spherical segment which is, say, 30 degrees in size, where as my calculation assumed this was closer to 90 degrees.  To compensate the intensity on Mars would be bigger by a factor of  (90\/30)^2 = 9 ~ 10.","human_ref_B":"Assuming a clear night and a perfect aim, over time, yes, some of the photons your flashlight sends will be on the perfect vector and will impact its surface. The longer you hold it on target, and the more accurate your flashlight is, the greater the number of individual photons will collide with it.  But that VERY VERY small amount of the light that will be scattered widely over its surface and you wouldn't really be able to measure it.  If you reverse the situation and look at what light Mars is sending us, when we see it in the night sky it's a fairly small dot, not too bright. That light is reflected sunlight coming from the *entire surface* of the planet - about 21,300 square kilometers or 8200 square miles if you look at Mars as a flat plate.  Compare that to a somewhat brighter almost-point-source from someone standing on its surface and aiming a flashlight (maybe 10 square inches or 44 square centimeters) in your direction. It might be brighter but it's 3 *trillion* times smaller in area.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7932.0,"score_ratio":15.2975778547}
{"post_id":"5xzt4s","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"when I shine a flashlight at Mars, does a small amount of the light actually reach it?","c_root_id_A":"den33io","c_root_id_B":"demvuu1","created_at_utc_A":1488930616,"created_at_utc_B":1488922125,"score_A":254,"score_B":18,"human_ref_A":"Consider this:  The Voyager spacecraft, out there on the very edge of the heliosphere, is broadcasting with a 20W transmitter (a third of a regular light bulb's output).  The amount of signal that reaches Earth (and is still recoverable!) is about 1\/80,000,000,000^th the amount of power supplied by a digital watch battery!  So, yeah, Mars is practically right next door.   Your photons will get there.  Edit: Precision of language.  Also, adjusted figures based on the fact that the report is almost 20 years old.","human_ref_B":"Some very bright folks are saying that the light would not only reach mars, but would cover a vast amount of the sky due to forces that would radiate the light out.   Standing on Mars facing the point of origination, would you be able at all to see the light? Is there a way to see a beam of light from earth?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8491.0,"score_ratio":14.1111111111}
{"post_id":"5xzt4s","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"when I shine a flashlight at Mars, does a small amount of the light actually reach it?","c_root_id_A":"den33io","c_root_id_B":"demn1rm","created_at_utc_A":1488930616,"created_at_utc_B":1488912689,"score_A":254,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Consider this:  The Voyager spacecraft, out there on the very edge of the heliosphere, is broadcasting with a 20W transmitter (a third of a regular light bulb's output).  The amount of signal that reaches Earth (and is still recoverable!) is about 1\/80,000,000,000^th the amount of power supplied by a digital watch battery!  So, yeah, Mars is practically right next door.   Your photons will get there.  Edit: Precision of language.  Also, adjusted figures based on the fact that the report is almost 20 years old.","human_ref_B":"Possibly not meaningful in the case of shining a flashlight beam at Mars \u2014 but over some distances (e.g.: interstellar ones) the phenomenon of electromagnetic extinction must be taken into account.  https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extinction_(astronomy)","labels":1,"seconds_difference":17927.0,"score_ratio":16.9333333333}
{"post_id":"5xzt4s","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"when I shine a flashlight at Mars, does a small amount of the light actually reach it?","c_root_id_A":"den33io","c_root_id_B":"den2kbe","created_at_utc_A":1488930616,"created_at_utc_B":1488929928,"score_A":254,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Consider this:  The Voyager spacecraft, out there on the very edge of the heliosphere, is broadcasting with a 20W transmitter (a third of a regular light bulb's output).  The amount of signal that reaches Earth (and is still recoverable!) is about 1\/80,000,000,000^th the amount of power supplied by a digital watch battery!  So, yeah, Mars is practically right next door.   Your photons will get there.  Edit: Precision of language.  Also, adjusted figures based on the fact that the report is almost 20 years old.","human_ref_B":"Not to steal your thread but what would happen if we were in a new moon phase and a large percentage of earths moon facing population shined flashlights at the moon. Could we illuminate it and create a full moon?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":688.0,"score_ratio":16.9333333333}
{"post_id":"5xzt4s","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"when I shine a flashlight at Mars, does a small amount of the light actually reach it?","c_root_id_A":"demn1rm","c_root_id_B":"demvuu1","created_at_utc_A":1488912689,"created_at_utc_B":1488922125,"score_A":15,"score_B":18,"human_ref_A":"Possibly not meaningful in the case of shining a flashlight beam at Mars \u2014 but over some distances (e.g.: interstellar ones) the phenomenon of electromagnetic extinction must be taken into account.  https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extinction_(astronomy)","human_ref_B":"Some very bright folks are saying that the light would not only reach mars, but would cover a vast amount of the sky due to forces that would radiate the light out.   Standing on Mars facing the point of origination, would you be able at all to see the light? Is there a way to see a beam of light from earth?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9436.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy7wkvd","c_root_id_B":"iy7vs4o","created_at_utc_A":1669724510,"created_at_utc_B":1669723969,"score_A":113,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"What is the most complex organic molecule found outside earth? I ask this because i want to know how valid panspermia theory is, did we have any new discoveries in recent times that hint at it being more or less realistic?  And how exited are you to get your hands on real mars soil, what could potentialy be learned from it when we recover the first samples?","human_ref_B":"One of the hypotheses for panspermia is that volcanic eruptions and meteor\/asteroid impacts are capable of blowing rocks with microorganisms into space.  Now that we're at the point of actually recovering material from asteroids (preparatory most likely to mining them), do you think it's likely we'll find terrestrial organisms on them?  And if so, will it mean that the entire solar system is likely already contaminated with Earth-based life?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":541.0,"score_ratio":8.0714285714}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy7xooy","c_root_id_B":"iy7z2xx","created_at_utc_A":1669725241,"created_at_utc_B":1669726117,"score_A":21,"score_B":23,"human_ref_A":"I always wondered about the theory that organic matter formed in space and came to earth via meteroid. Isn't the probability much higher that organic compounds form on earth than in space due to them being protected from radiation and planets providing temperatures which are more suited to organic chemical reactions?","human_ref_B":"If you wanted to design a planet from the early formation what steps would you take? How feasible is it to make a completely man-made planet? And disregarding feasibility, what would your personal design choices be if you could design a planet?  Thanks!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":876.0,"score_ratio":1.0952380952}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy7vs4o","c_root_id_B":"iy7z2xx","created_at_utc_A":1669723969,"created_at_utc_B":1669726117,"score_A":14,"score_B":23,"human_ref_A":"One of the hypotheses for panspermia is that volcanic eruptions and meteor\/asteroid impacts are capable of blowing rocks with microorganisms into space.  Now that we're at the point of actually recovering material from asteroids (preparatory most likely to mining them), do you think it's likely we'll find terrestrial organisms on them?  And if so, will it mean that the entire solar system is likely already contaminated with Earth-based life?","human_ref_B":"If you wanted to design a planet from the early formation what steps would you take? How feasible is it to make a completely man-made planet? And disregarding feasibility, what would your personal design choices be if you could design a planet?  Thanks!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2148.0,"score_ratio":1.6428571429}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy7vs4o","c_root_id_B":"iy7xooy","created_at_utc_A":1669723969,"created_at_utc_B":1669725241,"score_A":14,"score_B":21,"human_ref_A":"One of the hypotheses for panspermia is that volcanic eruptions and meteor\/asteroid impacts are capable of blowing rocks with microorganisms into space.  Now that we're at the point of actually recovering material from asteroids (preparatory most likely to mining them), do you think it's likely we'll find terrestrial organisms on them?  And if so, will it mean that the entire solar system is likely already contaminated with Earth-based life?","human_ref_B":"I always wondered about the theory that organic matter formed in space and came to earth via meteroid. Isn't the probability much higher that organic compounds form on earth than in space due to them being protected from radiation and planets providing temperatures which are more suited to organic chemical reactions?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1272.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy7vs4o","c_root_id_B":"iy7zyl0","created_at_utc_A":1669723969,"created_at_utc_B":1669726649,"score_A":14,"score_B":16,"human_ref_A":"One of the hypotheses for panspermia is that volcanic eruptions and meteor\/asteroid impacts are capable of blowing rocks with microorganisms into space.  Now that we're at the point of actually recovering material from asteroids (preparatory most likely to mining them), do you think it's likely we'll find terrestrial organisms on them?  And if so, will it mean that the entire solar system is likely already contaminated with Earth-based life?","human_ref_B":"Have you found new minerals or stones with composition previously unknown for us?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2680.0,"score_ratio":1.1428571429}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy7zyl0","c_root_id_B":"iy7ztzk","created_at_utc_A":1669726649,"created_at_utc_B":1669726572,"score_A":16,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Have you found new minerals or stones with composition previously unknown for us?","human_ref_B":"When you recover metheorites, are they sterile? Have you found aminoacids or other interesting substances?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":77.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy7vs4o","c_root_id_B":"iy85e8v","created_at_utc_A":1669723969,"created_at_utc_B":1669729720,"score_A":14,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"One of the hypotheses for panspermia is that volcanic eruptions and meteor\/asteroid impacts are capable of blowing rocks with microorganisms into space.  Now that we're at the point of actually recovering material from asteroids (preparatory most likely to mining them), do you think it's likely we'll find terrestrial organisms on them?  And if so, will it mean that the entire solar system is likely already contaminated with Earth-based life?","human_ref_B":"I just read about the Somalian meteorite that the University of Alberta folks found a couple new minerals in. Thoughts? Is it actually as cool as I think it sounds?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5751.0,"score_ratio":1.0714285714}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy82rfb","c_root_id_B":"iy85e8v","created_at_utc_A":1669728281,"created_at_utc_B":1669729720,"score_A":10,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"How similar are meteorites' composition to comets'? What's lost in reentry?  Thanks!","human_ref_B":"I just read about the Somalian meteorite that the University of Alberta folks found a couple new minerals in. Thoughts? Is it actually as cool as I think it sounds?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1439.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy85e8v","c_root_id_B":"iy84bci","created_at_utc_A":1669729720,"created_at_utc_B":1669729140,"score_A":15,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"I just read about the Somalian meteorite that the University of Alberta folks found a couple new minerals in. Thoughts? Is it actually as cool as I think it sounds?","human_ref_B":"Are there any good ways for a lay person to determine if a rock they found is a meteorite?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":580.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy7ztzk","c_root_id_B":"iy85e8v","created_at_utc_A":1669726572,"created_at_utc_B":1669729720,"score_A":6,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"When you recover metheorites, are they sterile? Have you found aminoacids or other interesting substances?","human_ref_B":"I just read about the Somalian meteorite that the University of Alberta folks found a couple new minerals in. Thoughts? Is it actually as cool as I think it sounds?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3148.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy85e8v","c_root_id_B":"iy80d8z","created_at_utc_A":1669729720,"created_at_utc_B":1669726894,"score_A":15,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"I just read about the Somalian meteorite that the University of Alberta folks found a couple new minerals in. Thoughts? Is it actually as cool as I think it sounds?","human_ref_B":"How likely is it that we know every element in the universe? Are there any \u2018Swiss cheese\u2019 elements that could exist? What would these elements be? TIA","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2826.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy81u1q","c_root_id_B":"iy85e8v","created_at_utc_A":1669727758,"created_at_utc_B":1669729720,"score_A":5,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"What\u2019s the process of recovering meteorites?","human_ref_B":"I just read about the Somalian meteorite that the University of Alberta folks found a couple new minerals in. Thoughts? Is it actually as cool as I think it sounds?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1962.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy85e8v","c_root_id_B":"iy83c12","created_at_utc_A":1669729720,"created_at_utc_B":1669728602,"score_A":15,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"I just read about the Somalian meteorite that the University of Alberta folks found a couple new minerals in. Thoughts? Is it actually as cool as I think it sounds?","human_ref_B":"Any tips on who might help us sponsor even more meteor cameras? Our club currently has two in European networks, and we would like to expand the network in Scandinavia. The rock that was discovered two years ago here in Sweden flew exactly over our heads and landed 35 km from us. We were not more than 1.5 km from the guys that recovered it. Almost doesn't count, but it's fun!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1118.0,"score_ratio":5.0}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy7ztzk","c_root_id_B":"iy82rfb","created_at_utc_A":1669726572,"created_at_utc_B":1669728281,"score_A":6,"score_B":10,"human_ref_A":"When you recover metheorites, are they sterile? Have you found aminoacids or other interesting substances?","human_ref_B":"How similar are meteorites' composition to comets'? What's lost in reentry?  Thanks!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1709.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy82rfb","c_root_id_B":"iy80d8z","created_at_utc_A":1669728281,"created_at_utc_B":1669726894,"score_A":10,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"How similar are meteorites' composition to comets'? What's lost in reentry?  Thanks!","human_ref_B":"How likely is it that we know every element in the universe? Are there any \u2018Swiss cheese\u2019 elements that could exist? What would these elements be? TIA","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1387.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy82rfb","c_root_id_B":"iy81u1q","created_at_utc_A":1669728281,"created_at_utc_B":1669727758,"score_A":10,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"How similar are meteorites' composition to comets'? What's lost in reentry?  Thanks!","human_ref_B":"What\u2019s the process of recovering meteorites?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":523.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy84bci","c_root_id_B":"iy85nee","created_at_utc_A":1669729140,"created_at_utc_B":1669729853,"score_A":5,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Are there any good ways for a lay person to determine if a rock they found is a meteorite?","human_ref_B":"Are you concerned about a replication crisis in astronomy similar to the one in psychology?  In the same vein, what is your take on predatory journals\/publishers?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":713.0,"score_ratio":1.6}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy85nee","c_root_id_B":"iy7ztzk","created_at_utc_A":1669729853,"created_at_utc_B":1669726572,"score_A":8,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Are you concerned about a replication crisis in astronomy similar to the one in psychology?  In the same vein, what is your take on predatory journals\/publishers?","human_ref_B":"When you recover metheorites, are they sterile? Have you found aminoacids or other interesting substances?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3281.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy80d8z","c_root_id_B":"iy85nee","created_at_utc_A":1669726894,"created_at_utc_B":1669729853,"score_A":5,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"How likely is it that we know every element in the universe? Are there any \u2018Swiss cheese\u2019 elements that could exist? What would these elements be? TIA","human_ref_B":"Are you concerned about a replication crisis in astronomy similar to the one in psychology?  In the same vein, what is your take on predatory journals\/publishers?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2959.0,"score_ratio":1.6}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy85nee","c_root_id_B":"iy81u1q","created_at_utc_A":1669729853,"created_at_utc_B":1669727758,"score_A":8,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Are you concerned about a replication crisis in astronomy similar to the one in psychology?  In the same vein, what is your take on predatory journals\/publishers?","human_ref_B":"What\u2019s the process of recovering meteorites?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2095.0,"score_ratio":1.6}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy83c12","c_root_id_B":"iy85nee","created_at_utc_A":1669728602,"created_at_utc_B":1669729853,"score_A":3,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Any tips on who might help us sponsor even more meteor cameras? Our club currently has two in European networks, and we would like to expand the network in Scandinavia. The rock that was discovered two years ago here in Sweden flew exactly over our heads and landed 35 km from us. We were not more than 1.5 km from the guys that recovered it. Almost doesn't count, but it's fun!","human_ref_B":"Are you concerned about a replication crisis in astronomy similar to the one in psychology?  In the same vein, what is your take on predatory journals\/publishers?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1251.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy89t3a","c_root_id_B":"iy84bci","created_at_utc_A":1669731911,"created_at_utc_B":1669729140,"score_A":7,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"What is the next big thing you expect us to discover? With improved tools and methods, we have to be on the verge of finding something different or proving a theory...etc.","human_ref_B":"Are there any good ways for a lay person to determine if a rock they found is a meteorite?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2771.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy89t3a","c_root_id_B":"iy7ztzk","created_at_utc_A":1669731911,"created_at_utc_B":1669726572,"score_A":7,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"What is the next big thing you expect us to discover? With improved tools and methods, we have to be on the verge of finding something different or proving a theory...etc.","human_ref_B":"When you recover metheorites, are they sterile? Have you found aminoacids or other interesting substances?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5339.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy89t3a","c_root_id_B":"iy80d8z","created_at_utc_A":1669731911,"created_at_utc_B":1669726894,"score_A":7,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"What is the next big thing you expect us to discover? With improved tools and methods, we have to be on the verge of finding something different or proving a theory...etc.","human_ref_B":"How likely is it that we know every element in the universe? Are there any \u2018Swiss cheese\u2019 elements that could exist? What would these elements be? TIA","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5017.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy89t3a","c_root_id_B":"iy81u1q","created_at_utc_A":1669731911,"created_at_utc_B":1669727758,"score_A":7,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"What is the next big thing you expect us to discover? With improved tools and methods, we have to be on the verge of finding something different or proving a theory...etc.","human_ref_B":"What\u2019s the process of recovering meteorites?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4153.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy89t3a","c_root_id_B":"iy86n81","created_at_utc_A":1669731911,"created_at_utc_B":1669730363,"score_A":7,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"What is the next big thing you expect us to discover? With improved tools and methods, we have to be on the verge of finding something different or proving a theory...etc.","human_ref_B":"Hi, I'm sure you have heard of SETI@Home, but have you heard of Asteroids@home and (if so) can you explain if it actually helps your research or field of study.  Given the vastness of space and limited time and resources are there any community resources the field leans on to make the biggest impact (like volunteer computing, amateur scientists...etc)","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1548.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy88v5o","c_root_id_B":"iy89t3a","created_at_utc_A":1669731465,"created_at_utc_B":1669731911,"score_A":5,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"I've learned heavier elements are created in supernovae. But are they made in big chunks of the same material, or in fine dispersed sprays that then require significant gravity to coalesce? Another way of asking the same question: do we see clouds of say gold in different areas of space, and how would that end up as a seam of gold on a planet?","human_ref_B":"What is the next big thing you expect us to discover? With improved tools and methods, we have to be on the verge of finding something different or proving a theory...etc.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":446.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy89sld","c_root_id_B":"iy89t3a","created_at_utc_A":1669731904,"created_at_utc_B":1669731911,"score_A":6,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Good morning Dr. Gretchen. Whats a finding\/observation that has surprised you in your research?   What subjects of math, science should one have the knowledge of, inorder to  these researches? Im from a non-stem background who is noob at this stuff but is trying to learn these days.","human_ref_B":"What is the next big thing you expect us to discover? With improved tools and methods, we have to be on the verge of finding something different or proving a theory...etc.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy83c12","c_root_id_B":"iy89t3a","created_at_utc_A":1669728602,"created_at_utc_B":1669731911,"score_A":3,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Any tips on who might help us sponsor even more meteor cameras? Our club currently has two in European networks, and we would like to expand the network in Scandinavia. The rock that was discovered two years ago here in Sweden flew exactly over our heads and landed 35 km from us. We were not more than 1.5 km from the guys that recovered it. Almost doesn't count, but it's fun!","human_ref_B":"What is the next big thing you expect us to discover? With improved tools and methods, we have to be on the verge of finding something different or proving a theory...etc.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3309.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy88dto","c_root_id_B":"iy89t3a","created_at_utc_A":1669731230,"created_at_utc_B":1669731911,"score_A":2,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Do you think it's likely that organics could form in the liquid water layers below the ice on some of our solar systems icy moons, and if so could this be indicative of a system of life forming independently rather than through panspermia? As far as I can see there would be many more habitable environments in sub-surface oceans and we could effectively discount the \"Goldilocks Zone\" as the only viable areas to hunt for life, but only if organics are likely to form independently as most of these environments are very isolated from space by the thick icy layers.","human_ref_B":"What is the next big thing you expect us to discover? With improved tools and methods, we have to be on the verge of finding something different or proving a theory...etc.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":681.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy9v6wx","c_root_id_B":"iy84bci","created_at_utc_A":1669754959,"created_at_utc_B":1669729140,"score_A":7,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Hi Dr. Benedix, I am actually a PhD student in Astronomy studying protostellar disk formation and evolution. It\u2019s really interesting to think about how the chemistry at these early stages connects to the chemistry of comets and solar system bodies (and even exoplanets\/moons\/comets). Actually I\u2019m part of a program that\u2019s trying to understand when the onset of planet formation occurs in protostellar disks. I have two questions I would love to know your opinions on:  1) What chemistry or molecules would you think are important to search for in these early stages of star formation in order to connect with the later stages? That is, potential molecular precursors of molecules or specific complex molecules you think would be interesting to find at the early stages of star and planet formation that we find in comets and the solar system today. To preface this, I mostly study molecules in submillimeter wavelengths so that\u2019s what I\u2019m familiar with, but with the launch of JWST I know there is a strong interest in the infrared spectroscopy of young protostars now.   2) Since there is some theorization that prebiotic molecules (I guess mostly water and amino acids) could have been delivered to earth via comets, what is our current understanding of this? What kinds of prebiotic molecules have been found in comets that would be important for life? Is it possible for RNA to form via surface reactions on comets? Or would this kind of reaction only be possible in an early Earth environment after the necessary molecules have formed \/ been delivered?   Thank you for your time!","human_ref_B":"Are there any good ways for a lay person to determine if a rock they found is a meteorite?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":25819.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy84bci","c_root_id_B":"iy89sld","created_at_utc_A":1669729140,"created_at_utc_B":1669731904,"score_A":5,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Are there any good ways for a lay person to determine if a rock they found is a meteorite?","human_ref_B":"Good morning Dr. Gretchen. Whats a finding\/observation that has surprised you in your research?   What subjects of math, science should one have the knowledge of, inorder to  these researches? Im from a non-stem background who is noob at this stuff but is trying to learn these days.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2764.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy84bci","c_root_id_B":"iy83c12","created_at_utc_A":1669729140,"created_at_utc_B":1669728602,"score_A":5,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Are there any good ways for a lay person to determine if a rock they found is a meteorite?","human_ref_B":"Any tips on who might help us sponsor even more meteor cameras? Our club currently has two in European networks, and we would like to expand the network in Scandinavia. The rock that was discovered two years ago here in Sweden flew exactly over our heads and landed 35 km from us. We were not more than 1.5 km from the guys that recovered it. Almost doesn't count, but it's fun!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":538.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy9v6wx","c_root_id_B":"iy7ztzk","created_at_utc_A":1669754959,"created_at_utc_B":1669726572,"score_A":7,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Hi Dr. Benedix, I am actually a PhD student in Astronomy studying protostellar disk formation and evolution. It\u2019s really interesting to think about how the chemistry at these early stages connects to the chemistry of comets and solar system bodies (and even exoplanets\/moons\/comets). Actually I\u2019m part of a program that\u2019s trying to understand when the onset of planet formation occurs in protostellar disks. I have two questions I would love to know your opinions on:  1) What chemistry or molecules would you think are important to search for in these early stages of star formation in order to connect with the later stages? That is, potential molecular precursors of molecules or specific complex molecules you think would be interesting to find at the early stages of star and planet formation that we find in comets and the solar system today. To preface this, I mostly study molecules in submillimeter wavelengths so that\u2019s what I\u2019m familiar with, but with the launch of JWST I know there is a strong interest in the infrared spectroscopy of young protostars now.   2) Since there is some theorization that prebiotic molecules (I guess mostly water and amino acids) could have been delivered to earth via comets, what is our current understanding of this? What kinds of prebiotic molecules have been found in comets that would be important for life? Is it possible for RNA to form via surface reactions on comets? Or would this kind of reaction only be possible in an early Earth environment after the necessary molecules have formed \/ been delivered?   Thank you for your time!","human_ref_B":"When you recover metheorites, are they sterile? Have you found aminoacids or other interesting substances?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":28387.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy9v6wx","c_root_id_B":"iy80d8z","created_at_utc_A":1669754959,"created_at_utc_B":1669726894,"score_A":7,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Hi Dr. Benedix, I am actually a PhD student in Astronomy studying protostellar disk formation and evolution. It\u2019s really interesting to think about how the chemistry at these early stages connects to the chemistry of comets and solar system bodies (and even exoplanets\/moons\/comets). Actually I\u2019m part of a program that\u2019s trying to understand when the onset of planet formation occurs in protostellar disks. I have two questions I would love to know your opinions on:  1) What chemistry or molecules would you think are important to search for in these early stages of star formation in order to connect with the later stages? That is, potential molecular precursors of molecules or specific complex molecules you think would be interesting to find at the early stages of star and planet formation that we find in comets and the solar system today. To preface this, I mostly study molecules in submillimeter wavelengths so that\u2019s what I\u2019m familiar with, but with the launch of JWST I know there is a strong interest in the infrared spectroscopy of young protostars now.   2) Since there is some theorization that prebiotic molecules (I guess mostly water and amino acids) could have been delivered to earth via comets, what is our current understanding of this? What kinds of prebiotic molecules have been found in comets that would be important for life? Is it possible for RNA to form via surface reactions on comets? Or would this kind of reaction only be possible in an early Earth environment after the necessary molecules have formed \/ been delivered?   Thank you for your time!","human_ref_B":"How likely is it that we know every element in the universe? Are there any \u2018Swiss cheese\u2019 elements that could exist? What would these elements be? TIA","labels":1,"seconds_difference":28065.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy9v6wx","c_root_id_B":"iy81u1q","created_at_utc_A":1669754959,"created_at_utc_B":1669727758,"score_A":7,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Hi Dr. Benedix, I am actually a PhD student in Astronomy studying protostellar disk formation and evolution. It\u2019s really interesting to think about how the chemistry at these early stages connects to the chemistry of comets and solar system bodies (and even exoplanets\/moons\/comets). Actually I\u2019m part of a program that\u2019s trying to understand when the onset of planet formation occurs in protostellar disks. I have two questions I would love to know your opinions on:  1) What chemistry or molecules would you think are important to search for in these early stages of star formation in order to connect with the later stages? That is, potential molecular precursors of molecules or specific complex molecules you think would be interesting to find at the early stages of star and planet formation that we find in comets and the solar system today. To preface this, I mostly study molecules in submillimeter wavelengths so that\u2019s what I\u2019m familiar with, but with the launch of JWST I know there is a strong interest in the infrared spectroscopy of young protostars now.   2) Since there is some theorization that prebiotic molecules (I guess mostly water and amino acids) could have been delivered to earth via comets, what is our current understanding of this? What kinds of prebiotic molecules have been found in comets that would be important for life? Is it possible for RNA to form via surface reactions on comets? Or would this kind of reaction only be possible in an early Earth environment after the necessary molecules have formed \/ been delivered?   Thank you for your time!","human_ref_B":"What\u2019s the process of recovering meteorites?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":27201.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy9v6wx","c_root_id_B":"iy86n81","created_at_utc_A":1669754959,"created_at_utc_B":1669730363,"score_A":7,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Hi Dr. Benedix, I am actually a PhD student in Astronomy studying protostellar disk formation and evolution. It\u2019s really interesting to think about how the chemistry at these early stages connects to the chemistry of comets and solar system bodies (and even exoplanets\/moons\/comets). Actually I\u2019m part of a program that\u2019s trying to understand when the onset of planet formation occurs in protostellar disks. I have two questions I would love to know your opinions on:  1) What chemistry or molecules would you think are important to search for in these early stages of star formation in order to connect with the later stages? That is, potential molecular precursors of molecules or specific complex molecules you think would be interesting to find at the early stages of star and planet formation that we find in comets and the solar system today. To preface this, I mostly study molecules in submillimeter wavelengths so that\u2019s what I\u2019m familiar with, but with the launch of JWST I know there is a strong interest in the infrared spectroscopy of young protostars now.   2) Since there is some theorization that prebiotic molecules (I guess mostly water and amino acids) could have been delivered to earth via comets, what is our current understanding of this? What kinds of prebiotic molecules have been found in comets that would be important for life? Is it possible for RNA to form via surface reactions on comets? Or would this kind of reaction only be possible in an early Earth environment after the necessary molecules have formed \/ been delivered?   Thank you for your time!","human_ref_B":"Hi, I'm sure you have heard of SETI@Home, but have you heard of Asteroids@home and (if so) can you explain if it actually helps your research or field of study.  Given the vastness of space and limited time and resources are there any community resources the field leans on to make the biggest impact (like volunteer computing, amateur scientists...etc)","labels":1,"seconds_difference":24596.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy9v6wx","c_root_id_B":"iy88v5o","created_at_utc_A":1669754959,"created_at_utc_B":1669731465,"score_A":7,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Hi Dr. Benedix, I am actually a PhD student in Astronomy studying protostellar disk formation and evolution. It\u2019s really interesting to think about how the chemistry at these early stages connects to the chemistry of comets and solar system bodies (and even exoplanets\/moons\/comets). Actually I\u2019m part of a program that\u2019s trying to understand when the onset of planet formation occurs in protostellar disks. I have two questions I would love to know your opinions on:  1) What chemistry or molecules would you think are important to search for in these early stages of star formation in order to connect with the later stages? That is, potential molecular precursors of molecules or specific complex molecules you think would be interesting to find at the early stages of star and planet formation that we find in comets and the solar system today. To preface this, I mostly study molecules in submillimeter wavelengths so that\u2019s what I\u2019m familiar with, but with the launch of JWST I know there is a strong interest in the infrared spectroscopy of young protostars now.   2) Since there is some theorization that prebiotic molecules (I guess mostly water and amino acids) could have been delivered to earth via comets, what is our current understanding of this? What kinds of prebiotic molecules have been found in comets that would be important for life? Is it possible for RNA to form via surface reactions on comets? Or would this kind of reaction only be possible in an early Earth environment after the necessary molecules have formed \/ been delivered?   Thank you for your time!","human_ref_B":"I've learned heavier elements are created in supernovae. But are they made in big chunks of the same material, or in fine dispersed sprays that then require significant gravity to coalesce? Another way of asking the same question: do we see clouds of say gold in different areas of space, and how would that end up as a seam of gold on a planet?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":23494.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy89sld","c_root_id_B":"iy9v6wx","created_at_utc_A":1669731904,"created_at_utc_B":1669754959,"score_A":6,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Good morning Dr. Gretchen. Whats a finding\/observation that has surprised you in your research?   What subjects of math, science should one have the knowledge of, inorder to  these researches? Im from a non-stem background who is noob at this stuff but is trying to learn these days.","human_ref_B":"Hi Dr. Benedix, I am actually a PhD student in Astronomy studying protostellar disk formation and evolution. It\u2019s really interesting to think about how the chemistry at these early stages connects to the chemistry of comets and solar system bodies (and even exoplanets\/moons\/comets). Actually I\u2019m part of a program that\u2019s trying to understand when the onset of planet formation occurs in protostellar disks. I have two questions I would love to know your opinions on:  1) What chemistry or molecules would you think are important to search for in these early stages of star formation in order to connect with the later stages? That is, potential molecular precursors of molecules or specific complex molecules you think would be interesting to find at the early stages of star and planet formation that we find in comets and the solar system today. To preface this, I mostly study molecules in submillimeter wavelengths so that\u2019s what I\u2019m familiar with, but with the launch of JWST I know there is a strong interest in the infrared spectroscopy of young protostars now.   2) Since there is some theorization that prebiotic molecules (I guess mostly water and amino acids) could have been delivered to earth via comets, what is our current understanding of this? What kinds of prebiotic molecules have been found in comets that would be important for life? Is it possible for RNA to form via surface reactions on comets? Or would this kind of reaction only be possible in an early Earth environment after the necessary molecules have formed \/ been delivered?   Thank you for your time!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":23055.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy9v6wx","c_root_id_B":"iy83c12","created_at_utc_A":1669754959,"created_at_utc_B":1669728602,"score_A":7,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Hi Dr. Benedix, I am actually a PhD student in Astronomy studying protostellar disk formation and evolution. It\u2019s really interesting to think about how the chemistry at these early stages connects to the chemistry of comets and solar system bodies (and even exoplanets\/moons\/comets). Actually I\u2019m part of a program that\u2019s trying to understand when the onset of planet formation occurs in protostellar disks. I have two questions I would love to know your opinions on:  1) What chemistry or molecules would you think are important to search for in these early stages of star formation in order to connect with the later stages? That is, potential molecular precursors of molecules or specific complex molecules you think would be interesting to find at the early stages of star and planet formation that we find in comets and the solar system today. To preface this, I mostly study molecules in submillimeter wavelengths so that\u2019s what I\u2019m familiar with, but with the launch of JWST I know there is a strong interest in the infrared spectroscopy of young protostars now.   2) Since there is some theorization that prebiotic molecules (I guess mostly water and amino acids) could have been delivered to earth via comets, what is our current understanding of this? What kinds of prebiotic molecules have been found in comets that would be important for life? Is it possible for RNA to form via surface reactions on comets? Or would this kind of reaction only be possible in an early Earth environment after the necessary molecules have formed \/ been delivered?   Thank you for your time!","human_ref_B":"Any tips on who might help us sponsor even more meteor cameras? Our club currently has two in European networks, and we would like to expand the network in Scandinavia. The rock that was discovered two years ago here in Sweden flew exactly over our heads and landed 35 km from us. We were not more than 1.5 km from the guys that recovered it. Almost doesn't count, but it's fun!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":26357.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy89ts9","c_root_id_B":"iy9v6wx","created_at_utc_A":1669731920,"created_at_utc_B":1669754959,"score_A":2,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"How can we determine with certainty that a meteorite found in Antarctica originated on Mars?","human_ref_B":"Hi Dr. Benedix, I am actually a PhD student in Astronomy studying protostellar disk formation and evolution. It\u2019s really interesting to think about how the chemistry at these early stages connects to the chemistry of comets and solar system bodies (and even exoplanets\/moons\/comets). Actually I\u2019m part of a program that\u2019s trying to understand when the onset of planet formation occurs in protostellar disks. I have two questions I would love to know your opinions on:  1) What chemistry or molecules would you think are important to search for in these early stages of star formation in order to connect with the later stages? That is, potential molecular precursors of molecules or specific complex molecules you think would be interesting to find at the early stages of star and planet formation that we find in comets and the solar system today. To preface this, I mostly study molecules in submillimeter wavelengths so that\u2019s what I\u2019m familiar with, but with the launch of JWST I know there is a strong interest in the infrared spectroscopy of young protostars now.   2) Since there is some theorization that prebiotic molecules (I guess mostly water and amino acids) could have been delivered to earth via comets, what is our current understanding of this? What kinds of prebiotic molecules have been found in comets that would be important for life? Is it possible for RNA to form via surface reactions on comets? Or would this kind of reaction only be possible in an early Earth environment after the necessary molecules have formed \/ been delivered?   Thank you for your time!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":23039.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy9v6wx","c_root_id_B":"iy8ipmi","created_at_utc_A":1669754959,"created_at_utc_B":1669735887,"score_A":7,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Hi Dr. Benedix, I am actually a PhD student in Astronomy studying protostellar disk formation and evolution. It\u2019s really interesting to think about how the chemistry at these early stages connects to the chemistry of comets and solar system bodies (and even exoplanets\/moons\/comets). Actually I\u2019m part of a program that\u2019s trying to understand when the onset of planet formation occurs in protostellar disks. I have two questions I would love to know your opinions on:  1) What chemistry or molecules would you think are important to search for in these early stages of star formation in order to connect with the later stages? That is, potential molecular precursors of molecules or specific complex molecules you think would be interesting to find at the early stages of star and planet formation that we find in comets and the solar system today. To preface this, I mostly study molecules in submillimeter wavelengths so that\u2019s what I\u2019m familiar with, but with the launch of JWST I know there is a strong interest in the infrared spectroscopy of young protostars now.   2) Since there is some theorization that prebiotic molecules (I guess mostly water and amino acids) could have been delivered to earth via comets, what is our current understanding of this? What kinds of prebiotic molecules have been found in comets that would be important for life? Is it possible for RNA to form via surface reactions on comets? Or would this kind of reaction only be possible in an early Earth environment after the necessary molecules have formed \/ been delivered?   Thank you for your time!","human_ref_B":"What's your favorite space rock?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":19072.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy9v6wx","c_root_id_B":"iy8nn3l","created_at_utc_A":1669754959,"created_at_utc_B":1669737941,"score_A":7,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Hi Dr. Benedix, I am actually a PhD student in Astronomy studying protostellar disk formation and evolution. It\u2019s really interesting to think about how the chemistry at these early stages connects to the chemistry of comets and solar system bodies (and even exoplanets\/moons\/comets). Actually I\u2019m part of a program that\u2019s trying to understand when the onset of planet formation occurs in protostellar disks. I have two questions I would love to know your opinions on:  1) What chemistry or molecules would you think are important to search for in these early stages of star formation in order to connect with the later stages? That is, potential molecular precursors of molecules or specific complex molecules you think would be interesting to find at the early stages of star and planet formation that we find in comets and the solar system today. To preface this, I mostly study molecules in submillimeter wavelengths so that\u2019s what I\u2019m familiar with, but with the launch of JWST I know there is a strong interest in the infrared spectroscopy of young protostars now.   2) Since there is some theorization that prebiotic molecules (I guess mostly water and amino acids) could have been delivered to earth via comets, what is our current understanding of this? What kinds of prebiotic molecules have been found in comets that would be important for life? Is it possible for RNA to form via surface reactions on comets? Or would this kind of reaction only be possible in an early Earth environment after the necessary molecules have formed \/ been delivered?   Thank you for your time!","human_ref_B":"I\u2019m a mineralogist (the mining kind, not the space kind) and I don\u2019t think I\u2019ve ever seen another one on here. Neat!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":17018.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy9v6wx","c_root_id_B":"iy8b5c4","created_at_utc_A":1669754959,"created_at_utc_B":1669732539,"score_A":7,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Hi Dr. Benedix, I am actually a PhD student in Astronomy studying protostellar disk formation and evolution. It\u2019s really interesting to think about how the chemistry at these early stages connects to the chemistry of comets and solar system bodies (and even exoplanets\/moons\/comets). Actually I\u2019m part of a program that\u2019s trying to understand when the onset of planet formation occurs in protostellar disks. I have two questions I would love to know your opinions on:  1) What chemistry or molecules would you think are important to search for in these early stages of star formation in order to connect with the later stages? That is, potential molecular precursors of molecules or specific complex molecules you think would be interesting to find at the early stages of star and planet formation that we find in comets and the solar system today. To preface this, I mostly study molecules in submillimeter wavelengths so that\u2019s what I\u2019m familiar with, but with the launch of JWST I know there is a strong interest in the infrared spectroscopy of young protostars now.   2) Since there is some theorization that prebiotic molecules (I guess mostly water and amino acids) could have been delivered to earth via comets, what is our current understanding of this? What kinds of prebiotic molecules have been found in comets that would be important for life? Is it possible for RNA to form via surface reactions on comets? Or would this kind of reaction only be possible in an early Earth environment after the necessary molecules have formed \/ been delivered?   Thank you for your time!","human_ref_B":"Could be a silly question but how is your field different from astrobiology ?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":22420.0,"score_ratio":1.75}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy9v6wx","c_root_id_B":"iy940pp","created_at_utc_A":1669754959,"created_at_utc_B":1669744487,"score_A":7,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Hi Dr. Benedix, I am actually a PhD student in Astronomy studying protostellar disk formation and evolution. It\u2019s really interesting to think about how the chemistry at these early stages connects to the chemistry of comets and solar system bodies (and even exoplanets\/moons\/comets). Actually I\u2019m part of a program that\u2019s trying to understand when the onset of planet formation occurs in protostellar disks. I have two questions I would love to know your opinions on:  1) What chemistry or molecules would you think are important to search for in these early stages of star formation in order to connect with the later stages? That is, potential molecular precursors of molecules or specific complex molecules you think would be interesting to find at the early stages of star and planet formation that we find in comets and the solar system today. To preface this, I mostly study molecules in submillimeter wavelengths so that\u2019s what I\u2019m familiar with, but with the launch of JWST I know there is a strong interest in the infrared spectroscopy of young protostars now.   2) Since there is some theorization that prebiotic molecules (I guess mostly water and amino acids) could have been delivered to earth via comets, what is our current understanding of this? What kinds of prebiotic molecules have been found in comets that would be important for life? Is it possible for RNA to form via surface reactions on comets? Or would this kind of reaction only be possible in an early Earth environment after the necessary molecules have formed \/ been delivered?   Thank you for your time!","human_ref_B":"When did the last meteorit fall on earth?  Is it an event that happens often?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":10472.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy9rjec","c_root_id_B":"iy9v6wx","created_at_utc_A":1669753579,"created_at_utc_B":1669754959,"score_A":3,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Hi, there is a bunch of news breaking right now about two new minerals (Elaliite and elkinstantonite) assigned after investigation of a meteorite. I can't find in any articles what the compositions actually are. Do you know? Where is the bes place to find that info?","human_ref_B":"Hi Dr. Benedix, I am actually a PhD student in Astronomy studying protostellar disk formation and evolution. It\u2019s really interesting to think about how the chemistry at these early stages connects to the chemistry of comets and solar system bodies (and even exoplanets\/moons\/comets). Actually I\u2019m part of a program that\u2019s trying to understand when the onset of planet formation occurs in protostellar disks. I have two questions I would love to know your opinions on:  1) What chemistry or molecules would you think are important to search for in these early stages of star formation in order to connect with the later stages? That is, potential molecular precursors of molecules or specific complex molecules you think would be interesting to find at the early stages of star and planet formation that we find in comets and the solar system today. To preface this, I mostly study molecules in submillimeter wavelengths so that\u2019s what I\u2019m familiar with, but with the launch of JWST I know there is a strong interest in the infrared spectroscopy of young protostars now.   2) Since there is some theorization that prebiotic molecules (I guess mostly water and amino acids) could have been delivered to earth via comets, what is our current understanding of this? What kinds of prebiotic molecules have been found in comets that would be important for life? Is it possible for RNA to form via surface reactions on comets? Or would this kind of reaction only be possible in an early Earth environment after the necessary molecules have formed \/ been delivered?   Thank you for your time!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1380.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy9v6wx","c_root_id_B":"iy88dto","created_at_utc_A":1669754959,"created_at_utc_B":1669731230,"score_A":7,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hi Dr. Benedix, I am actually a PhD student in Astronomy studying protostellar disk formation and evolution. It\u2019s really interesting to think about how the chemistry at these early stages connects to the chemistry of comets and solar system bodies (and even exoplanets\/moons\/comets). Actually I\u2019m part of a program that\u2019s trying to understand when the onset of planet formation occurs in protostellar disks. I have two questions I would love to know your opinions on:  1) What chemistry or molecules would you think are important to search for in these early stages of star formation in order to connect with the later stages? That is, potential molecular precursors of molecules or specific complex molecules you think would be interesting to find at the early stages of star and planet formation that we find in comets and the solar system today. To preface this, I mostly study molecules in submillimeter wavelengths so that\u2019s what I\u2019m familiar with, but with the launch of JWST I know there is a strong interest in the infrared spectroscopy of young protostars now.   2) Since there is some theorization that prebiotic molecules (I guess mostly water and amino acids) could have been delivered to earth via comets, what is our current understanding of this? What kinds of prebiotic molecules have been found in comets that would be important for life? Is it possible for RNA to form via surface reactions on comets? Or would this kind of reaction only be possible in an early Earth environment after the necessary molecules have formed \/ been delivered?   Thank you for your time!","human_ref_B":"Do you think it's likely that organics could form in the liquid water layers below the ice on some of our solar systems icy moons, and if so could this be indicative of a system of life forming independently rather than through panspermia? As far as I can see there would be many more habitable environments in sub-surface oceans and we could effectively discount the \"Goldilocks Zone\" as the only viable areas to hunt for life, but only if organics are likely to form independently as most of these environments are very isolated from space by the thick icy layers.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":23729.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy9v6wx","c_root_id_B":"iy8ajo6","created_at_utc_A":1669754959,"created_at_utc_B":1669732256,"score_A":7,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hi Dr. Benedix, I am actually a PhD student in Astronomy studying protostellar disk formation and evolution. It\u2019s really interesting to think about how the chemistry at these early stages connects to the chemistry of comets and solar system bodies (and even exoplanets\/moons\/comets). Actually I\u2019m part of a program that\u2019s trying to understand when the onset of planet formation occurs in protostellar disks. I have two questions I would love to know your opinions on:  1) What chemistry or molecules would you think are important to search for in these early stages of star formation in order to connect with the later stages? That is, potential molecular precursors of molecules or specific complex molecules you think would be interesting to find at the early stages of star and planet formation that we find in comets and the solar system today. To preface this, I mostly study molecules in submillimeter wavelengths so that\u2019s what I\u2019m familiar with, but with the launch of JWST I know there is a strong interest in the infrared spectroscopy of young protostars now.   2) Since there is some theorization that prebiotic molecules (I guess mostly water and amino acids) could have been delivered to earth via comets, what is our current understanding of this? What kinds of prebiotic molecules have been found in comets that would be important for life? Is it possible for RNA to form via surface reactions on comets? Or would this kind of reaction only be possible in an early Earth environment after the necessary molecules have formed \/ been delivered?   Thank you for your time!","human_ref_B":"I\u2019ve noticed articles talking a lot about mining resources from the moon.  In a future that uses extraterrestrial mining, what other bodies in our solar system would you believe could become high priority targets of mining?  Like would the asteroid belt really be resourceful as some tv shows and films claim? Or would other planets or their moons be more highly sought after?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":22703.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy9v6wx","c_root_id_B":"iy8vfxd","created_at_utc_A":1669754959,"created_at_utc_B":1669741099,"score_A":7,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hi Dr. Benedix, I am actually a PhD student in Astronomy studying protostellar disk formation and evolution. It\u2019s really interesting to think about how the chemistry at these early stages connects to the chemistry of comets and solar system bodies (and even exoplanets\/moons\/comets). Actually I\u2019m part of a program that\u2019s trying to understand when the onset of planet formation occurs in protostellar disks. I have two questions I would love to know your opinions on:  1) What chemistry or molecules would you think are important to search for in these early stages of star formation in order to connect with the later stages? That is, potential molecular precursors of molecules or specific complex molecules you think would be interesting to find at the early stages of star and planet formation that we find in comets and the solar system today. To preface this, I mostly study molecules in submillimeter wavelengths so that\u2019s what I\u2019m familiar with, but with the launch of JWST I know there is a strong interest in the infrared spectroscopy of young protostars now.   2) Since there is some theorization that prebiotic molecules (I guess mostly water and amino acids) could have been delivered to earth via comets, what is our current understanding of this? What kinds of prebiotic molecules have been found in comets that would be important for life? Is it possible for RNA to form via surface reactions on comets? Or would this kind of reaction only be possible in an early Earth environment after the necessary molecules have formed \/ been delivered?   Thank you for your time!","human_ref_B":"How does your field of study helps the rest of humanity in tangible ways?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":13860.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy9v6wx","c_root_id_B":"iy8wcwo","created_at_utc_A":1669754959,"created_at_utc_B":1669741465,"score_A":7,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hi Dr. Benedix, I am actually a PhD student in Astronomy studying protostellar disk formation and evolution. It\u2019s really interesting to think about how the chemistry at these early stages connects to the chemistry of comets and solar system bodies (and even exoplanets\/moons\/comets). Actually I\u2019m part of a program that\u2019s trying to understand when the onset of planet formation occurs in protostellar disks. I have two questions I would love to know your opinions on:  1) What chemistry or molecules would you think are important to search for in these early stages of star formation in order to connect with the later stages? That is, potential molecular precursors of molecules or specific complex molecules you think would be interesting to find at the early stages of star and planet formation that we find in comets and the solar system today. To preface this, I mostly study molecules in submillimeter wavelengths so that\u2019s what I\u2019m familiar with, but with the launch of JWST I know there is a strong interest in the infrared spectroscopy of young protostars now.   2) Since there is some theorization that prebiotic molecules (I guess mostly water and amino acids) could have been delivered to earth via comets, what is our current understanding of this? What kinds of prebiotic molecules have been found in comets that would be important for life? Is it possible for RNA to form via surface reactions on comets? Or would this kind of reaction only be possible in an early Earth environment after the necessary molecules have formed \/ been delivered?   Thank you for your time!","human_ref_B":"Why is iridium more common in asteroids and meteorites than in the earth's crust? Thanks.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":13494.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy92k7k","c_root_id_B":"iy9v6wx","created_at_utc_A":1669743925,"created_at_utc_B":1669754959,"score_A":2,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"What is your \u201cdream sample?\u201d What do you most want to find? A meteorite from a certain place, or showing evidence of a particular process?","human_ref_B":"Hi Dr. Benedix, I am actually a PhD student in Astronomy studying protostellar disk formation and evolution. It\u2019s really interesting to think about how the chemistry at these early stages connects to the chemistry of comets and solar system bodies (and even exoplanets\/moons\/comets). Actually I\u2019m part of a program that\u2019s trying to understand when the onset of planet formation occurs in protostellar disks. I have two questions I would love to know your opinions on:  1) What chemistry or molecules would you think are important to search for in these early stages of star formation in order to connect with the later stages? That is, potential molecular precursors of molecules or specific complex molecules you think would be interesting to find at the early stages of star and planet formation that we find in comets and the solar system today. To preface this, I mostly study molecules in submillimeter wavelengths so that\u2019s what I\u2019m familiar with, but with the launch of JWST I know there is a strong interest in the infrared spectroscopy of young protostars now.   2) Since there is some theorization that prebiotic molecules (I guess mostly water and amino acids) could have been delivered to earth via comets, what is our current understanding of this? What kinds of prebiotic molecules have been found in comets that would be important for life? Is it possible for RNA to form via surface reactions on comets? Or would this kind of reaction only be possible in an early Earth environment after the necessary molecules have formed \/ been delivered?   Thank you for your time!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":11034.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy89sld","c_root_id_B":"iy80d8z","created_at_utc_A":1669731904,"created_at_utc_B":1669726894,"score_A":6,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Good morning Dr. Gretchen. Whats a finding\/observation that has surprised you in your research?   What subjects of math, science should one have the knowledge of, inorder to  these researches? Im from a non-stem background who is noob at this stuff but is trying to learn these days.","human_ref_B":"How likely is it that we know every element in the universe? Are there any \u2018Swiss cheese\u2019 elements that could exist? What would these elements be? TIA","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5010.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy81u1q","c_root_id_B":"iy89sld","created_at_utc_A":1669727758,"created_at_utc_B":1669731904,"score_A":5,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"What\u2019s the process of recovering meteorites?","human_ref_B":"Good morning Dr. Gretchen. Whats a finding\/observation that has surprised you in your research?   What subjects of math, science should one have the knowledge of, inorder to  these researches? Im from a non-stem background who is noob at this stuff but is trying to learn these days.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4146.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy89sld","c_root_id_B":"iy86n81","created_at_utc_A":1669731904,"created_at_utc_B":1669730363,"score_A":6,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Good morning Dr. Gretchen. Whats a finding\/observation that has surprised you in your research?   What subjects of math, science should one have the knowledge of, inorder to  these researches? Im from a non-stem background who is noob at this stuff but is trying to learn these days.","human_ref_B":"Hi, I'm sure you have heard of SETI@Home, but have you heard of Asteroids@home and (if so) can you explain if it actually helps your research or field of study.  Given the vastness of space and limited time and resources are there any community resources the field leans on to make the biggest impact (like volunteer computing, amateur scientists...etc)","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1541.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy86n81","c_root_id_B":"iy83c12","created_at_utc_A":1669730363,"created_at_utc_B":1669728602,"score_A":5,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Hi, I'm sure you have heard of SETI@Home, but have you heard of Asteroids@home and (if so) can you explain if it actually helps your research or field of study.  Given the vastness of space and limited time and resources are there any community resources the field leans on to make the biggest impact (like volunteer computing, amateur scientists...etc)","human_ref_B":"Any tips on who might help us sponsor even more meteor cameras? Our club currently has two in European networks, and we would like to expand the network in Scandinavia. The rock that was discovered two years ago here in Sweden flew exactly over our heads and landed 35 km from us. We were not more than 1.5 km from the guys that recovered it. Almost doesn't count, but it's fun!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1761.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy88v5o","c_root_id_B":"iy89sld","created_at_utc_A":1669731465,"created_at_utc_B":1669731904,"score_A":5,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"I've learned heavier elements are created in supernovae. But are they made in big chunks of the same material, or in fine dispersed sprays that then require significant gravity to coalesce? Another way of asking the same question: do we see clouds of say gold in different areas of space, and how would that end up as a seam of gold on a planet?","human_ref_B":"Good morning Dr. Gretchen. Whats a finding\/observation that has surprised you in your research?   What subjects of math, science should one have the knowledge of, inorder to  these researches? Im from a non-stem background who is noob at this stuff but is trying to learn these days.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":439.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy88v5o","c_root_id_B":"iy83c12","created_at_utc_A":1669731465,"created_at_utc_B":1669728602,"score_A":5,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"I've learned heavier elements are created in supernovae. But are they made in big chunks of the same material, or in fine dispersed sprays that then require significant gravity to coalesce? Another way of asking the same question: do we see clouds of say gold in different areas of space, and how would that end up as a seam of gold on a planet?","human_ref_B":"Any tips on who might help us sponsor even more meteor cameras? Our club currently has two in European networks, and we would like to expand the network in Scandinavia. The rock that was discovered two years ago here in Sweden flew exactly over our heads and landed 35 km from us. We were not more than 1.5 km from the guys that recovered it. Almost doesn't count, but it's fun!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2863.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy88dto","c_root_id_B":"iy88v5o","created_at_utc_A":1669731230,"created_at_utc_B":1669731465,"score_A":2,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Do you think it's likely that organics could form in the liquid water layers below the ice on some of our solar systems icy moons, and if so could this be indicative of a system of life forming independently rather than through panspermia? As far as I can see there would be many more habitable environments in sub-surface oceans and we could effectively discount the \"Goldilocks Zone\" as the only viable areas to hunt for life, but only if organics are likely to form independently as most of these environments are very isolated from space by the thick icy layers.","human_ref_B":"I've learned heavier elements are created in supernovae. But are they made in big chunks of the same material, or in fine dispersed sprays that then require significant gravity to coalesce? Another way of asking the same question: do we see clouds of say gold in different areas of space, and how would that end up as a seam of gold on a planet?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":235.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy83c12","c_root_id_B":"iy89sld","created_at_utc_A":1669728602,"created_at_utc_B":1669731904,"score_A":3,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Any tips on who might help us sponsor even more meteor cameras? Our club currently has two in European networks, and we would like to expand the network in Scandinavia. The rock that was discovered two years ago here in Sweden flew exactly over our heads and landed 35 km from us. We were not more than 1.5 km from the guys that recovered it. Almost doesn't count, but it's fun!","human_ref_B":"Good morning Dr. Gretchen. Whats a finding\/observation that has surprised you in your research?   What subjects of math, science should one have the knowledge of, inorder to  these researches? Im from a non-stem background who is noob at this stuff but is trying to learn these days.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3302.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy88dto","c_root_id_B":"iy89sld","created_at_utc_A":1669731230,"created_at_utc_B":1669731904,"score_A":2,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Do you think it's likely that organics could form in the liquid water layers below the ice on some of our solar systems icy moons, and if so could this be indicative of a system of life forming independently rather than through panspermia? As far as I can see there would be many more habitable environments in sub-surface oceans and we could effectively discount the \"Goldilocks Zone\" as the only viable areas to hunt for life, but only if organics are likely to form independently as most of these environments are very isolated from space by the thick icy layers.","human_ref_B":"Good morning Dr. Gretchen. Whats a finding\/observation that has surprised you in your research?   What subjects of math, science should one have the knowledge of, inorder to  these researches? Im from a non-stem background who is noob at this stuff but is trying to learn these days.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":674.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy8ipmi","c_root_id_B":"iy83c12","created_at_utc_A":1669735887,"created_at_utc_B":1669728602,"score_A":5,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"What's your favorite space rock?","human_ref_B":"Any tips on who might help us sponsor even more meteor cameras? Our club currently has two in European networks, and we would like to expand the network in Scandinavia. The rock that was discovered two years ago here in Sweden flew exactly over our heads and landed 35 km from us. We were not more than 1.5 km from the guys that recovered it. Almost doesn't count, but it's fun!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7285.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iyamx3o","c_root_id_B":"iy83c12","created_at_utc_A":1669766258,"created_at_utc_B":1669728602,"score_A":4,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Thanks for all the very interesting questions.  I didn't get to them all, but I'll come back later and try to answer some more.   If you want you can follow me on reddit at u\/Metritedoc  I've not posted anything yet, but I'm a Noob to Reddit.   Thanks again.  Cheers, Gretchen","human_ref_B":"Any tips on who might help us sponsor even more meteor cameras? Our club currently has two in European networks, and we would like to expand the network in Scandinavia. The rock that was discovered two years ago here in Sweden flew exactly over our heads and landed 35 km from us. We were not more than 1.5 km from the guys that recovered it. Almost doesn't count, but it's fun!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":37656.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy8b5c4","c_root_id_B":"iy83c12","created_at_utc_A":1669732539,"created_at_utc_B":1669728602,"score_A":4,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Could be a silly question but how is your field different from astrobiology ?","human_ref_B":"Any tips on who might help us sponsor even more meteor cameras? Our club currently has two in European networks, and we would like to expand the network in Scandinavia. The rock that was discovered two years ago here in Sweden flew exactly over our heads and landed 35 km from us. We were not more than 1.5 km from the guys that recovered it. Almost doesn't count, but it's fun!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3937.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy8ipmi","c_root_id_B":"iy89ts9","created_at_utc_A":1669735887,"created_at_utc_B":1669731920,"score_A":5,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"What's your favorite space rock?","human_ref_B":"How can we determine with certainty that a meteorite found in Antarctica originated on Mars?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3967.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy8nn3l","c_root_id_B":"iy89ts9","created_at_utc_A":1669737941,"created_at_utc_B":1669731920,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"I\u2019m a mineralogist (the mining kind, not the space kind) and I don\u2019t think I\u2019ve ever seen another one on here. Neat!","human_ref_B":"How can we determine with certainty that a meteorite found in Antarctica originated on Mars?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6021.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy89ts9","c_root_id_B":"iyamx3o","created_at_utc_A":1669731920,"created_at_utc_B":1669766258,"score_A":2,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"How can we determine with certainty that a meteorite found in Antarctica originated on Mars?","human_ref_B":"Thanks for all the very interesting questions.  I didn't get to them all, but I'll come back later and try to answer some more.   If you want you can follow me on reddit at u\/Metritedoc  I've not posted anything yet, but I'm a Noob to Reddit.   Thanks again.  Cheers, Gretchen","labels":0,"seconds_difference":34338.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy8b5c4","c_root_id_B":"iy89ts9","created_at_utc_A":1669732539,"created_at_utc_B":1669731920,"score_A":4,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Could be a silly question but how is your field different from astrobiology ?","human_ref_B":"How can we determine with certainty that a meteorite found in Antarctica originated on Mars?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":619.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy89ts9","c_root_id_B":"iy940pp","created_at_utc_A":1669731920,"created_at_utc_B":1669744487,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"How can we determine with certainty that a meteorite found in Antarctica originated on Mars?","human_ref_B":"When did the last meteorit fall on earth?  Is it an event that happens often?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12567.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy9rjec","c_root_id_B":"iy89ts9","created_at_utc_A":1669753579,"created_at_utc_B":1669731920,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hi, there is a bunch of news breaking right now about two new minerals (Elaliite and elkinstantonite) assigned after investigation of a meteorite. I can't find in any articles what the compositions actually are. Do you know? Where is the bes place to find that info?","human_ref_B":"How can we determine with certainty that a meteorite found in Antarctica originated on Mars?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":21659.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy89ts9","c_root_id_B":"iya79ri","created_at_utc_A":1669731920,"created_at_utc_B":1669759609,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"How can we determine with certainty that a meteorite found in Antarctica originated on Mars?","human_ref_B":"Hello to everyone here.  This is Gretchen writing in  from Perth, Western Australia.  Thank you so much for all your amazing questions.  I will try to tackle as many as I can over the next hour or so.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":27689.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy8ipmi","c_root_id_B":"iy8b5c4","created_at_utc_A":1669735887,"created_at_utc_B":1669732539,"score_A":5,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"What's your favorite space rock?","human_ref_B":"Could be a silly question but how is your field different from astrobiology ?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3348.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy88dto","c_root_id_B":"iy8ipmi","created_at_utc_A":1669731230,"created_at_utc_B":1669735887,"score_A":2,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Do you think it's likely that organics could form in the liquid water layers below the ice on some of our solar systems icy moons, and if so could this be indicative of a system of life forming independently rather than through panspermia? As far as I can see there would be many more habitable environments in sub-surface oceans and we could effectively discount the \"Goldilocks Zone\" as the only viable areas to hunt for life, but only if organics are likely to form independently as most of these environments are very isolated from space by the thick icy layers.","human_ref_B":"What's your favorite space rock?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4657.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy8ipmi","c_root_id_B":"iy8ajo6","created_at_utc_A":1669735887,"created_at_utc_B":1669732256,"score_A":5,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"What's your favorite space rock?","human_ref_B":"I\u2019ve noticed articles talking a lot about mining resources from the moon.  In a future that uses extraterrestrial mining, what other bodies in our solar system would you believe could become high priority targets of mining?  Like would the asteroid belt really be resourceful as some tv shows and films claim? Or would other planets or their moons be more highly sought after?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3631.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iyamx3o","c_root_id_B":"iy8nn3l","created_at_utc_A":1669766258,"created_at_utc_B":1669737941,"score_A":4,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Thanks for all the very interesting questions.  I didn't get to them all, but I'll come back later and try to answer some more.   If you want you can follow me on reddit at u\/Metritedoc  I've not posted anything yet, but I'm a Noob to Reddit.   Thanks again.  Cheers, Gretchen","human_ref_B":"I\u2019m a mineralogist (the mining kind, not the space kind) and I don\u2019t think I\u2019ve ever seen another one on here. Neat!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":28317.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy8nn3l","c_root_id_B":"iy88dto","created_at_utc_A":1669737941,"created_at_utc_B":1669731230,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"I\u2019m a mineralogist (the mining kind, not the space kind) and I don\u2019t think I\u2019ve ever seen another one on here. Neat!","human_ref_B":"Do you think it's likely that organics could form in the liquid water layers below the ice on some of our solar systems icy moons, and if so could this be indicative of a system of life forming independently rather than through panspermia? As far as I can see there would be many more habitable environments in sub-surface oceans and we could effectively discount the \"Goldilocks Zone\" as the only viable areas to hunt for life, but only if organics are likely to form independently as most of these environments are very isolated from space by the thick icy layers.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6711.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy8ajo6","c_root_id_B":"iy8nn3l","created_at_utc_A":1669732256,"created_at_utc_B":1669737941,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"I\u2019ve noticed articles talking a lot about mining resources from the moon.  In a future that uses extraterrestrial mining, what other bodies in our solar system would you believe could become high priority targets of mining?  Like would the asteroid belt really be resourceful as some tv shows and films claim? Or would other planets or their moons be more highly sought after?","human_ref_B":"I\u2019m a mineralogist (the mining kind, not the space kind) and I don\u2019t think I\u2019ve ever seen another one on here. Neat!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5685.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iyamx3o","c_root_id_B":"iy940pp","created_at_utc_A":1669766258,"created_at_utc_B":1669744487,"score_A":4,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Thanks for all the very interesting questions.  I didn't get to them all, but I'll come back later and try to answer some more.   If you want you can follow me on reddit at u\/Metritedoc  I've not posted anything yet, but I'm a Noob to Reddit.   Thanks again.  Cheers, Gretchen","human_ref_B":"When did the last meteorit fall on earth?  Is it an event that happens often?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":21771.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy9rjec","c_root_id_B":"iyamx3o","created_at_utc_A":1669753579,"created_at_utc_B":1669766258,"score_A":3,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Hi, there is a bunch of news breaking right now about two new minerals (Elaliite and elkinstantonite) assigned after investigation of a meteorite. I can't find in any articles what the compositions actually are. Do you know? Where is the bes place to find that info?","human_ref_B":"Thanks for all the very interesting questions.  I didn't get to them all, but I'll come back later and try to answer some more.   If you want you can follow me on reddit at u\/Metritedoc  I've not posted anything yet, but I'm a Noob to Reddit.   Thanks again.  Cheers, Gretchen","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12679.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iyamx3o","c_root_id_B":"iya79ri","created_at_utc_A":1669766258,"created_at_utc_B":1669759609,"score_A":4,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Thanks for all the very interesting questions.  I didn't get to them all, but I'll come back later and try to answer some more.   If you want you can follow me on reddit at u\/Metritedoc  I've not posted anything yet, but I'm a Noob to Reddit.   Thanks again.  Cheers, Gretchen","human_ref_B":"Hello to everyone here.  This is Gretchen writing in  from Perth, Western Australia.  Thank you so much for all your amazing questions.  I will try to tackle as many as I can over the next hour or so.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6649.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iyamx3o","c_root_id_B":"iy88dto","created_at_utc_A":1669766258,"created_at_utc_B":1669731230,"score_A":4,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Thanks for all the very interesting questions.  I didn't get to them all, but I'll come back later and try to answer some more.   If you want you can follow me on reddit at u\/Metritedoc  I've not posted anything yet, but I'm a Noob to Reddit.   Thanks again.  Cheers, Gretchen","human_ref_B":"Do you think it's likely that organics could form in the liquid water layers below the ice on some of our solar systems icy moons, and if so could this be indicative of a system of life forming independently rather than through panspermia? As far as I can see there would be many more habitable environments in sub-surface oceans and we could effectively discount the \"Goldilocks Zone\" as the only viable areas to hunt for life, but only if organics are likely to form independently as most of these environments are very isolated from space by the thick icy layers.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":35028.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy8ajo6","c_root_id_B":"iyamx3o","created_at_utc_A":1669732256,"created_at_utc_B":1669766258,"score_A":2,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"I\u2019ve noticed articles talking a lot about mining resources from the moon.  In a future that uses extraterrestrial mining, what other bodies in our solar system would you believe could become high priority targets of mining?  Like would the asteroid belt really be resourceful as some tv shows and films claim? Or would other planets or their moons be more highly sought after?","human_ref_B":"Thanks for all the very interesting questions.  I didn't get to them all, but I'll come back later and try to answer some more.   If you want you can follow me on reddit at u\/Metritedoc  I've not posted anything yet, but I'm a Noob to Reddit.   Thanks again.  Cheers, Gretchen","labels":0,"seconds_difference":34002.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy8vfxd","c_root_id_B":"iyamx3o","created_at_utc_A":1669741099,"created_at_utc_B":1669766258,"score_A":2,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"How does your field of study helps the rest of humanity in tangible ways?","human_ref_B":"Thanks for all the very interesting questions.  I didn't get to them all, but I'll come back later and try to answer some more.   If you want you can follow me on reddit at u\/Metritedoc  I've not posted anything yet, but I'm a Noob to Reddit.   Thanks again.  Cheers, Gretchen","labels":0,"seconds_difference":25159.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iyamx3o","c_root_id_B":"iy8wcwo","created_at_utc_A":1669766258,"created_at_utc_B":1669741465,"score_A":4,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Thanks for all the very interesting questions.  I didn't get to them all, but I'll come back later and try to answer some more.   If you want you can follow me on reddit at u\/Metritedoc  I've not posted anything yet, but I'm a Noob to Reddit.   Thanks again.  Cheers, Gretchen","human_ref_B":"Why is iridium more common in asteroids and meteorites than in the earth's crust? Thanks.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":24793.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy92k7k","c_root_id_B":"iyamx3o","created_at_utc_A":1669743925,"created_at_utc_B":1669766258,"score_A":2,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"What is your \u201cdream sample?\u201d What do you most want to find? A meteorite from a certain place, or showing evidence of a particular process?","human_ref_B":"Thanks for all the very interesting questions.  I didn't get to them all, but I'll come back later and try to answer some more.   If you want you can follow me on reddit at u\/Metritedoc  I've not posted anything yet, but I'm a Noob to Reddit.   Thanks again.  Cheers, Gretchen","labels":0,"seconds_difference":22333.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy8b5c4","c_root_id_B":"iy88dto","created_at_utc_A":1669732539,"created_at_utc_B":1669731230,"score_A":4,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Could be a silly question but how is your field different from astrobiology ?","human_ref_B":"Do you think it's likely that organics could form in the liquid water layers below the ice on some of our solar systems icy moons, and if so could this be indicative of a system of life forming independently rather than through panspermia? As far as I can see there would be many more habitable environments in sub-surface oceans and we could effectively discount the \"Goldilocks Zone\" as the only viable areas to hunt for life, but only if organics are likely to form independently as most of these environments are very isolated from space by the thick icy layers.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1309.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy8ajo6","c_root_id_B":"iy8b5c4","created_at_utc_A":1669732256,"created_at_utc_B":1669732539,"score_A":2,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"I\u2019ve noticed articles talking a lot about mining resources from the moon.  In a future that uses extraterrestrial mining, what other bodies in our solar system would you believe could become high priority targets of mining?  Like would the asteroid belt really be resourceful as some tv shows and films claim? Or would other planets or their moons be more highly sought after?","human_ref_B":"Could be a silly question but how is your field different from astrobiology ?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":283.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy88dto","c_root_id_B":"iy940pp","created_at_utc_A":1669731230,"created_at_utc_B":1669744487,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Do you think it's likely that organics could form in the liquid water layers below the ice on some of our solar systems icy moons, and if so could this be indicative of a system of life forming independently rather than through panspermia? As far as I can see there would be many more habitable environments in sub-surface oceans and we could effectively discount the \"Goldilocks Zone\" as the only viable areas to hunt for life, but only if organics are likely to form independently as most of these environments are very isolated from space by the thick icy layers.","human_ref_B":"When did the last meteorit fall on earth?  Is it an event that happens often?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":13257.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy940pp","c_root_id_B":"iy8ajo6","created_at_utc_A":1669744487,"created_at_utc_B":1669732256,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"When did the last meteorit fall on earth?  Is it an event that happens often?","human_ref_B":"I\u2019ve noticed articles talking a lot about mining resources from the moon.  In a future that uses extraterrestrial mining, what other bodies in our solar system would you believe could become high priority targets of mining?  Like would the asteroid belt really be resourceful as some tv shows and films claim? Or would other planets or their moons be more highly sought after?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":12231.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy8vfxd","c_root_id_B":"iy940pp","created_at_utc_A":1669741099,"created_at_utc_B":1669744487,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"How does your field of study helps the rest of humanity in tangible ways?","human_ref_B":"When did the last meteorit fall on earth?  Is it an event that happens often?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3388.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy8wcwo","c_root_id_B":"iy940pp","created_at_utc_A":1669741465,"created_at_utc_B":1669744487,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Why is iridium more common in asteroids and meteorites than in the earth's crust? Thanks.","human_ref_B":"When did the last meteorit fall on earth?  Is it an event that happens often?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3022.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy940pp","c_root_id_B":"iy92k7k","created_at_utc_A":1669744487,"created_at_utc_B":1669743925,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"When did the last meteorit fall on earth?  Is it an event that happens often?","human_ref_B":"What is your \u201cdream sample?\u201d What do you most want to find? A meteorite from a certain place, or showing evidence of a particular process?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":562.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy88dto","c_root_id_B":"iy9rjec","created_at_utc_A":1669731230,"created_at_utc_B":1669753579,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Do you think it's likely that organics could form in the liquid water layers below the ice on some of our solar systems icy moons, and if so could this be indicative of a system of life forming independently rather than through panspermia? As far as I can see there would be many more habitable environments in sub-surface oceans and we could effectively discount the \"Goldilocks Zone\" as the only viable areas to hunt for life, but only if organics are likely to form independently as most of these environments are very isolated from space by the thick icy layers.","human_ref_B":"Hi, there is a bunch of news breaking right now about two new minerals (Elaliite and elkinstantonite) assigned after investigation of a meteorite. I can't find in any articles what the compositions actually are. Do you know? Where is the bes place to find that info?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":22349.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy9rjec","c_root_id_B":"iy8ajo6","created_at_utc_A":1669753579,"created_at_utc_B":1669732256,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hi, there is a bunch of news breaking right now about two new minerals (Elaliite and elkinstantonite) assigned after investigation of a meteorite. I can't find in any articles what the compositions actually are. Do you know? Where is the bes place to find that info?","human_ref_B":"I\u2019ve noticed articles talking a lot about mining resources from the moon.  In a future that uses extraterrestrial mining, what other bodies in our solar system would you believe could become high priority targets of mining?  Like would the asteroid belt really be resourceful as some tv shows and films claim? Or would other planets or their moons be more highly sought after?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":21323.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy9rjec","c_root_id_B":"iy8vfxd","created_at_utc_A":1669753579,"created_at_utc_B":1669741099,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hi, there is a bunch of news breaking right now about two new minerals (Elaliite and elkinstantonite) assigned after investigation of a meteorite. I can't find in any articles what the compositions actually are. Do you know? Where is the bes place to find that info?","human_ref_B":"How does your field of study helps the rest of humanity in tangible ways?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":12480.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy9rjec","c_root_id_B":"iy8wcwo","created_at_utc_A":1669753579,"created_at_utc_B":1669741465,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hi, there is a bunch of news breaking right now about two new minerals (Elaliite and elkinstantonite) assigned after investigation of a meteorite. I can't find in any articles what the compositions actually are. Do you know? Where is the bes place to find that info?","human_ref_B":"Why is iridium more common in asteroids and meteorites than in the earth's crust? Thanks.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":12114.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy9rjec","c_root_id_B":"iy92k7k","created_at_utc_A":1669753579,"created_at_utc_B":1669743925,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hi, there is a bunch of news breaking right now about two new minerals (Elaliite and elkinstantonite) assigned after investigation of a meteorite. I can't find in any articles what the compositions actually are. Do you know? Where is the bes place to find that info?","human_ref_B":"What is your \u201cdream sample?\u201d What do you most want to find? A meteorite from a certain place, or showing evidence of a particular process?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9654.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iya79ri","c_root_id_B":"iy88dto","created_at_utc_A":1669759609,"created_at_utc_B":1669731230,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hello to everyone here.  This is Gretchen writing in  from Perth, Western Australia.  Thank you so much for all your amazing questions.  I will try to tackle as many as I can over the next hour or so.","human_ref_B":"Do you think it's likely that organics could form in the liquid water layers below the ice on some of our solar systems icy moons, and if so could this be indicative of a system of life forming independently rather than through panspermia? As far as I can see there would be many more habitable environments in sub-surface oceans and we could effectively discount the \"Goldilocks Zone\" as the only viable areas to hunt for life, but only if organics are likely to form independently as most of these environments are very isolated from space by the thick icy layers.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":28379.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iya79ri","c_root_id_B":"iy8ajo6","created_at_utc_A":1669759609,"created_at_utc_B":1669732256,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hello to everyone here.  This is Gretchen writing in  from Perth, Western Australia.  Thank you so much for all your amazing questions.  I will try to tackle as many as I can over the next hour or so.","human_ref_B":"I\u2019ve noticed articles talking a lot about mining resources from the moon.  In a future that uses extraterrestrial mining, what other bodies in our solar system would you believe could become high priority targets of mining?  Like would the asteroid belt really be resourceful as some tv shows and films claim? Or would other planets or their moons be more highly sought after?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":27353.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iy8vfxd","c_root_id_B":"iya79ri","created_at_utc_A":1669741099,"created_at_utc_B":1669759609,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"How does your field of study helps the rest of humanity in tangible ways?","human_ref_B":"Hello to everyone here.  This is Gretchen writing in  from Perth, Western Australia.  Thank you so much for all your amazing questions.  I will try to tackle as many as I can over the next hour or so.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":18510.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iya79ri","c_root_id_B":"iy8wcwo","created_at_utc_A":1669759609,"created_at_utc_B":1669741465,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hello to everyone here.  This is Gretchen writing in  from Perth, Western Australia.  Thank you so much for all your amazing questions.  I will try to tackle as many as I can over the next hour or so.","human_ref_B":"Why is iridium more common in asteroids and meteorites than in the earth's crust? Thanks.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":18144.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"z7s45h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Gretchen Benedix, a cosmic mineralogist and astrogeologist, and I study space rocks! Currently a Professor at Curtin University, I use the chemistry, mineralogy, and spectroscopy of meteorites to understand the formation and evolution of asteroids and planets. AMA! Hello all, I've been deeply interested in Planetary Sciences and the early evolution of the solar system. I'm also the lead on the initial Mineralogy\/Petrology of the meteorites found by the Australian Desert Fireball Network (DFN), an interdisciplinary research group that is working to uncover the mysteries surrounding solar system formation. Digital observatories, part of the DFN, monitor a third of Australian skies, all night. The DFN images and studies the paths of fireballs in the sky, their trajectories, and orbits using intelligent imaging systems. As a geologist, I want to know where rocks come from, along with their composition and distribution. Trying to mesh those two is kind of the holy grail in figuring out what the solar system is really like. In 2006, an asteroid was named after me - Asteroid 6579 - for my contributions to planetary science.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about asteroids, meteorites, planetary science, and my work with the Desert Fireball Network.  I'll be on 5 PM (November 29th US ET \/ 22 UT \/ November 30th 6 AM in Perth (GMT+8)) to answer your questions, AMA!  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iya79ri","c_root_id_B":"iy92k7k","created_at_utc_A":1669759609,"created_at_utc_B":1669743925,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hello to everyone here.  This is Gretchen writing in  from Perth, Western Australia.  Thank you so much for all your amazing questions.  I will try to tackle as many as I can over the next hour or so.","human_ref_B":"What is your \u201cdream sample?\u201d What do you most want to find? A meteorite from a certain place, or showing evidence of a particular process?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":15684.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d221a44","c_root_id_B":"d21th6j","created_at_utc_A":1460599060,"created_at_utc_B":1460587833,"score_A":63,"score_B":22,"human_ref_A":"If you're wondering how light can impart momentum through radiation pressure despite not having any mass, I wrote a discussion of it here.","human_ref_B":"I am curious about the difficulty of sending images back to earth. Only having a general understanding of radio communication and bandwidth, how realistic is this that in the near future we could build a system that worked? What kind of band width would we be looking at for a 1w laser communicating several light years?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11227.0,"score_ratio":2.8636363636}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d21x581","c_root_id_B":"d221a44","created_at_utc_A":1460593255,"created_at_utc_B":1460599060,"score_A":16,"score_B":63,"human_ref_A":"Would the satellites form some kind of network to \"bounce\" back images they take or amplify signals? Will some satellites be specialized as cameras and others as amplifiers or something? Or will we rely on some apparatus on Earth listening for very weak signals from them to receive any kind of data from them?","human_ref_B":"If you're wondering how light can impart momentum through radiation pressure despite not having any mass, I wrote a discussion of it here.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5805.0,"score_ratio":3.9375}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d221a44","c_root_id_B":"d21terf","created_at_utc_A":1460599060,"created_at_utc_B":1460587732,"score_A":63,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"If you're wondering how light can impart momentum through radiation pressure despite not having any mass, I wrote a discussion of it here.","human_ref_B":"I see that one of the articles mentions communication would be achieved through use of a high powered laser. What kind of receiver would be used to intercept the signal? How precisely would the laser have to be aligned to be usable?  Edit: I'm reading a bit about this and see that the limit on distance laser communication is known to work in space is way short of the mark.  Is the plan then to string machines along every few thousand miles between earth and Alpha Centauri?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11328.0,"score_ratio":10.5}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d21th6j","c_root_id_B":"d21terf","created_at_utc_A":1460587833,"created_at_utc_B":1460587732,"score_A":22,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"I am curious about the difficulty of sending images back to earth. Only having a general understanding of radio communication and bandwidth, how realistic is this that in the near future we could build a system that worked? What kind of band width would we be looking at for a 1w laser communicating several light years?","human_ref_B":"I see that one of the articles mentions communication would be achieved through use of a high powered laser. What kind of receiver would be used to intercept the signal? How precisely would the laser have to be aligned to be usable?  Edit: I'm reading a bit about this and see that the limit on distance laser communication is known to work in space is way short of the mark.  Is the plan then to string machines along every few thousand miles between earth and Alpha Centauri?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":101.0,"score_ratio":3.6666666667}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d21x581","c_root_id_B":"d22anq2","created_at_utc_A":1460593255,"created_at_utc_B":1460616276,"score_A":16,"score_B":19,"human_ref_A":"Would the satellites form some kind of network to \"bounce\" back images they take or amplify signals? Will some satellites be specialized as cameras and others as amplifiers or something? Or will we rely on some apparatus on Earth listening for very weak signals from them to receive any kind of data from them?","human_ref_B":"Given the short observational flyby for the pluto mission, traveling at a rather meager velocity, how much observational data would a mission to alpha centauri be able to realistically obtain *if zooming along at 0.2c?*   Would a detailed analysis of planets in the system be reasonable?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":23021.0,"score_ratio":1.1875}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d22aeid","c_root_id_B":"d22anq2","created_at_utc_A":1460615539,"created_at_utc_B":1460616276,"score_A":8,"score_B":19,"human_ref_A":"If a probe like starshot from another solar system passed through our solar system, would we be able to detect it?","human_ref_B":"Given the short observational flyby for the pluto mission, traveling at a rather meager velocity, how much observational data would a mission to alpha centauri be able to realistically obtain *if zooming along at 0.2c?*   Would a detailed analysis of planets in the system be reasonable?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":737.0,"score_ratio":2.375}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d21terf","c_root_id_B":"d22anq2","created_at_utc_A":1460587732,"created_at_utc_B":1460616276,"score_A":6,"score_B":19,"human_ref_A":"I see that one of the articles mentions communication would be achieved through use of a high powered laser. What kind of receiver would be used to intercept the signal? How precisely would the laser have to be aligned to be usable?  Edit: I'm reading a bit about this and see that the limit on distance laser communication is known to work in space is way short of the mark.  Is the plan then to string machines along every few thousand miles between earth and Alpha Centauri?","human_ref_B":"Given the short observational flyby for the pluto mission, traveling at a rather meager velocity, how much observational data would a mission to alpha centauri be able to realistically obtain *if zooming along at 0.2c?*   Would a detailed analysis of planets in the system be reasonable?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":28544.0,"score_ratio":3.1666666667}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d22anq2","c_root_id_B":"d2294ms","created_at_utc_A":1460616276,"created_at_utc_B":1460612248,"score_A":19,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Given the short observational flyby for the pluto mission, traveling at a rather meager velocity, how much observational data would a mission to alpha centauri be able to realistically obtain *if zooming along at 0.2c?*   Would a detailed analysis of planets in the system be reasonable?","human_ref_B":"Let's say you can get a probe to Alpha Centauri in 20 years or so, propelling it with  Giga-watt laser from Earth (or perhaps better yet, Earth orbit.  Is there any way to slow down once you get there (deploy a solar wind parachute?). Or do you just zip through the system iover the course of w week?  Now that I think of it, the solar parachute might just work...","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4028.0,"score_ratio":4.75}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d22anq2","c_root_id_B":"d224s4w","created_at_utc_A":1460616276,"created_at_utc_B":1460604140,"score_A":19,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Given the short observational flyby for the pluto mission, traveling at a rather meager velocity, how much observational data would a mission to alpha centauri be able to realistically obtain *if zooming along at 0.2c?*   Would a detailed analysis of planets in the system be reasonable?","human_ref_B":"When you're approaching .2 c would you have to shield a ship for micro meteorites? Or even just for normal gasses in interstellar space?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":12136.0,"score_ratio":9.5}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d21terf","c_root_id_B":"d21x581","created_at_utc_A":1460587732,"created_at_utc_B":1460593255,"score_A":6,"score_B":16,"human_ref_A":"I see that one of the articles mentions communication would be achieved through use of a high powered laser. What kind of receiver would be used to intercept the signal? How precisely would the laser have to be aligned to be usable?  Edit: I'm reading a bit about this and see that the limit on distance laser communication is known to work in space is way short of the mark.  Is the plan then to string machines along every few thousand miles between earth and Alpha Centauri?","human_ref_B":"Would the satellites form some kind of network to \"bounce\" back images they take or amplify signals? Will some satellites be specialized as cameras and others as amplifiers or something? Or will we rely on some apparatus on Earth listening for very weak signals from them to receive any kind of data from them?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5523.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d22exzf","c_root_id_B":"d22bnf4","created_at_utc_A":1460631525,"created_at_utc_B":1460619350,"score_A":9,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"From the previous post:  \"Posing another challenge is the design of the sails, which would have to be very thin and able to reflect the laser light without absorbing any of its energy. Absorbing as little as one part in 100,000 of the laser energy would vaporize the sail\"  So, what's going to happen to that 100 gigawatts of power being reflected back to earth?","human_ref_B":"The design calls for a laser in the region of 100 gigawatts.   Will this need to be one device or could 100 gigawatt lasers spread out on a large ground station achieve the same effect?   What is our most powerful laser currently working and what does the progression look like in the future? Is there a sort of moores law for laser strength that implies we could achieve this in the next 50 years or does this rely on the hope we will crack the problem eventually.  And finally.  What material could the spacecraft be made from to absorb that much energy and not be incinerated, let alone survive for a 2 minute pulse. Some sort of ablative design?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":12175.0,"score_ratio":1.125}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d22bnf4","c_root_id_B":"d21terf","created_at_utc_A":1460619350,"created_at_utc_B":1460587732,"score_A":8,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"The design calls for a laser in the region of 100 gigawatts.   Will this need to be one device or could 100 gigawatt lasers spread out on a large ground station achieve the same effect?   What is our most powerful laser currently working and what does the progression look like in the future? Is there a sort of moores law for laser strength that implies we could achieve this in the next 50 years or does this rely on the hope we will crack the problem eventually.  And finally.  What material could the spacecraft be made from to absorb that much energy and not be incinerated, let alone survive for a 2 minute pulse. Some sort of ablative design?","human_ref_B":"I see that one of the articles mentions communication would be achieved through use of a high powered laser. What kind of receiver would be used to intercept the signal? How precisely would the laser have to be aligned to be usable?  Edit: I'm reading a bit about this and see that the limit on distance laser communication is known to work in space is way short of the mark.  Is the plan then to string machines along every few thousand miles between earth and Alpha Centauri?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":31618.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d2294ms","c_root_id_B":"d22bnf4","created_at_utc_A":1460612248,"created_at_utc_B":1460619350,"score_A":4,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Let's say you can get a probe to Alpha Centauri in 20 years or so, propelling it with  Giga-watt laser from Earth (or perhaps better yet, Earth orbit.  Is there any way to slow down once you get there (deploy a solar wind parachute?). Or do you just zip through the system iover the course of w week?  Now that I think of it, the solar parachute might just work...","human_ref_B":"The design calls for a laser in the region of 100 gigawatts.   Will this need to be one device or could 100 gigawatt lasers spread out on a large ground station achieve the same effect?   What is our most powerful laser currently working and what does the progression look like in the future? Is there a sort of moores law for laser strength that implies we could achieve this in the next 50 years or does this rely on the hope we will crack the problem eventually.  And finally.  What material could the spacecraft be made from to absorb that much energy and not be incinerated, let alone survive for a 2 minute pulse. Some sort of ablative design?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7102.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d224s4w","c_root_id_B":"d22bnf4","created_at_utc_A":1460604140,"created_at_utc_B":1460619350,"score_A":2,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"When you're approaching .2 c would you have to shield a ship for micro meteorites? Or even just for normal gasses in interstellar space?","human_ref_B":"The design calls for a laser in the region of 100 gigawatts.   Will this need to be one device or could 100 gigawatt lasers spread out on a large ground station achieve the same effect?   What is our most powerful laser currently working and what does the progression look like in the future? Is there a sort of moores law for laser strength that implies we could achieve this in the next 50 years or does this rely on the hope we will crack the problem eventually.  And finally.  What material could the spacecraft be made from to absorb that much energy and not be incinerated, let alone survive for a 2 minute pulse. Some sort of ablative design?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":15210.0,"score_ratio":4.0}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d22exzf","c_root_id_B":"d22aeid","created_at_utc_A":1460631525,"created_at_utc_B":1460615539,"score_A":9,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"From the previous post:  \"Posing another challenge is the design of the sails, which would have to be very thin and able to reflect the laser light without absorbing any of its energy. Absorbing as little as one part in 100,000 of the laser energy would vaporize the sail\"  So, what's going to happen to that 100 gigawatts of power being reflected back to earth?","human_ref_B":"If a probe like starshot from another solar system passed through our solar system, would we be able to detect it?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":15986.0,"score_ratio":1.125}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d22aeid","c_root_id_B":"d21terf","created_at_utc_A":1460615539,"created_at_utc_B":1460587732,"score_A":8,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"If a probe like starshot from another solar system passed through our solar system, would we be able to detect it?","human_ref_B":"I see that one of the articles mentions communication would be achieved through use of a high powered laser. What kind of receiver would be used to intercept the signal? How precisely would the laser have to be aligned to be usable?  Edit: I'm reading a bit about this and see that the limit on distance laser communication is known to work in space is way short of the mark.  Is the plan then to string machines along every few thousand miles between earth and Alpha Centauri?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":27807.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d2294ms","c_root_id_B":"d22aeid","created_at_utc_A":1460612248,"created_at_utc_B":1460615539,"score_A":4,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Let's say you can get a probe to Alpha Centauri in 20 years or so, propelling it with  Giga-watt laser from Earth (or perhaps better yet, Earth orbit.  Is there any way to slow down once you get there (deploy a solar wind parachute?). Or do you just zip through the system iover the course of w week?  Now that I think of it, the solar parachute might just work...","human_ref_B":"If a probe like starshot from another solar system passed through our solar system, would we be able to detect it?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3291.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d22aeid","c_root_id_B":"d224s4w","created_at_utc_A":1460615539,"created_at_utc_B":1460604140,"score_A":8,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"If a probe like starshot from another solar system passed through our solar system, would we be able to detect it?","human_ref_B":"When you're approaching .2 c would you have to shield a ship for micro meteorites? Or even just for normal gasses in interstellar space?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11399.0,"score_ratio":4.0}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d21terf","c_root_id_B":"d22exzf","created_at_utc_A":1460587732,"created_at_utc_B":1460631525,"score_A":6,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"I see that one of the articles mentions communication would be achieved through use of a high powered laser. What kind of receiver would be used to intercept the signal? How precisely would the laser have to be aligned to be usable?  Edit: I'm reading a bit about this and see that the limit on distance laser communication is known to work in space is way short of the mark.  Is the plan then to string machines along every few thousand miles between earth and Alpha Centauri?","human_ref_B":"From the previous post:  \"Posing another challenge is the design of the sails, which would have to be very thin and able to reflect the laser light without absorbing any of its energy. Absorbing as little as one part in 100,000 of the laser energy would vaporize the sail\"  So, what's going to happen to that 100 gigawatts of power being reflected back to earth?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":43793.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d2294ms","c_root_id_B":"d22exzf","created_at_utc_A":1460612248,"created_at_utc_B":1460631525,"score_A":4,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"Let's say you can get a probe to Alpha Centauri in 20 years or so, propelling it with  Giga-watt laser from Earth (or perhaps better yet, Earth orbit.  Is there any way to slow down once you get there (deploy a solar wind parachute?). Or do you just zip through the system iover the course of w week?  Now that I think of it, the solar parachute might just work...","human_ref_B":"From the previous post:  \"Posing another challenge is the design of the sails, which would have to be very thin and able to reflect the laser light without absorbing any of its energy. Absorbing as little as one part in 100,000 of the laser energy would vaporize the sail\"  So, what's going to happen to that 100 gigawatts of power being reflected back to earth?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":19277.0,"score_ratio":2.25}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d224s4w","c_root_id_B":"d22exzf","created_at_utc_A":1460604140,"created_at_utc_B":1460631525,"score_A":2,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"When you're approaching .2 c would you have to shield a ship for micro meteorites? Or even just for normal gasses in interstellar space?","human_ref_B":"From the previous post:  \"Posing another challenge is the design of the sails, which would have to be very thin and able to reflect the laser light without absorbing any of its energy. Absorbing as little as one part in 100,000 of the laser energy would vaporize the sail\"  So, what's going to happen to that 100 gigawatts of power being reflected back to earth?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":27385.0,"score_ratio":4.5}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d2294ms","c_root_id_B":"d224s4w","created_at_utc_A":1460612248,"created_at_utc_B":1460604140,"score_A":4,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Let's say you can get a probe to Alpha Centauri in 20 years or so, propelling it with  Giga-watt laser from Earth (or perhaps better yet, Earth orbit.  Is there any way to slow down once you get there (deploy a solar wind parachute?). Or do you just zip through the system iover the course of w week?  Now that I think of it, the solar parachute might just work...","human_ref_B":"When you're approaching .2 c would you have to shield a ship for micro meteorites? Or even just for normal gasses in interstellar space?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8108.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d22p0nq","c_root_id_B":"d224s4w","created_at_utc_A":1460648872,"created_at_utc_B":1460604140,"score_A":4,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"How rare are natural objects moving at 0.2c?","human_ref_B":"When you're approaching .2 c would you have to shield a ship for micro meteorites? Or even just for normal gasses in interstellar space?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":44732.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d22gx28","c_root_id_B":"d22p0nq","created_at_utc_A":1460636721,"created_at_utc_B":1460648872,"score_A":2,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"If you can point a laser at a small object in space, and \"Push\" it 1\/5 the speed of light, why wouldn't it move at the speed of light? What is slowing it down or preventing it from going that fast?  Also, if for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction , and there is no atmosphere in space , how come you can't shoot a laser out of a spacecraft and have the ship go the opposite direction at the speed of light?","human_ref_B":"How rare are natural objects moving at 0.2c?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12151.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d22p0nq","c_root_id_B":"d22k64d","created_at_utc_A":1460648872,"created_at_utc_B":1460642382,"score_A":4,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"How rare are natural objects moving at 0.2c?","human_ref_B":"I tried making my own thread on this but it got no traction. What I've read of the proposed design would involve sail like wires several kilometres long to help accelerate the vessel and act as a communication dish back to earth. I've also read that the proposed design's goal is to fly within 1AU of the target exoplanet. If a similarly designed probe were to fly through the solar system or near earth, would we have any way of detecting it?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6490.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"4eo3fw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Breakthrough Starshot Megathread Hi everyone!  We're getting a number of questions related to the Breakthrough Starshot, a project to design a nanoprobe mission to Alpha Centauri. Come join us and ask your questions here!  * NY Times article * Ars Technica article * Some challenges listed","c_root_id_A":"d22p0nq","c_root_id_B":"d22kw6s","created_at_utc_A":1460648872,"created_at_utc_B":1460643442,"score_A":4,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"How rare are natural objects moving at 0.2c?","human_ref_B":"Would the laser system work significantly better on Mars with little atmosphere to distort the beam?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5430.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"81afjs","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"If bleach kills 99.9% of germs, what kind of spooky stuff is surviving in bleach?","c_root_id_A":"dv2537e","c_root_id_B":"dv2cpb9","created_at_utc_A":1519970952,"created_at_utc_B":1519987581,"score_A":10,"score_B":428,"human_ref_A":"Bacteria that form endospores (dormant, REALLY tough microbes) are the most resistant type of pathogenic microbes. The genus Clostridium is one of these spore formers that cause really nasty diseases like tetanus and gas gangrene. In order to kill these, very strict standards are put into place. If you can kill endospores then the object in question is said to be sterilized meaning that ALL microbes have been killed\/removed because these spores are so durable.","human_ref_B":"Nothing.   Just to note it's not that bleach may only kill 99.9% of germs its more an advertising 'get out of jail free card' as they cant say it kills everything and thus leave themselves open for legal challenges if and when it doesn't.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":16629.0,"score_ratio":42.8}
{"post_id":"81afjs","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"If bleach kills 99.9% of germs, what kind of spooky stuff is surviving in bleach?","c_root_id_A":"dv2df0k","c_root_id_B":"dv2537e","created_at_utc_A":1519989256,"created_at_utc_B":1519970952,"score_A":124,"score_B":10,"human_ref_A":"Sorry, this post is really long.  To fully answer your question, two things factor into play here: The Limit of Detection of how the germs are enumerated post-testing and the Log reduction from the test inoculum.    * **The Limit of Detection**    Let's jump straight into an example.   Suppose you have a tub of dirt and you want to know how much bacteria is in each gram of dirt.    We aren't able to sprinkle dirt onto an agar plate and get a reliable count so we must dilute the dirt down with a liquid solution.    A typical method would be to put 1g of dirt into 9g of liquid diluent solution (a 1:10 dilution ratio), from the subsequent dilution you repeat the same thing: 1 mL of the dirt+liquid mixture into 9g of the liquid diluent solution.   This is a serial dilution.   For each dilution done you put 1 mL of the resulting liquid onto an agar plate which will grow out individual bacteria into colonies you can visually count from.    The idea behind serial dilutions is that if there are too many bacteria in the dirt, you won't be able to count it directly from your 1:10 dilution plate - it might be from the 1:1000 or 1:10000 dilution plates that you start to be able to distinguish between individual colonies of bacteria, depending on the concentration of bacteria in the dirt.  But let's suppose our 1:10 dilution plate had no colonies on the plate. Is there really no bacteria in the 1 g of dirt we sampled?   From our method of testing, we have to count the colonies we can observe on the plate.    The lowest number of bacterial colonies we can visually see is **one colony on the plate**. If we account for the lowest dilution factor (from the dilution ratio of 1:10) we tested - which is simply adjusted by x10 from the 1:10 ratio - the lowest number of bacterial colonies per 1 g of dirt we sampled would be 10 bacteria... or to rephrase: 10 bacteria per gram of dirt.  Thus, **no bacterial colonies** on the 1:10 dilution plate would mean there would be **less than 10 bacteria per gram of dirt** (<10). Due to the quantity of sample we tested, we can not definitively say there are no bacteria in our gram of dirt tested - only that there are <10 bacteria per gram of dirt due to our limit of detection.     The limit of detection can be improved by reducing the dilution factor used - or if it is a liquid sample, by testing a greater volume of it.   * **Log reduction**    In order to evaluate how effective the bleach is at killing germs, you must start with subjecting the bleach to known concentrations of germs.    A typical method of doing this would be to add a known concentration of bacterial inoculum into a bleach solution, waiting for X time... and then enumerating the resulting bleach+bacteria solution through serial dilutions (as described previously).    This kind of microbiology deals with large numbers (typically in the millions), so logs are used to make the data easier to understand.    ^For ^a ^quick ^guide ^on ^logs: ^Log(1)=0, ^Log(10)=1, ^Log(100)=2, ^Log(1000)=3...    Let's run a hypothetical where you have an initial bacterial inoculum of 1,000,000 bacteria, you add the bleach and wait a while. You then take the solution and test to see how many of those bacterial cells were still alive...  Let's say... you found that out of the 1,000,000 bacteria (log 6) that you inoculated, only 100,000 (log 5) survived the bleach treatment. This result would mean the bleach killed off 900,000 bacteria.   Log reduction is the difference between the initial inoculum concentration and post-treatment concentration, in this instance, there is a 1 log reduction, which translates as a 90% reduction in bacterial levels.    Lets quickly run through a few more examples with the same 1,000,000 (log 6) bacterial inoculum: -    * If 10,000 survived (log 4), there would be a 2 log reduction, or 99% reduction.   * If 100 survived (log 2), there would be a 4 log reduction or a 99.99% reduction.   * If 10 bacteria survived (log 1), there would be a 5 log reduction or a 99.999% reduction.    Our lowest dilution ratio is 1:10, since we have to put\/dilute our bacterial inoculum into a bleach solution to test it. If we do not find any bacterial colonies in our 1:10 dilution ratio, our result would be that the 1:10 dilution test solution has <10 bacteria (based on the limit of detection).   Typically for challenge testing, we presume the worst case scenario if we get a result lower than our limit of detection, that you'd meet the limit of detection for your testing - 10 bacteria surviving (log 1).   This would mean the bleach solution has a 5 log reduction or a 99.999% reduction.    Typically marketing folks for disinfectants present these statistics as %'s and in fewer significant figures than you'd expect. Instead of 99.999%, they'd cut a few 9's and say 99.9% to make it more palatable for the typical consumer - this also doubles as a 'cover-your-ass' in the case of liability\/litigation\/legal issues at the expense of accuracy.    The 'cover-your-ass' cases would involve: persistent microbial spores, contours on surfaces not allowing contact with the bleach solution, biofilms, not enough contact time, the bleach solution being diluted down too much or some\/most\/all of the above.     TL;DR: -   It's not that there is anything surviving the bleach, it's just that scientists evaluating the effectiveness of the bleach aren't confident with saying that that the sanitizing solution is 100% effective at removing bacteria due to the limit of detection arising from the testing method. And marketing folk\/legal folk caring more for the perception rather than accuracy of their claims.","human_ref_B":"Bacteria that form endospores (dormant, REALLY tough microbes) are the most resistant type of pathogenic microbes. The genus Clostridium is one of these spore formers that cause really nasty diseases like tetanus and gas gangrene. In order to kill these, very strict standards are put into place. If you can kill endospores then the object in question is said to be sterilized meaning that ALL microbes have been killed\/removed because these spores are so durable.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":18304.0,"score_ratio":12.4}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwh3i43","c_root_id_B":"iwgakan","created_at_utc_A":1668529558,"created_at_utc_B":1668516302,"score_A":75,"score_B":74,"human_ref_A":"Tea, earl grey, hot.","human_ref_B":"I always imagined that a food 3d printer would use a combination of algae paste, and flavonoid cartridges.   How the heck do you 3d print raw chicken? I'm imagining you turn it into a paste, extrude it into the desired shape while using a combo of heat and some sort of starch to maintain structural integrity?  How do you then keep the system clean from all very many very dangerous bacteria that would be swarming a chicken paste?   Is the heat bed 165F?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":13256.0,"score_ratio":1.0135135135}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgakan","c_root_id_B":"iwg7fdk","created_at_utc_A":1668516302,"created_at_utc_B":1668514312,"score_A":74,"score_B":31,"human_ref_A":"I always imagined that a food 3d printer would use a combination of algae paste, and flavonoid cartridges.   How the heck do you 3d print raw chicken? I'm imagining you turn it into a paste, extrude it into the desired shape while using a combo of heat and some sort of starch to maintain structural integrity?  How do you then keep the system clean from all very many very dangerous bacteria that would be swarming a chicken paste?   Is the heat bed 165F?","human_ref_B":"What kinds of binders, starches, fillers, and extenders will be required? How's this going to be labeled, for people with non-top-8 allergies?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1990.0,"score_ratio":2.3870967742}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgakan","c_root_id_B":"iwg8vke","created_at_utc_A":1668516302,"created_at_utc_B":1668515264,"score_A":74,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"I always imagined that a food 3d printer would use a combination of algae paste, and flavonoid cartridges.   How the heck do you 3d print raw chicken? I'm imagining you turn it into a paste, extrude it into the desired shape while using a combo of heat and some sort of starch to maintain structural integrity?  How do you then keep the system clean from all very many very dangerous bacteria that would be swarming a chicken paste?   Is the heat bed 165F?","human_ref_B":"Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1038.0,"score_ratio":18.5}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwh3i43","c_root_id_B":"iwgh6yc","created_at_utc_A":1668529558,"created_at_utc_B":1668519956,"score_A":75,"score_B":66,"human_ref_A":"Tea, earl grey, hot.","human_ref_B":"Any publications? I want to follow the progression of this. I cook like an engineer, which is to say, I haven't enjoyed my own cooking in a decade.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9602.0,"score_ratio":1.1363636364}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwh3i43","c_root_id_B":"iwgtihh","created_at_utc_A":1668529558,"created_at_utc_B":1668525557,"score_A":75,"score_B":57,"human_ref_A":"Tea, earl grey, hot.","human_ref_B":"What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4001.0,"score_ratio":1.3157894737}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwh3i43","c_root_id_B":"iwgeg5k","created_at_utc_A":1668529558,"created_at_utc_B":1668518514,"score_A":75,"score_B":38,"human_ref_A":"Tea, earl grey, hot.","human_ref_B":"I can see this being extremely useful in situations that could require a consistent food supply with limited storage, I.E. space travel. Is there any markets in particular that is motivating this R&D?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11044.0,"score_ratio":1.9736842105}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwg7fdk","c_root_id_B":"iwh3i43","created_at_utc_A":1668514312,"created_at_utc_B":1668529558,"score_A":31,"score_B":75,"human_ref_A":"What kinds of binders, starches, fillers, and extenders will be required? How's this going to be labeled, for people with non-top-8 allergies?","human_ref_B":"Tea, earl grey, hot.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":15246.0,"score_ratio":2.4193548387}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgi54x","c_root_id_B":"iwh3i43","created_at_utc_A":1668520439,"created_at_utc_B":1668529558,"score_A":21,"score_B":75,"human_ref_A":"What materials do you use? For example, if you\u2019re printing chicken, is the material derived from a chicken or is it something synthetic?","human_ref_B":"Tea, earl grey, hot.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9119.0,"score_ratio":3.5714285714}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgpxws","c_root_id_B":"iwh3i43","created_at_utc_A":1668524042,"created_at_utc_B":1668529558,"score_A":15,"score_B":75,"human_ref_A":"Have you tried anything that has to be extruded while hot in either a pressure or vacuum chamber? (Like pop rocks that have carbon dioxide in the sugary crystals, or malted milk ball centers, which need to be extruded in a vacuum chamber in order to get their airy texture)        Also, have you considered applications for improving nutritional intake for people with texture struggles? (For instance, by adding various vegetable purees, protein powders, etc to pasta dough and printing in a shape that's texturally interesting for kids - or encasing very small pockets of softer fillings with dough in shapes that'd be too difficult to do without 3d printing, to \"hide\" the nutritious components better)","human_ref_B":"Tea, earl grey, hot.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5516.0,"score_ratio":5.0}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgs3dy","c_root_id_B":"iwh3i43","created_at_utc_A":1668524965,"created_at_utc_B":1668529558,"score_A":14,"score_B":75,"human_ref_A":"Do you hate food?","human_ref_B":"Tea, earl grey, hot.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4593.0,"score_ratio":5.3571428571}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgle56","c_root_id_B":"iwh3i43","created_at_utc_A":1668521994,"created_at_utc_B":1668529558,"score_A":12,"score_B":75,"human_ref_A":"Is there a way of reading the taste profile of a particular food item, and then recreating that? If yes, would that include texture and strength\/toughness?","human_ref_B":"Tea, earl grey, hot.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7564.0,"score_ratio":6.25}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwh3i43","c_root_id_B":"iwgzlg2","created_at_utc_A":1668529558,"created_at_utc_B":1668528012,"score_A":75,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"Tea, earl grey, hot.","human_ref_B":"We've been learning that highly processed foods are actually quite bad for our health.  How does printable food fit into this dynamic?  Is it as healthy as 'real' food?  Is it going to be filled with chemicals?  Is the 3D printer plastic and liable to introduce contaminants?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1546.0,"score_ratio":8.3333333333}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwghem9","c_root_id_B":"iwh3i43","created_at_utc_A":1668520067,"created_at_utc_B":1668529558,"score_A":10,"score_B":75,"human_ref_A":"Do you expect a food printer to end up on the consumer market?","human_ref_B":"Tea, earl grey, hot.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9491.0,"score_ratio":7.5}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwghz7k","c_root_id_B":"iwh3i43","created_at_utc_A":1668520357,"created_at_utc_B":1668529558,"score_A":8,"score_B":75,"human_ref_A":"Can you call it The Tinger and make it go ting when its done?","human_ref_B":"Tea, earl grey, hot.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9201.0,"score_ratio":9.375}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwh3i43","c_root_id_B":"iwh0isi","created_at_utc_A":1668529558,"created_at_utc_B":1668528381,"score_A":75,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Tea, earl grey, hot.","human_ref_B":"I'm sorry if my question does not fit the list you provided but I hope as a researcher it will be interesting for you anyway.  Do you ever feel we (as in we humans) are sometimes using technology to solve problems we do not have?   If so can you name one or two examples that come to your mind?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1177.0,"score_ratio":10.7142857143}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgz530","c_root_id_B":"iwh3i43","created_at_utc_A":1668527834,"created_at_utc_B":1668529558,"score_A":7,"score_B":75,"human_ref_A":"I assume that some foods print more easily than others. What are some simple foods that are surprisingly hard to print, and complex foods that are surprisingly easy?","human_ref_B":"Tea, earl grey, hot.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1724.0,"score_ratio":10.7142857143}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgzufz","c_root_id_B":"iwh3i43","created_at_utc_A":1668528111,"created_at_utc_B":1668529558,"score_A":6,"score_B":75,"human_ref_A":"Super cool to read about your work!   How do you peserve the freshness of your ingredients?","human_ref_B":"Tea, earl grey, hot.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1447.0,"score_ratio":12.5}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwh3i43","c_root_id_B":"iwgkhg7","created_at_utc_A":1668529558,"created_at_utc_B":1668521571,"score_A":75,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Tea, earl grey, hot.","human_ref_B":"Were you inspired by Star Trek The Next Generation?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7987.0,"score_ratio":15.0}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgsp2v","c_root_id_B":"iwh3i43","created_at_utc_A":1668525218,"created_at_utc_B":1668529558,"score_A":5,"score_B":75,"human_ref_A":"Has there been a consideration made to include hoppers with various artificial or natrual flavor powders?","human_ref_B":"Tea, earl grey, hot.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4340.0,"score_ratio":15.0}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwg8vke","c_root_id_B":"iwh3i43","created_at_utc_A":1668515264,"created_at_utc_B":1668529558,"score_A":4,"score_B":75,"human_ref_A":"Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?","human_ref_B":"Tea, earl grey, hot.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":14294.0,"score_ratio":18.75}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgw1zm","c_root_id_B":"iwh3i43","created_at_utc_A":1668526598,"created_at_utc_B":1668529558,"score_A":5,"score_B":75,"human_ref_A":"Any safeguards set in or is this mainly going to be sold as a THC\/whatever infuser?","human_ref_B":"Tea, earl grey, hot.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2960.0,"score_ratio":15.0}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgz17g","c_root_id_B":"iwh3i43","created_at_utc_A":1668527792,"created_at_utc_B":1668529558,"score_A":6,"score_B":75,"human_ref_A":"Will NASA send one to the iss?","human_ref_B":"Tea, earl grey, hot.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1766.0,"score_ratio":12.5}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwh0rg0","c_root_id_B":"iwh3i43","created_at_utc_A":1668528476,"created_at_utc_B":1668529558,"score_A":6,"score_B":75,"human_ref_A":"Very cool! I work with 3D printers constantly for my job. What is your personal favorite food to make with your food 3D printer?","human_ref_B":"Tea, earl grey, hot.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1082.0,"score_ratio":12.5}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgh6yc","c_root_id_B":"iwgeg5k","created_at_utc_A":1668519956,"created_at_utc_B":1668518514,"score_A":66,"score_B":38,"human_ref_A":"Any publications? I want to follow the progression of this. I cook like an engineer, which is to say, I haven't enjoyed my own cooking in a decade.","human_ref_B":"I can see this being extremely useful in situations that could require a consistent food supply with limited storage, I.E. space travel. Is there any markets in particular that is motivating this R&D?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1442.0,"score_ratio":1.7368421053}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwg7fdk","c_root_id_B":"iwgh6yc","created_at_utc_A":1668514312,"created_at_utc_B":1668519956,"score_A":31,"score_B":66,"human_ref_A":"What kinds of binders, starches, fillers, and extenders will be required? How's this going to be labeled, for people with non-top-8 allergies?","human_ref_B":"Any publications? I want to follow the progression of this. I cook like an engineer, which is to say, I haven't enjoyed my own cooking in a decade.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5644.0,"score_ratio":2.1290322581}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwg8vke","c_root_id_B":"iwgh6yc","created_at_utc_A":1668515264,"created_at_utc_B":1668519956,"score_A":4,"score_B":66,"human_ref_A":"Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?","human_ref_B":"Any publications? I want to follow the progression of this. I cook like an engineer, which is to say, I haven't enjoyed my own cooking in a decade.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4692.0,"score_ratio":16.5}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgtihh","c_root_id_B":"iwgeg5k","created_at_utc_A":1668525557,"created_at_utc_B":1668518514,"score_A":57,"score_B":38,"human_ref_A":"What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?","human_ref_B":"I can see this being extremely useful in situations that could require a consistent food supply with limited storage, I.E. space travel. Is there any markets in particular that is motivating this R&D?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7043.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgtihh","c_root_id_B":"iwg7fdk","created_at_utc_A":1668525557,"created_at_utc_B":1668514312,"score_A":57,"score_B":31,"human_ref_A":"What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?","human_ref_B":"What kinds of binders, starches, fillers, and extenders will be required? How's this going to be labeled, for people with non-top-8 allergies?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11245.0,"score_ratio":1.8387096774}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgtihh","c_root_id_B":"iwgi54x","created_at_utc_A":1668525557,"created_at_utc_B":1668520439,"score_A":57,"score_B":21,"human_ref_A":"What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?","human_ref_B":"What materials do you use? For example, if you\u2019re printing chicken, is the material derived from a chicken or is it something synthetic?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5118.0,"score_ratio":2.7142857143}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgpxws","c_root_id_B":"iwgtihh","created_at_utc_A":1668524042,"created_at_utc_B":1668525557,"score_A":15,"score_B":57,"human_ref_A":"Have you tried anything that has to be extruded while hot in either a pressure or vacuum chamber? (Like pop rocks that have carbon dioxide in the sugary crystals, or malted milk ball centers, which need to be extruded in a vacuum chamber in order to get their airy texture)        Also, have you considered applications for improving nutritional intake for people with texture struggles? (For instance, by adding various vegetable purees, protein powders, etc to pasta dough and printing in a shape that's texturally interesting for kids - or encasing very small pockets of softer fillings with dough in shapes that'd be too difficult to do without 3d printing, to \"hide\" the nutritious components better)","human_ref_B":"What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1515.0,"score_ratio":3.8}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgs3dy","c_root_id_B":"iwgtihh","created_at_utc_A":1668524965,"created_at_utc_B":1668525557,"score_A":14,"score_B":57,"human_ref_A":"Do you hate food?","human_ref_B":"What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":592.0,"score_ratio":4.0714285714}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgle56","c_root_id_B":"iwgtihh","created_at_utc_A":1668521994,"created_at_utc_B":1668525557,"score_A":12,"score_B":57,"human_ref_A":"Is there a way of reading the taste profile of a particular food item, and then recreating that? If yes, would that include texture and strength\/toughness?","human_ref_B":"What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3563.0,"score_ratio":4.75}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwghem9","c_root_id_B":"iwgtihh","created_at_utc_A":1668520067,"created_at_utc_B":1668525557,"score_A":10,"score_B":57,"human_ref_A":"Do you expect a food printer to end up on the consumer market?","human_ref_B":"What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5490.0,"score_ratio":5.7}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwghz7k","c_root_id_B":"iwgtihh","created_at_utc_A":1668520357,"created_at_utc_B":1668525557,"score_A":8,"score_B":57,"human_ref_A":"Can you call it The Tinger and make it go ting when its done?","human_ref_B":"What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5200.0,"score_ratio":7.125}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgtihh","c_root_id_B":"iwgkhg7","created_at_utc_A":1668525557,"created_at_utc_B":1668521571,"score_A":57,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?","human_ref_B":"Were you inspired by Star Trek The Next Generation?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3986.0,"score_ratio":11.4}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgsp2v","c_root_id_B":"iwgtihh","created_at_utc_A":1668525218,"created_at_utc_B":1668525557,"score_A":5,"score_B":57,"human_ref_A":"Has there been a consideration made to include hoppers with various artificial or natrual flavor powders?","human_ref_B":"What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":339.0,"score_ratio":11.4}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwg8vke","c_root_id_B":"iwgtihh","created_at_utc_A":1668515264,"created_at_utc_B":1668525557,"score_A":4,"score_B":57,"human_ref_A":"Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?","human_ref_B":"What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":10293.0,"score_ratio":14.25}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgeg5k","c_root_id_B":"iwg7fdk","created_at_utc_A":1668518514,"created_at_utc_B":1668514312,"score_A":38,"score_B":31,"human_ref_A":"I can see this being extremely useful in situations that could require a consistent food supply with limited storage, I.E. space travel. Is there any markets in particular that is motivating this R&D?","human_ref_B":"What kinds of binders, starches, fillers, and extenders will be required? How's this going to be labeled, for people with non-top-8 allergies?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4202.0,"score_ratio":1.2258064516}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwg8vke","c_root_id_B":"iwgeg5k","created_at_utc_A":1668515264,"created_at_utc_B":1668518514,"score_A":4,"score_B":38,"human_ref_A":"Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?","human_ref_B":"I can see this being extremely useful in situations that could require a consistent food supply with limited storage, I.E. space travel. Is there any markets in particular that is motivating this R&D?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3250.0,"score_ratio":9.5}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgi54x","c_root_id_B":"iwghem9","created_at_utc_A":1668520439,"created_at_utc_B":1668520067,"score_A":21,"score_B":10,"human_ref_A":"What materials do you use? For example, if you\u2019re printing chicken, is the material derived from a chicken or is it something synthetic?","human_ref_B":"Do you expect a food printer to end up on the consumer market?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":372.0,"score_ratio":2.1}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgi54x","c_root_id_B":"iwghz7k","created_at_utc_A":1668520439,"created_at_utc_B":1668520357,"score_A":21,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"What materials do you use? For example, if you\u2019re printing chicken, is the material derived from a chicken or is it something synthetic?","human_ref_B":"Can you call it The Tinger and make it go ting when its done?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":82.0,"score_ratio":2.625}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwg8vke","c_root_id_B":"iwgi54x","created_at_utc_A":1668515264,"created_at_utc_B":1668520439,"score_A":4,"score_B":21,"human_ref_A":"Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?","human_ref_B":"What materials do you use? For example, if you\u2019re printing chicken, is the material derived from a chicken or is it something synthetic?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5175.0,"score_ratio":5.25}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgle56","c_root_id_B":"iwgpxws","created_at_utc_A":1668521994,"created_at_utc_B":1668524042,"score_A":12,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Is there a way of reading the taste profile of a particular food item, and then recreating that? If yes, would that include texture and strength\/toughness?","human_ref_B":"Have you tried anything that has to be extruded while hot in either a pressure or vacuum chamber? (Like pop rocks that have carbon dioxide in the sugary crystals, or malted milk ball centers, which need to be extruded in a vacuum chamber in order to get their airy texture)        Also, have you considered applications for improving nutritional intake for people with texture struggles? (For instance, by adding various vegetable purees, protein powders, etc to pasta dough and printing in a shape that's texturally interesting for kids - or encasing very small pockets of softer fillings with dough in shapes that'd be too difficult to do without 3d printing, to \"hide\" the nutritious components better)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2048.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgpxws","c_root_id_B":"iwghem9","created_at_utc_A":1668524042,"created_at_utc_B":1668520067,"score_A":15,"score_B":10,"human_ref_A":"Have you tried anything that has to be extruded while hot in either a pressure or vacuum chamber? (Like pop rocks that have carbon dioxide in the sugary crystals, or malted milk ball centers, which need to be extruded in a vacuum chamber in order to get their airy texture)        Also, have you considered applications for improving nutritional intake for people with texture struggles? (For instance, by adding various vegetable purees, protein powders, etc to pasta dough and printing in a shape that's texturally interesting for kids - or encasing very small pockets of softer fillings with dough in shapes that'd be too difficult to do without 3d printing, to \"hide\" the nutritious components better)","human_ref_B":"Do you expect a food printer to end up on the consumer market?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3975.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgpxws","c_root_id_B":"iwghz7k","created_at_utc_A":1668524042,"created_at_utc_B":1668520357,"score_A":15,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Have you tried anything that has to be extruded while hot in either a pressure or vacuum chamber? (Like pop rocks that have carbon dioxide in the sugary crystals, or malted milk ball centers, which need to be extruded in a vacuum chamber in order to get their airy texture)        Also, have you considered applications for improving nutritional intake for people with texture struggles? (For instance, by adding various vegetable purees, protein powders, etc to pasta dough and printing in a shape that's texturally interesting for kids - or encasing very small pockets of softer fillings with dough in shapes that'd be too difficult to do without 3d printing, to \"hide\" the nutritious components better)","human_ref_B":"Can you call it The Tinger and make it go ting when its done?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3685.0,"score_ratio":1.875}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgpxws","c_root_id_B":"iwgkhg7","created_at_utc_A":1668524042,"created_at_utc_B":1668521571,"score_A":15,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Have you tried anything that has to be extruded while hot in either a pressure or vacuum chamber? (Like pop rocks that have carbon dioxide in the sugary crystals, or malted milk ball centers, which need to be extruded in a vacuum chamber in order to get their airy texture)        Also, have you considered applications for improving nutritional intake for people with texture struggles? (For instance, by adding various vegetable purees, protein powders, etc to pasta dough and printing in a shape that's texturally interesting for kids - or encasing very small pockets of softer fillings with dough in shapes that'd be too difficult to do without 3d printing, to \"hide\" the nutritious components better)","human_ref_B":"Were you inspired by Star Trek The Next Generation?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2471.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwg8vke","c_root_id_B":"iwgpxws","created_at_utc_A":1668515264,"created_at_utc_B":1668524042,"score_A":4,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?","human_ref_B":"Have you tried anything that has to be extruded while hot in either a pressure or vacuum chamber? (Like pop rocks that have carbon dioxide in the sugary crystals, or malted milk ball centers, which need to be extruded in a vacuum chamber in order to get their airy texture)        Also, have you considered applications for improving nutritional intake for people with texture struggles? (For instance, by adding various vegetable purees, protein powders, etc to pasta dough and printing in a shape that's texturally interesting for kids - or encasing very small pockets of softer fillings with dough in shapes that'd be too difficult to do without 3d printing, to \"hide\" the nutritious components better)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8778.0,"score_ratio":3.75}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgs3dy","c_root_id_B":"iwgle56","created_at_utc_A":1668524965,"created_at_utc_B":1668521994,"score_A":14,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"Do you hate food?","human_ref_B":"Is there a way of reading the taste profile of a particular food item, and then recreating that? If yes, would that include texture and strength\/toughness?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2971.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgs3dy","c_root_id_B":"iwghem9","created_at_utc_A":1668524965,"created_at_utc_B":1668520067,"score_A":14,"score_B":10,"human_ref_A":"Do you hate food?","human_ref_B":"Do you expect a food printer to end up on the consumer market?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4898.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwghz7k","c_root_id_B":"iwgs3dy","created_at_utc_A":1668520357,"created_at_utc_B":1668524965,"score_A":8,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"Can you call it The Tinger and make it go ting when its done?","human_ref_B":"Do you hate food?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4608.0,"score_ratio":1.75}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgs3dy","c_root_id_B":"iwgkhg7","created_at_utc_A":1668524965,"created_at_utc_B":1668521571,"score_A":14,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Do you hate food?","human_ref_B":"Were you inspired by Star Trek The Next Generation?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3394.0,"score_ratio":2.8}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwg8vke","c_root_id_B":"iwgs3dy","created_at_utc_A":1668515264,"created_at_utc_B":1668524965,"score_A":4,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?","human_ref_B":"Do you hate food?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9701.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwghem9","c_root_id_B":"iwgle56","created_at_utc_A":1668520067,"created_at_utc_B":1668521994,"score_A":10,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"Do you expect a food printer to end up on the consumer market?","human_ref_B":"Is there a way of reading the taste profile of a particular food item, and then recreating that? If yes, would that include texture and strength\/toughness?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1927.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwghz7k","c_root_id_B":"iwgle56","created_at_utc_A":1668520357,"created_at_utc_B":1668521994,"score_A":8,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"Can you call it The Tinger and make it go ting when its done?","human_ref_B":"Is there a way of reading the taste profile of a particular food item, and then recreating that? If yes, would that include texture and strength\/toughness?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1637.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgkhg7","c_root_id_B":"iwgle56","created_at_utc_A":1668521571,"created_at_utc_B":1668521994,"score_A":5,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"Were you inspired by Star Trek The Next Generation?","human_ref_B":"Is there a way of reading the taste profile of a particular food item, and then recreating that? If yes, would that include texture and strength\/toughness?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":423.0,"score_ratio":2.4}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgle56","c_root_id_B":"iwg8vke","created_at_utc_A":1668521994,"created_at_utc_B":1668515264,"score_A":12,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Is there a way of reading the taste profile of a particular food item, and then recreating that? If yes, would that include texture and strength\/toughness?","human_ref_B":"Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6730.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwghz7k","c_root_id_B":"iwgzlg2","created_at_utc_A":1668520357,"created_at_utc_B":1668528012,"score_A":8,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"Can you call it The Tinger and make it go ting when its done?","human_ref_B":"We've been learning that highly processed foods are actually quite bad for our health.  How does printable food fit into this dynamic?  Is it as healthy as 'real' food?  Is it going to be filled with chemicals?  Is the 3D printer plastic and liable to introduce contaminants?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7655.0,"score_ratio":1.125}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgz530","c_root_id_B":"iwgzlg2","created_at_utc_A":1668527834,"created_at_utc_B":1668528012,"score_A":7,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"I assume that some foods print more easily than others. What are some simple foods that are surprisingly hard to print, and complex foods that are surprisingly easy?","human_ref_B":"We've been learning that highly processed foods are actually quite bad for our health.  How does printable food fit into this dynamic?  Is it as healthy as 'real' food?  Is it going to be filled with chemicals?  Is the 3D printer plastic and liable to introduce contaminants?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":178.0,"score_ratio":1.2857142857}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgkhg7","c_root_id_B":"iwgzlg2","created_at_utc_A":1668521571,"created_at_utc_B":1668528012,"score_A":5,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"Were you inspired by Star Trek The Next Generation?","human_ref_B":"We've been learning that highly processed foods are actually quite bad for our health.  How does printable food fit into this dynamic?  Is it as healthy as 'real' food?  Is it going to be filled with chemicals?  Is the 3D printer plastic and liable to introduce contaminants?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6441.0,"score_ratio":1.8}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgsp2v","c_root_id_B":"iwgzlg2","created_at_utc_A":1668525218,"created_at_utc_B":1668528012,"score_A":5,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"Has there been a consideration made to include hoppers with various artificial or natrual flavor powders?","human_ref_B":"We've been learning that highly processed foods are actually quite bad for our health.  How does printable food fit into this dynamic?  Is it as healthy as 'real' food?  Is it going to be filled with chemicals?  Is the 3D printer plastic and liable to introduce contaminants?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2794.0,"score_ratio":1.8}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgzlg2","c_root_id_B":"iwg8vke","created_at_utc_A":1668528012,"created_at_utc_B":1668515264,"score_A":9,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"We've been learning that highly processed foods are actually quite bad for our health.  How does printable food fit into this dynamic?  Is it as healthy as 'real' food?  Is it going to be filled with chemicals?  Is the 3D printer plastic and liable to introduce contaminants?","human_ref_B":"Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":12748.0,"score_ratio":2.25}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgzlg2","c_root_id_B":"iwgw1zm","created_at_utc_A":1668528012,"created_at_utc_B":1668526598,"score_A":9,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"We've been learning that highly processed foods are actually quite bad for our health.  How does printable food fit into this dynamic?  Is it as healthy as 'real' food?  Is it going to be filled with chemicals?  Is the 3D printer plastic and liable to introduce contaminants?","human_ref_B":"Any safeguards set in or is this mainly going to be sold as a THC\/whatever infuser?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1414.0,"score_ratio":1.8}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgzlg2","c_root_id_B":"iwgz17g","created_at_utc_A":1668528012,"created_at_utc_B":1668527792,"score_A":9,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"We've been learning that highly processed foods are actually quite bad for our health.  How does printable food fit into this dynamic?  Is it as healthy as 'real' food?  Is it going to be filled with chemicals?  Is the 3D printer plastic and liable to introduce contaminants?","human_ref_B":"Will NASA send one to the iss?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":220.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwg8vke","c_root_id_B":"iwghem9","created_at_utc_A":1668515264,"created_at_utc_B":1668520067,"score_A":4,"score_B":10,"human_ref_A":"Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?","human_ref_B":"Do you expect a food printer to end up on the consumer market?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4803.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwg8vke","c_root_id_B":"iwghz7k","created_at_utc_A":1668515264,"created_at_utc_B":1668520357,"score_A":4,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?","human_ref_B":"Can you call it The Tinger and make it go ting when its done?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5093.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgzufz","c_root_id_B":"iwh0isi","created_at_utc_A":1668528111,"created_at_utc_B":1668528381,"score_A":6,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Super cool to read about your work!   How do you peserve the freshness of your ingredients?","human_ref_B":"I'm sorry if my question does not fit the list you provided but I hope as a researcher it will be interesting for you anyway.  Do you ever feel we (as in we humans) are sometimes using technology to solve problems we do not have?   If so can you name one or two examples that come to your mind?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":270.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwh0isi","c_root_id_B":"iwgkhg7","created_at_utc_A":1668528381,"created_at_utc_B":1668521571,"score_A":7,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"I'm sorry if my question does not fit the list you provided but I hope as a researcher it will be interesting for you anyway.  Do you ever feel we (as in we humans) are sometimes using technology to solve problems we do not have?   If so can you name one or two examples that come to your mind?","human_ref_B":"Were you inspired by Star Trek The Next Generation?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6810.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgsp2v","c_root_id_B":"iwh0isi","created_at_utc_A":1668525218,"created_at_utc_B":1668528381,"score_A":5,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Has there been a consideration made to include hoppers with various artificial or natrual flavor powders?","human_ref_B":"I'm sorry if my question does not fit the list you provided but I hope as a researcher it will be interesting for you anyway.  Do you ever feel we (as in we humans) are sometimes using technology to solve problems we do not have?   If so can you name one or two examples that come to your mind?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3163.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwh0isi","c_root_id_B":"iwg8vke","created_at_utc_A":1668528381,"created_at_utc_B":1668515264,"score_A":7,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"I'm sorry if my question does not fit the list you provided but I hope as a researcher it will be interesting for you anyway.  Do you ever feel we (as in we humans) are sometimes using technology to solve problems we do not have?   If so can you name one or two examples that come to your mind?","human_ref_B":"Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":13117.0,"score_ratio":1.75}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgw1zm","c_root_id_B":"iwh0isi","created_at_utc_A":1668526598,"created_at_utc_B":1668528381,"score_A":5,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Any safeguards set in or is this mainly going to be sold as a THC\/whatever infuser?","human_ref_B":"I'm sorry if my question does not fit the list you provided but I hope as a researcher it will be interesting for you anyway.  Do you ever feel we (as in we humans) are sometimes using technology to solve problems we do not have?   If so can you name one or two examples that come to your mind?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1783.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwh0isi","c_root_id_B":"iwgz17g","created_at_utc_A":1668528381,"created_at_utc_B":1668527792,"score_A":7,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"I'm sorry if my question does not fit the list you provided but I hope as a researcher it will be interesting for you anyway.  Do you ever feel we (as in we humans) are sometimes using technology to solve problems we do not have?   If so can you name one or two examples that come to your mind?","human_ref_B":"Will NASA send one to the iss?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":589.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgz530","c_root_id_B":"iwgkhg7","created_at_utc_A":1668527834,"created_at_utc_B":1668521571,"score_A":7,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"I assume that some foods print more easily than others. What are some simple foods that are surprisingly hard to print, and complex foods that are surprisingly easy?","human_ref_B":"Were you inspired by Star Trek The Next Generation?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6263.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgsp2v","c_root_id_B":"iwgz530","created_at_utc_A":1668525218,"created_at_utc_B":1668527834,"score_A":5,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Has there been a consideration made to include hoppers with various artificial or natrual flavor powders?","human_ref_B":"I assume that some foods print more easily than others. What are some simple foods that are surprisingly hard to print, and complex foods that are surprisingly easy?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2616.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwg8vke","c_root_id_B":"iwgz530","created_at_utc_A":1668515264,"created_at_utc_B":1668527834,"score_A":4,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?","human_ref_B":"I assume that some foods print more easily than others. What are some simple foods that are surprisingly hard to print, and complex foods that are surprisingly easy?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12570.0,"score_ratio":1.75}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgz530","c_root_id_B":"iwgw1zm","created_at_utc_A":1668527834,"created_at_utc_B":1668526598,"score_A":7,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"I assume that some foods print more easily than others. What are some simple foods that are surprisingly hard to print, and complex foods that are surprisingly easy?","human_ref_B":"Any safeguards set in or is this mainly going to be sold as a THC\/whatever infuser?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1236.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgz17g","c_root_id_B":"iwgz530","created_at_utc_A":1668527792,"created_at_utc_B":1668527834,"score_A":6,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Will NASA send one to the iss?","human_ref_B":"I assume that some foods print more easily than others. What are some simple foods that are surprisingly hard to print, and complex foods that are surprisingly easy?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":42.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgzufz","c_root_id_B":"iwgkhg7","created_at_utc_A":1668528111,"created_at_utc_B":1668521571,"score_A":6,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Super cool to read about your work!   How do you peserve the freshness of your ingredients?","human_ref_B":"Were you inspired by Star Trek The Next Generation?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6540.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgsp2v","c_root_id_B":"iwgzufz","created_at_utc_A":1668525218,"created_at_utc_B":1668528111,"score_A":5,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Has there been a consideration made to include hoppers with various artificial or natrual flavor powders?","human_ref_B":"Super cool to read about your work!   How do you peserve the freshness of your ingredients?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2893.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwg8vke","c_root_id_B":"iwgzufz","created_at_utc_A":1668515264,"created_at_utc_B":1668528111,"score_A":4,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?","human_ref_B":"Super cool to read about your work!   How do you peserve the freshness of your ingredients?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12847.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgzufz","c_root_id_B":"iwgw1zm","created_at_utc_A":1668528111,"created_at_utc_B":1668526598,"score_A":6,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Super cool to read about your work!   How do you peserve the freshness of your ingredients?","human_ref_B":"Any safeguards set in or is this mainly going to be sold as a THC\/whatever infuser?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1513.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgkhg7","c_root_id_B":"iwg8vke","created_at_utc_A":1668521571,"created_at_utc_B":1668515264,"score_A":5,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Were you inspired by Star Trek The Next Generation?","human_ref_B":"Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6307.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgz17g","c_root_id_B":"iwgkhg7","created_at_utc_A":1668527792,"created_at_utc_B":1668521571,"score_A":6,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Will NASA send one to the iss?","human_ref_B":"Were you inspired by Star Trek The Next Generation?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6221.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwh0rg0","c_root_id_B":"iwgkhg7","created_at_utc_A":1668528476,"created_at_utc_B":1668521571,"score_A":6,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Very cool! I work with 3D printers constantly for my job. What is your personal favorite food to make with your food 3D printer?","human_ref_B":"Were you inspired by Star Trek The Next Generation?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6905.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwg8vke","c_root_id_B":"iwgsp2v","created_at_utc_A":1668515264,"created_at_utc_B":1668525218,"score_A":4,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?","human_ref_B":"Has there been a consideration made to include hoppers with various artificial or natrual flavor powders?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9954.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgsp2v","c_root_id_B":"iwgz17g","created_at_utc_A":1668525218,"created_at_utc_B":1668527792,"score_A":5,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Has there been a consideration made to include hoppers with various artificial or natrual flavor powders?","human_ref_B":"Will NASA send one to the iss?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2574.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwh0rg0","c_root_id_B":"iwgsp2v","created_at_utc_A":1668528476,"created_at_utc_B":1668525218,"score_A":6,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Very cool! I work with 3D printers constantly for my job. What is your personal favorite food to make with your food 3D printer?","human_ref_B":"Has there been a consideration made to include hoppers with various artificial or natrual flavor powders?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3258.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgw1zm","c_root_id_B":"iwg8vke","created_at_utc_A":1668526598,"created_at_utc_B":1668515264,"score_A":5,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Any safeguards set in or is this mainly going to be sold as a THC\/whatever infuser?","human_ref_B":"Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11334.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgz17g","c_root_id_B":"iwg8vke","created_at_utc_A":1668527792,"created_at_utc_B":1668515264,"score_A":6,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Will NASA send one to the iss?","human_ref_B":"Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":12528.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwh0rg0","c_root_id_B":"iwg8vke","created_at_utc_A":1668528476,"created_at_utc_B":1668515264,"score_A":6,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Very cool! I work with 3D printers constantly for my job. What is your personal favorite food to make with your food 3D printer?","human_ref_B":"Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":13212.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgw1zm","c_root_id_B":"iwgz17g","created_at_utc_A":1668526598,"created_at_utc_B":1668527792,"score_A":5,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Any safeguards set in or is this mainly going to be sold as a THC\/whatever infuser?","human_ref_B":"Will NASA send one to the iss?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1194.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"yvv4rq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"iwgw1zm","c_root_id_B":"iwh0rg0","created_at_utc_A":1668526598,"created_at_utc_B":1668528476,"score_A":5,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Any safeguards set in or is this mainly going to be sold as a THC\/whatever infuser?","human_ref_B":"Very cool! I work with 3D printers constantly for my job. What is your personal favorite food to make with your food 3D printer?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1878.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"zuuspp","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"why do we only have LEDs around the visible light spectrum? Why not have MEDs (microwave-emitting) or REDs (radio), or even XED (x-ray) or GED (gamma)?","c_root_id_A":"j1lyta4","c_root_id_B":"j1mgdvd","created_at_utc_A":1671976556,"created_at_utc_B":1671986292,"score_A":20,"score_B":76,"human_ref_A":"Every range of the spectrum needs something where the energy levels and frequencies match the radiation desired.   Semiconductors have an \u201cenergy gap\u201d where electrons can move from one energy level to another, sending out light in the visible range. This is used in the LED.   In Xray tubes, it is electrons deep inside the atom that jump between states, emitting much more energetic and high-frequency radiation. And electrons with very high velocity smashing into atoms, releasing energy in the same range.   In a radio transmitter, electrons are slushing back and forth between different electronic components with frequencies that are very high compared to our everyday time scales, but slowly compared to the frequencies of light or xrays.","human_ref_B":"Actually, we do.  They just aren't as common as light emitting diodes.  For near infrared, there's one or more infrared LEDs in every  every television remote.   Far infraed (sometimes called THz waves) require specialized diodes to create and amplify, and the process is very inefficient (so far - they're working on it because the uses are mind-bending).  For microwaves, there's a kind of diode called a Gunn diode that has a crazy thing called negative resistance coefficient causing plasma instability; bias it right, stick it in a waveguide, and the Gunn diode turns DC into microwaves in one step.  You'll find them in police speed radars and automatic door openers in grocery stores.    Radio waves \\*are\\* microwaves, just big ones -- the issue is that to be an efficient transmitter, your antenna needs to be at least half a wavelength long.  AM radio has a wavelength of roughly one football (or soccer, or rugby) field long, so the diode implementation is rediculously large, and other methods are used.  X-rays and Gamma rays also overlap; the difference was taught to me by a professor who worked on the Manhattan project \"If you turn the power off and they go away, it's X-rays.  If they keep getting emitted, it's gammas:.\"  Now, X-rays can be emitted in a process called X-ray fluorescence; that's how the \"alloy identifying guns\" used in scrapyards work to sort out scrap metals into different types - they slam the scrap metal with a blast of gamma rays, and look at the X-ray frequencies (yes, X-rays have \"color\", or something quite close to it).  If it shines in the \"color\" of chromium, it's almost certainly stainless steel; the \"colors\" of tungsten means tool steel, and so on.  So again, yeah, it exists, it's just not common for Joe Average to see them.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9736.0,"score_ratio":3.8}
{"post_id":"zuuspp","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"why do we only have LEDs around the visible light spectrum? Why not have MEDs (microwave-emitting) or REDs (radio), or even XED (x-ray) or GED (gamma)?","c_root_id_A":"j1m0t0l","c_root_id_B":"j1mgdvd","created_at_utc_A":1671977825,"created_at_utc_B":1671986292,"score_A":18,"score_B":76,"human_ref_A":"Is the question backwards? Is it more illuminating to ask why our eyes perceive the same wavelengths that are \u201ceasy\u201d to produce by LEDs? Do our rods and cones detect light by absorbing photons of wavelengths that correspond to typical energy transitions?","human_ref_B":"Actually, we do.  They just aren't as common as light emitting diodes.  For near infrared, there's one or more infrared LEDs in every  every television remote.   Far infraed (sometimes called THz waves) require specialized diodes to create and amplify, and the process is very inefficient (so far - they're working on it because the uses are mind-bending).  For microwaves, there's a kind of diode called a Gunn diode that has a crazy thing called negative resistance coefficient causing plasma instability; bias it right, stick it in a waveguide, and the Gunn diode turns DC into microwaves in one step.  You'll find them in police speed radars and automatic door openers in grocery stores.    Radio waves \\*are\\* microwaves, just big ones -- the issue is that to be an efficient transmitter, your antenna needs to be at least half a wavelength long.  AM radio has a wavelength of roughly one football (or soccer, or rugby) field long, so the diode implementation is rediculously large, and other methods are used.  X-rays and Gamma rays also overlap; the difference was taught to me by a professor who worked on the Manhattan project \"If you turn the power off and they go away, it's X-rays.  If they keep getting emitted, it's gammas:.\"  Now, X-rays can be emitted in a process called X-ray fluorescence; that's how the \"alloy identifying guns\" used in scrapyards work to sort out scrap metals into different types - they slam the scrap metal with a blast of gamma rays, and look at the X-ray frequencies (yes, X-rays have \"color\", or something quite close to it).  If it shines in the \"color\" of chromium, it's almost certainly stainless steel; the \"colors\" of tungsten means tool steel, and so on.  So again, yeah, it exists, it's just not common for Joe Average to see them.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8467.0,"score_ratio":4.2222222222}
{"post_id":"rimoc0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why is Omicron considered a variant, rather than a novel coronavirus? I'm no expert, but from what I read it seems that the omicron variant has different symptoms and little-to-no shared immunity. At what point is it just a new coronavirus like the other coronaviruses in the world as opposed to a variant of Covid-19?","c_root_id_A":"hoy399g","c_root_id_B":"hozv1fm","created_at_utc_A":1639764241,"created_at_utc_B":1639790821,"score_A":342,"score_B":765,"human_ref_A":"This was asked recently (How much does COVID-19 have to mutate for the mutant to be called \"SARS-CoV-3\"?). Quoting myself:  Until it\u2019s no longer a polythetic class that constitutes a replicating lineage and occupies the same ecological niche.   >\t\u201ca virus species is a polythetic class of viruses that constitute a replicating lineage and occupy a particular ecological niche\u201d. A \u201cpolythetic class\u201d is one whose members have several properties in common, although they do not necessarily all share a single common defining property. In other words, the members of a virus species are defined collectively by a consensus group of properties. Virus species thus differ from the higher viral taxa, which are \u201cuniversal\u201d classes and as such are defined by properties that are necessary for membership.  \u2014ICTV Taxonomy  For practical purposes, so long as it continues to infect humans (*ecological niche*), it\u2019s very unlikely to have its name changed. Influenza A constitutes a single species that varies hundreds of thousands of times more than SARS-CoV-2, and no one is changing that name.   If, for example, a branch of SARS-CoV-2 jumped into, say, snakes, and changed so drastically that it could no longer infect humans or human cells, it *might* change names, but even then probably not. Bat influenza viruses use a completely different receptor than other influenza A viruses and they\u2019re part of the same species.","human_ref_B":"You\u2019ve hit a virology soft spot that we virologists often don\u2019t like to admit: what constitutes a new variant, strain, or species of virus is very poorly defined. It varies wildly between different virus families and is often arbitrarily defined by whoever happens to be studying the virus at the time.  There often isn\u2019t much value in arguing about what is or isn\u2019t a new virus species, the virus will still do its virusy thing whatever we call it. For Covid-19, there\u2019s probably a lot of value to public health measures to keep the species name that we all know to avoid additional confusion","labels":0,"seconds_difference":26580.0,"score_ratio":2.2368421053}
{"post_id":"rimoc0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why is Omicron considered a variant, rather than a novel coronavirus? I'm no expert, but from what I read it seems that the omicron variant has different symptoms and little-to-no shared immunity. At what point is it just a new coronavirus like the other coronaviruses in the world as opposed to a variant of Covid-19?","c_root_id_A":"hozv1fm","c_root_id_B":"hoz27cd","created_at_utc_A":1639790821,"created_at_utc_B":1639778115,"score_A":765,"score_B":61,"human_ref_A":"You\u2019ve hit a virology soft spot that we virologists often don\u2019t like to admit: what constitutes a new variant, strain, or species of virus is very poorly defined. It varies wildly between different virus families and is often arbitrarily defined by whoever happens to be studying the virus at the time.  There often isn\u2019t much value in arguing about what is or isn\u2019t a new virus species, the virus will still do its virusy thing whatever we call it. For Covid-19, there\u2019s probably a lot of value to public health measures to keep the species name that we all know to avoid additional confusion","human_ref_B":"I'm a little concerned by your impressions about Omicron. Omicron is not to be taken lightly, to be sure. It has changed quite a lot compared to other variants, and all evidence points to an unpleasant immune escape capacity. But the data on boosters is very promising, especially for protection against severe disease and death.  >  has different symptoms  Says who? Says where?  > little-to-no shared immunity  This is exaggerated. The Omicron variant does reduce the efficacy of vaccines, that is true. Just how much it reduces efficacy is still being figured out, but values summarized here and here suggest effectiveness with booster versus Omicron of 70% or more. Both of those links are summary pieces, but they cite the work that they are based off of so you can go check that out. Here's another useful report.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":12706.0,"score_ratio":12.5409836066}
{"post_id":"rimoc0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why is Omicron considered a variant, rather than a novel coronavirus? I'm no expert, but from what I read it seems that the omicron variant has different symptoms and little-to-no shared immunity. At what point is it just a new coronavirus like the other coronaviruses in the world as opposed to a variant of Covid-19?","c_root_id_A":"hozv1fm","c_root_id_B":"hoy4524","created_at_utc_A":1639790821,"created_at_utc_B":1639764580,"score_A":765,"score_B":20,"human_ref_A":"You\u2019ve hit a virology soft spot that we virologists often don\u2019t like to admit: what constitutes a new variant, strain, or species of virus is very poorly defined. It varies wildly between different virus families and is often arbitrarily defined by whoever happens to be studying the virus at the time.  There often isn\u2019t much value in arguing about what is or isn\u2019t a new virus species, the virus will still do its virusy thing whatever we call it. For Covid-19, there\u2019s probably a lot of value to public health measures to keep the species name that we all know to avoid additional confusion","human_ref_B":"There is a wide variety of coronavirus. Omicron is genetically descended from immediate descendants of the coronavirus variant identified as COVID-19.  If the COVID-19 lineage of coronavirus becomes the dominant strain in humans, I personally think that would be a good time to adjust the nomenclature.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":26241.0,"score_ratio":38.25}
{"post_id":"rimoc0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why is Omicron considered a variant, rather than a novel coronavirus? I'm no expert, but from what I read it seems that the omicron variant has different symptoms and little-to-no shared immunity. At what point is it just a new coronavirus like the other coronaviruses in the world as opposed to a variant of Covid-19?","c_root_id_A":"hoy4524","c_root_id_B":"hoz27cd","created_at_utc_A":1639764580,"created_at_utc_B":1639778115,"score_A":20,"score_B":61,"human_ref_A":"There is a wide variety of coronavirus. Omicron is genetically descended from immediate descendants of the coronavirus variant identified as COVID-19.  If the COVID-19 lineage of coronavirus becomes the dominant strain in humans, I personally think that would be a good time to adjust the nomenclature.","human_ref_B":"I'm a little concerned by your impressions about Omicron. Omicron is not to be taken lightly, to be sure. It has changed quite a lot compared to other variants, and all evidence points to an unpleasant immune escape capacity. But the data on boosters is very promising, especially for protection against severe disease and death.  >  has different symptoms  Says who? Says where?  > little-to-no shared immunity  This is exaggerated. The Omicron variant does reduce the efficacy of vaccines, that is true. Just how much it reduces efficacy is still being figured out, but values summarized here and here suggest effectiveness with booster versus Omicron of 70% or more. Both of those links are summary pieces, but they cite the work that they are based off of so you can go check that out. Here's another useful report.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":13535.0,"score_ratio":3.05}
{"post_id":"rimoc0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why is Omicron considered a variant, rather than a novel coronavirus? I'm no expert, but from what I read it seems that the omicron variant has different symptoms and little-to-no shared immunity. At what point is it just a new coronavirus like the other coronaviruses in the world as opposed to a variant of Covid-19?","c_root_id_A":"hp103oe","c_root_id_B":"hp0rpvi","created_at_utc_A":1639815490,"created_at_utc_B":1639808894,"score_A":12,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Other's have already hit all the main points, but I can add a little side-note.  The Danish \"head of CDC\"-equivalent called the omicron variant a pandemic within the pandemic, which leads me to believe that he personally sees the omicron variant as a \"novel\" coronavirus. I'd also wager that in a few months the omicron variant will be renamed to something like COVID-20.","human_ref_B":">the omicron variant has different symptoms and little-to-no shared immunity  That's just plain wrong. You should perhaps choose different sources for your news.  3 doses of the old vaccine, developed prior to delta and omicron, gives equivalent protection to 2 doses with the old variants. That's shared immunity.  And please cite what symptom you think is different, and we'll address that, but the symptoms are generally the same.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6596.0,"score_ratio":1.7142857143}
{"post_id":"rimoc0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why is Omicron considered a variant, rather than a novel coronavirus? I'm no expert, but from what I read it seems that the omicron variant has different symptoms and little-to-no shared immunity. At what point is it just a new coronavirus like the other coronaviruses in the world as opposed to a variant of Covid-19?","c_root_id_A":"hp1p8ur","c_root_id_B":"hp0rpvi","created_at_utc_A":1639835176,"created_at_utc_B":1639808894,"score_A":9,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":">little-to-no shared immunity  This isn't correct. It is more infectious than previous variants and vaccination\/prior infection will give less protection against it but there is still protection, likely of the order of 40% rising to up to ~80% with a booster.  There is still a lot we don't know and it is difficult to say anything with certainty, and I realise this is a genuine misconception on your part and no harm was meant. But could you edit your post because it's misleading in potentially dangerous ways.","human_ref_B":">the omicron variant has different symptoms and little-to-no shared immunity  That's just plain wrong. You should perhaps choose different sources for your news.  3 doses of the old vaccine, developed prior to delta and omicron, gives equivalent protection to 2 doses with the old variants. That's shared immunity.  And please cite what symptom you think is different, and we'll address that, but the symptoms are generally the same.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":26282.0,"score_ratio":1.2857142857}
{"post_id":"10xt8i","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Hypothetically, we're on a space ship moving toward planet \/ galaxy \/ sun 5 lightyears away. Because what we see of it is 5 years in the past, when moving towards it, would the time in which we are seeing \"speed up\" due to us getting closer and the light still coming to us at a constant rate?","c_root_id_A":"c6hocig","c_root_id_B":"c6hlhu1","created_at_utc_A":1349381080,"created_at_utc_B":1349370531,"score_A":14,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"This doesn't really answer your question quantitatively Edit: others have already done that perfectly adequately], but the following is one of my favourite websites on the internet: [velocity raptor  The game is essentially a very simple two dimensional puzzle game but the catch is that the speed of light in the world of the game is very slow, so relativistic effects are significant. Some of the stages where you move towards ticking clocks do qualitatively answer exactly the question you have asked here.  It starts off just like our world (i.e. c is large), then in later stages the world appears how it would if you *measured* it (and c was small), then it get really difficult and interesting when it starts to appear how you would *perceive* it (i.e. the lengths of the objects in the game aren't their true lengths in your reference frame but appear how they would if you were in the world looking at them).  I love the game because it is one of the rare things in this world that can actually phenomenologically show us what the world of modern physics is like. I am a cosmologist and use relativity every day, but playing this game still gave me a feeling for relativity that I'd never acquired just through calculation. Unfortunately it didn't help my research, but such is life, it's still a cool game.","human_ref_B":"The question is already answered, but I'll add that this is a good example of special relativity in action, and gives some idea of why it works the way it does: time at the target object passes faster, from the ship's perspective, than it does on board the ship - and this difference ensures that traveling towards an object does not involve traveling backwards in time.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":10549.0,"score_ratio":4.6666666667}
{"post_id":"10xt8i","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Hypothetically, we're on a space ship moving toward planet \/ galaxy \/ sun 5 lightyears away. Because what we see of it is 5 years in the past, when moving towards it, would the time in which we are seeing \"speed up\" due to us getting closer and the light still coming to us at a constant rate?","c_root_id_A":"c6hmjcj","c_root_id_B":"c6hocig","created_at_utc_A":1349374398,"created_at_utc_B":1349381080,"score_A":3,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"Watch this video on relativistic aberration and dopler shifting. As you get really close to the speed of light, all the light surrounding you will be focused to the front of your ship as a crazy intense beam of gamma radiation which will melt your ship and kill you very quickly. :)  http:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=JQnHTKZBTI4","human_ref_B":"This doesn't really answer your question quantitatively Edit: others have already done that perfectly adequately], but the following is one of my favourite websites on the internet: [velocity raptor  The game is essentially a very simple two dimensional puzzle game but the catch is that the speed of light in the world of the game is very slow, so relativistic effects are significant. Some of the stages where you move towards ticking clocks do qualitatively answer exactly the question you have asked here.  It starts off just like our world (i.e. c is large), then in later stages the world appears how it would if you *measured* it (and c was small), then it get really difficult and interesting when it starts to appear how you would *perceive* it (i.e. the lengths of the objects in the game aren't their true lengths in your reference frame but appear how they would if you were in the world looking at them).  I love the game because it is one of the rare things in this world that can actually phenomenologically show us what the world of modern physics is like. I am a cosmologist and use relativity every day, but playing this game still gave me a feeling for relativity that I'd never acquired just through calculation. Unfortunately it didn't help my research, but such is life, it's still a cool game.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6682.0,"score_ratio":4.6666666667}
{"post_id":"xteioc","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Is there any limit to the mass of an object in the universe? Can something, like a black hole, become so massive that it can rip through the fabric of spacetime, or would physics prevent that, or is there no upper limit to the mass an object can be?","c_root_id_A":"iqqhsp4","c_root_id_B":"iqqnqgm","created_at_utc_A":1664708151,"created_at_utc_B":1664712339,"score_A":50,"score_B":123,"human_ref_A":"What does \"object\" mean?   Stars and black holes are clearly objects, but are  galaxies objects?   Galaxies are way, way bigger than their supermassive black holes. The Milky Way Galaxy is 333,333x more massive than its supermassive black hole, Sag A*.   The largest cosmic structures in the universe are way, way, way bigger than the largest galaxies.   The theoretical size limit on cosmic structures is based on the age of the universe, that is, time needed to evolve large cosmic structures. According to the linked list, the theoretical size limit is 1,200,000,000 light years across. The list contains seven structures larger than 1,200,000,000 light years across.  And then there is the Cosmic Web, a universe-size network of dark matter and regular matter filaments which create the galaxies.   So, are these \"objects\"?","human_ref_B":"It\u2019s a tough question to answer, because as of right now we just don\u2019t know enough. But   tldr; there\u2019s no limit that we know of, but it doesn\u2019t really make sense to ask this question at all.  If you\u2019re referring to \u201cthings\u201d being anything besides a black hole, then yes we have a very precise value for how much matter we can cram into one spot. Even then, it\u2019s hard to think of this grouping (a neutron star) as one object, because it has several different distinct parts with unique properties. And if you\u2019re including black holes as it sounds like you are, then it becomes much trickier and more complicated.  It might help you to learn a bit more about how black holes behave. Black holes aren\u2019t \u201cthings\u201d; the \u201cEvent Horizon\u201d, which is commonly explained as the point of no return, is actually exactly what its name implies: it is the point at which actual \u201cevents\u201d stop happening in a physical sense. Black holes are collections of events, and those events stop meaning anything past the event horizon, at which point 4dimensional spacetime no longer exists in the way it does outside of black holes; the 3 spacial dimensions collapse.   If you were to travel past the event horizon of a black hole, any direction that you move (back up down etc) will move you closer to the \u201ccenter\u201d of the black hole, because 3D space no longer exists as a concept. You wouldn\u2019t be able to tell that this was happening. An outside observer would simply see you freeze on the horizon and completely stop moving, and very very slowly become dimmer and dimmer until you could no longer be seen. To an outside observer, the physical event of you moving towards the black hole terminates at that spot.   Black holes also do not \u201csuck\u201d anything in, including light. It\u2019s a helpful analogy but it\u2019s not what\u2019s really happening. There is a concept called redshift, where light from distant stars\/galaxies\/anything has its wavelength altered from our point of observation on earth because spacetime is continually stretching as the light is traveling through it. Black holes are black because the light that is nearby, moving towards or away or in the general vicinity has been redshifted to infinity due to spacetime warping which makes it impossible to detect. But that doesn\u2019t mean it has been sucked inward, just that the light can\u2019t ever be seen.   What I\u2019m trying to say is that even though you can think of there being a singularity at the center of a black hole (as many others have mentioned there probably isn\u2019t and it just implies we don\u2019t know enough about it yet) where all of the mass is gathered or is moving towards, positional space collapses past the Event Horizon. Outside of a black hole, you can think of them as objects because they behave like objects; if you take a black hole of identical mass as a star and swap it into its place, nothing orbiting it would even know the difference. In that sense, no, there does not seem to be a mass limit for black holes, and there isn\u2019t a mathematical reason that they would have an upper limit.   Hope this kind of makes sense, I was trying to avoid using terms like geodesics to not make it overly complicated. But let me know if I can explain anything further.      As an aside, black holes aren\u2019t really tears in spacetime at all. As of right now the only hypothetical possibility for an actual \u201ctear\u201d would be if the Higgs Field isn\u2019t in its lowest energy state (we don\u2019t know if it is or isn\u2019t) and its energy lowers, it would annihilate all of spacetime and remove all matter from existence. This would happen at a singular point where the field energy lowered, and move outward to consume the entire Galaxy at the speed of light :)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4188.0,"score_ratio":2.46}
{"post_id":"ouimir","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"There is increasing evidence that COVID-19 affects the brain. Is there a similar effect for other coronaviruses (like the ones that cause the common cold), or is it specific to SARS-CoV-2?","c_root_id_A":"h72vpjj","c_root_id_B":"h731h8b","created_at_utc_A":1627651161,"created_at_utc_B":1627653953,"score_A":17,"score_B":74,"human_ref_A":"Interesting question that sent me down a rabbit hole of articles. As far as I can tell common colds and flu cause a brain fog:  >The mental haze that comes with a head cold lasts longer than you'd think. Cognitive impairments start in the incubation period \u2013 24 to 48 hours before other cold symptoms strike \u2013 and persist for a couple of days after the coughing and sneezing stop. The cognitive effects are more severe with influenza, Smith said. Even after flu sufferers return to work, \"they can be impaired for a couple of weeks afterwards.\"   www.theglobeandmail.com\/amp\/life\/health-and-fitness\/health\/why-brain-fog-from-the-common-cold-isnt-all-in-your-head\/article36812938\/  Also came across this from 2010:  >Influenza can be associated with various neurologic problems: encephalopathy (a state of confusion), seizures, neuropathy, as well as others\u2026 during the 1918 influenza pandemic, there was also an outbreak of a strange illness known as encephalitis lethargica, in which people developed neurologic problems including, in some cases, features of Parkinsonism\u2014problems with balance, slow movements, and facial masking [a symptom in which facial muscles become immobilized]. But, the relationship between the influenza pandemic and the outbreak of encephalitis lethargica remains unclear.  https:\/\/www.brainandlife.org\/articles\/flu-and-neurologic-disease\/","human_ref_B":"COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) does affect the brain more often and to a greater degree than most common cold viruses, but brain involvement during viral infection is not unique to COVID-19. Many other viruses can affect the brain, including other coronaviruses. See this page for a summary of viruses that can directly affect the brain.  Here's a quote from a 2018 review paper talking about coronaviruses in general, before the COVID-19 virus (SARS-CoV-2) was discovered: \"As described so far, coronaviruses are respiratory viruses that exhibit neurotropic capacities that not only allows them to achieve latency and avoid the immune response of the host, but also have neurological implications that can complicate the disease associated to its infection.\"  In other words, even in 2018, it was known that coronaviruses can affect the brain. With that said, the common cold is usually caused by rhinoviruses, not coronaviruses. It's very rare for rhinovirus infections to directly involve the brain (source, source). Still, rhinovirus infection can indirectly affect the brain by inducing cytokine release that causes things like fever and sickness behavior. Sometimes fevers from the common cold can even lead to seizures, but this is relatively rare and usually only happens in young children (source, source). The common cold does not usually cause high fevers in adults (source), but again can still indirectly affect the brain by causing low mood, fatigue, brain fog, etc. (source).  Unlike the common cold, COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) can directly affect the brain in multiple ways (source, source, source). As one paper writes, \"There is enough evidence to conclude that neurological symptoms and complications are an important feature of SARS-CoV-2 infection. COVID-19 prompts a range of neurological complications, from common and somewhat mild symptoms, such as transient anosmia and ageusia; to more severe complications, albeit rarer, such as stroke, encephalitis or encephalopathy.\"  **tldr:** COVID-19 affects the brain more than the common cold virus, but other viruses can still affect the brain.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2792.0,"score_ratio":4.3529411765}
{"post_id":"sx5ixb","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"What part of the brain controls the tail in primates, and does it do anything today in humans?","c_root_id_A":"hxri4im","c_root_id_B":"hxr73s6","created_at_utc_A":1645398806,"created_at_utc_B":1645394066,"score_A":37,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"Someone else has already answered that motor cortex representation is plastic, and so we don't have any region for tail. Another interesting consequence of this is phantom limb syndrome, which can happen when someone loses a limb that had motor and sensory cortex devoted to it. Essentially, other nearby regions start taking over the available real estate, because theres a fair amount of plasticity. So occasionally inputs can trigger the neurons that used to represent the arm to fire, causing the sensation of pain\/itching\/etc in an arm that is no longer there. This paper describes how monkey somatosensory cortexes remap. The brain functions on the 'use it or lose it' principle, synapses that fire often strengthen and are maintained, and those that don't are more likely to be pruned away.","human_ref_B":"On a related note, if something like Neuralink came to be, then by tapping into the motor cortex we might be able to create a digital controller that is like a virtual appendage. It seems that there is enough plasticity there to adapt to it, so eventually it would feel like you have a virtual \"third arm\" that you can use to operate digital devices without a controller.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4740.0,"score_ratio":4.1111111111}
{"post_id":"qk29y6","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any animals besides humans that experience sleep walking? Specifically some of the more complex behaviors people have been known to engage in while sleep walking.","c_root_id_A":"hiw3ik5","c_root_id_B":"hiv4z67","created_at_utc_A":1635779310,"created_at_utc_B":1635757471,"score_A":392,"score_B":183,"human_ref_A":"Pet cockatiels can have night frights, because of their flock nature. This is because of the way they sleep in a flock. The birds towards the edge of the flock sleep more lightly, so if danger appears they can fly away. The activity stirs the rest of them from sleep but they start flying before the fully asleep ones wake up.  Birds who live in a safe home environment sleep fully, so unexpected noises in the middle of the night can result in them flying in response before they're awake.  Said flight causes them to hit the cage. If it's still dark this can result in them panicking in sort of a half awake half asleep fashion and they can often hurt themselves in this process.  Edit: was tired when I wrote this, small fixes.","human_ref_B":"I know birds and aquatic mammals have unihemispheric slow wave sleep where basically only one half of their brain shuts off at a time and the other half stays awake to preform tasks like surfacing to breathe or listening for predators. This makes me believe that sleepwalking may be a uniquely human occurrence because of the way we sleep compared to animals.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":21839.0,"score_ratio":2.1420765027}
{"post_id":"qk29y6","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any animals besides humans that experience sleep walking? Specifically some of the more complex behaviors people have been known to engage in while sleep walking.","c_root_id_A":"hiw3ik5","c_root_id_B":"hivil2z","created_at_utc_A":1635779310,"created_at_utc_B":1635768510,"score_A":392,"score_B":68,"human_ref_A":"Pet cockatiels can have night frights, because of their flock nature. This is because of the way they sleep in a flock. The birds towards the edge of the flock sleep more lightly, so if danger appears they can fly away. The activity stirs the rest of them from sleep but they start flying before the fully asleep ones wake up.  Birds who live in a safe home environment sleep fully, so unexpected noises in the middle of the night can result in them flying in response before they're awake.  Said flight causes them to hit the cage. If it's still dark this can result in them panicking in sort of a half awake half asleep fashion and they can often hurt themselves in this process.  Edit: was tired when I wrote this, small fixes.","human_ref_B":"Yes. There was an experiment done on cats that removed the Pons (part of the brain just above the brain stem), which regulates sleep paralysis. Without it the cats just acted out their dreams.  Sleepwalking is dreaming acted out, and without the sleep paralysis hormones you will always sleep walk. I assume any animal that dreams can sleep walk.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":10800.0,"score_ratio":5.7647058824}
{"post_id":"qk29y6","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any animals besides humans that experience sleep walking? Specifically some of the more complex behaviors people have been known to engage in while sleep walking.","c_root_id_A":"hiw3ik5","c_root_id_B":"hivk8ef","created_at_utc_A":1635779310,"created_at_utc_B":1635769571,"score_A":392,"score_B":19,"human_ref_A":"Pet cockatiels can have night frights, because of their flock nature. This is because of the way they sleep in a flock. The birds towards the edge of the flock sleep more lightly, so if danger appears they can fly away. The activity stirs the rest of them from sleep but they start flying before the fully asleep ones wake up.  Birds who live in a safe home environment sleep fully, so unexpected noises in the middle of the night can result in them flying in response before they're awake.  Said flight causes them to hit the cage. If it's still dark this can result in them panicking in sort of a half awake half asleep fashion and they can often hurt themselves in this process.  Edit: was tired when I wrote this, small fixes.","human_ref_B":"https:\/\/www.english-online.at\/news-articles\/living\/why-humans-need-less-sleep-than-other-animals.htm  Idk if that's the best link, but humans sleep less than other mammals, but we sleep deeper. So, I wouldn't be surprised if we are the only ones that sleep walk as a side effect.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9739.0,"score_ratio":20.6315789474}
{"post_id":"qk29y6","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any animals besides humans that experience sleep walking? Specifically some of the more complex behaviors people have been known to engage in while sleep walking.","c_root_id_A":"hiw3ik5","c_root_id_B":"hiw183k","created_at_utc_A":1635779310,"created_at_utc_B":1635778263,"score_A":392,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"Pet cockatiels can have night frights, because of their flock nature. This is because of the way they sleep in a flock. The birds towards the edge of the flock sleep more lightly, so if danger appears they can fly away. The activity stirs the rest of them from sleep but they start flying before the fully asleep ones wake up.  Birds who live in a safe home environment sleep fully, so unexpected noises in the middle of the night can result in them flying in response before they're awake.  Said flight causes them to hit the cage. If it's still dark this can result in them panicking in sort of a half awake half asleep fashion and they can often hurt themselves in this process.  Edit: was tired when I wrote this, small fixes.","human_ref_B":"Maybe think of the origin of the, Sleep Walk as a relay that discontinued a a regulating input from the active part of the brain. So yes animals should be able to sleep walk but we almost never see it. Perhaps that's another topic..","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1047.0,"score_ratio":43.5555555556}
{"post_id":"rac2l3","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.63,"history":"What percentage of children under 18 have died of Covid in America? Worldwide?","c_root_id_A":"hnhogi7","c_root_id_B":"hnhtte9","created_at_utc_A":1638816252,"created_at_utc_B":1638818358,"score_A":15,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"Well assuming I'm reading this graph correctly, which I can't guarantee as I don't seem to be able to read all the text on my phone.  https:\/\/data.cdc.gov\/NCHS\/Provisional-COVID-19-Deaths-Focus-on-Ages-0-18-Yea\/nr4s-juj3   224 deaths among 0-4 year Olds and 517 deaths among 5-18 year olds   So about 0.00000006 and 0.0000015 percents respectively.","human_ref_B":"The issue with children isn't so much that they die. The issue is that they tend to transmit the disease to vulnerable people  such as (grand)parents and teachers. Also they are susceptible to long covid. https:\/\/www.bmj.com\/content\/374\/bmj.n2157 suggests 1 in 7 still has symptoms 15 weeks later","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2106.0,"score_ratio":3.0666666667}
{"post_id":"rac2l3","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.63,"history":"What percentage of children under 18 have died of Covid in America? Worldwide?","c_root_id_A":"hni7rw7","c_root_id_B":"hnhogi7","created_at_utc_A":1638823784,"created_at_utc_B":1638816252,"score_A":19,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"For context, I believe it was overall the 8th leading cause of death in children and like half in total number from all forms of cancer.  Data for 5-11: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/vaccines\/acip\/meetings\/downloads\/slides-2021-11-2-3\/03-COVID-Jefferson-508.pdf  So overall, not very high and in fact lower than regular influenza and pneumonia so the issue is indeed more related to community transmission. However, also take into consideration that we have a safe effective vaccine that could prevent 90% of these deaths and reduce the spread of the virus and the emergence of new variants so vaccinating children is still important.","human_ref_B":"Well assuming I'm reading this graph correctly, which I can't guarantee as I don't seem to be able to read all the text on my phone.  https:\/\/data.cdc.gov\/NCHS\/Provisional-COVID-19-Deaths-Focus-on-Ages-0-18-Yea\/nr4s-juj3   224 deaths among 0-4 year Olds and 517 deaths among 5-18 year olds   So about 0.00000006 and 0.0000015 percents respectively.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7532.0,"score_ratio":1.2666666667}
{"post_id":"u6v0su","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Why does the perception of taste seem to be affected by what's eaten just prior? Note: I am not asking about why orange juice tastes bad after eating something minty for example. These causes can be easily pinned down to what we already know about taste buds.   What I am curious about is: if you were to give me bread with mustard and mayo, my reaction would be somewhere between ambivalent and negative. But if you gave me the same thing as the last bite of an italian sub, which I've already eaten the meat, toppings, etc, from, I'll happy eat it and perceive it as nearly as tasty as a bite of the full sub.   What is happening to enable this?","c_root_id_A":"i5btgoo","c_root_id_B":"i5bpomg","created_at_utc_A":1650366657,"created_at_utc_B":1650363994,"score_A":193,"score_B":120,"human_ref_A":"Why can we use \"what we already know about taste buds\" to explain why orange juice tastes bad after brushing your teeth, but not to explain the last bite of your sandwich?  The idea with orange vs mint is that there's still mint in your mouth, so you're simply tasting both at the same time, right? The same is true for your Italian sub. Oil based compounds stay in your mouth for longer than water based compounds, and oils carry a lot of flavor in food. So your mouth is likely still coated with some of those meat juices when you eat the bread.   It's also not impossible that some of those oils \/ flavors soaked into the bread in your last bite, so if you would make an Italian sub, then remove all the toppings except mayo and mustard, it would have more flavor than a plain mayo and mustard sandwich.  And that all sticks to the pure mechanics of taste buds\/your mouth - perception (what happens when those signals hit your brain) is an additional layer. I can't speak to the specifics of taste (motor system is more my specialty) but as a general rule all of our sensory perceptions affect each other, both within and across modalities. I.e. stimuli you experience from any of your physical senses can impact how you perceive stimuli from any other physical senses, whether it happens at exactly the same time or if there's a little delay between them. So the flavors you have recently experienced and the food you have recently ingested change how you perceive the flavor of what you eat in the future.","human_ref_B":"Taste is complex in a similar way that music is complex. When you take a bite of a sub you don't taste just the taste 'sub' as one unified taste, instead you taste a whole bunch of different tastes interacting and contrasting each other and amplifying each other like a great symphony of tastes.  Hearing one note played repeatedly is not often considered great music by itself, but when it is accompanied by a complex variety of of other notes and rythms it can be an essential part of a great tune.  Also, taste is not instantaneous - there and then gone - some tastes linger in your mouth and changes the perception of things you eat after the first bite. That's why some food cultures use \"palate cleansers\" - little bites of food intended to \"reset\" your taste buds and make every bite of a meal taste as good as the first one.  Just like the simple repeating tone in the music example above don't become great music on its own, the bread with mustard and mayo on it's own don't make a very memorable sandwich, but when it's part of a more complex whole it certainly can be. And just like a piece of great music can start start simple, build to a crescendo, and then fade back down to a few simple receding tones, where the intro and the outro is just as important parts of the music as the juicy bits in the middle, the first and last bites of the sub - the anticipation of all the meat and toppings in the first bite, and the memory of them in the last bites - is enhanced by being parts of something that is greater than the sum of each bite.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2663.0,"score_ratio":1.6083333333}
{"post_id":"u6v0su","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Why does the perception of taste seem to be affected by what's eaten just prior? Note: I am not asking about why orange juice tastes bad after eating something minty for example. These causes can be easily pinned down to what we already know about taste buds.   What I am curious about is: if you were to give me bread with mustard and mayo, my reaction would be somewhere between ambivalent and negative. But if you gave me the same thing as the last bite of an italian sub, which I've already eaten the meat, toppings, etc, from, I'll happy eat it and perceive it as nearly as tasty as a bite of the full sub.   What is happening to enable this?","c_root_id_A":"i5c82eo","c_root_id_B":"i5c69g3","created_at_utc_A":1650374429,"created_at_utc_B":1650373612,"score_A":17,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"The short answer is that the neurons in your taste receptors get \"fatigue\" and temporarily doesn't taste that flavour as well.  This is kind of the same as when you look at a bright thing briefly and you get dark spots the exact shape of the bright thing for a few minutes.  Because you can't taste certain flavours as well the perception of other flavours fills in your senses and end up tasting extra.  There's also instances of certain compounds causing certain receptors to bind more readily, so that you taste certain flavours *more* than usual.","human_ref_B":"Almost nothing we subjectively sense has much if anything to do with raw sensory signals. Layers upon layers in the brain process everything we perceive, analyzing, comparing, contrasting, contextualizing, integrating and synthetizing information from other senses, from memory both short and long term, and from anticipated *future* perceptions. Very few things can be considered in isolation.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":817.0,"score_ratio":2.125}
{"post_id":"j8wbi","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.73,"history":"Why does a circular paper airplane fly so well? I have been searching for this for a while.  A circular winged airplane (like this) works exceedingly well--fold one and throw it like a football if you don't believe me.  Yet, i have no explanation for why it works so well.  In principle, a circular wing should provide no net force in any direction, yet it clearly has a lift force.  My other theory was that air funneled through the center should have a higher velocity and provide a lift force, but the plane stays aloft even without a positive pitch (I would also expect this to create a great deal of drag).  So I pose to you, AskScience, why does a circular paper airplane fly so well?","c_root_id_A":"c2a52ol","c_root_id_B":"c2a49jv","created_at_utc_A":1312484075,"created_at_utc_B":1312478794,"score_A":8,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Ok, I think I've got a reasonably plausible explanation. There are 2 important things in the design of a paper plane: Pitch Stability and Zero Lift Moment.  Pitch Stability first. A paper plane is basically a flat plate and flat plate aerofoils suffer from pretty horrendous pitching moments. To remain stable, the plane needs to be sufficiently nose heavy that the pitching force acts behind the centre of mass. Purely because it's stable, a plane can fly smoothly. It might smoothly veer sideways, or smoothly dive, but whatever it does will be reasonably smooth.  The next important thing is the Zero Lift Moment. For most paper planes you have a little bit of elevator flap at the back. This provides an upwards pitching moment when the plane is flying flat. The result of this is than instead of being pitch stable about 0 degrees, it's pitch stable about a small positive angle of attack. A flat plate with a small positive angle of attack provides lift, and you've got a working plane.  For a standard paper plane: All you need is to be pitch stable, with a small offset.  Now for our circular plane. Pitch stability is easy, all the weight is at the nose. But where does it get the offset from? How does it know to fly slightly upwards rather than in a smooth dive.  This is why it needs to spin. Because the nose is heavy, it would naturally fall forwards. But as it's spinning like a gyroscope, this forward tipping torque gets transformed into a small left (or right) rotation. Now it's flying at a tiny angle sideways, there's a torque restoring it to straight. Because its spinning this again gets transformed into a rotation upwards. The overall result is that what you should have a slight negative offset, but because its a gryoscope this ends up as a slight positive offset.  So to summarise for the circular plane: It's pitch stable like all good paper planes, and relies on gyroscopic effects to get a small pitch offset.","human_ref_B":"If the ring is thrown totally flat I can see how you would say the ring should produce no lift, but the same is true of a regular paper airplane.  My guess at the effect here is twofold:  1. The spinning ring let's the flow stay attached rather than separate, so you won't stall the paper airplane.  2. You're creating some representation of a 2D airfoil and you eliminate drag effects from having a wing with ends.  I graduated with a BS and MS in aero engineering, but my aerodynamics work was mostly limited to taking and then TAing a junior level course, and that was years ago.  I'm guessing here off the top of my head.  I'll think about it more and give a more thought out explanation later if no one else gets here first.  Edit: I'm liking BorgesTesla's theory above.  The one thing about aerodyanmics that's difficult is it seems there's always two or three perfectly reasonable ways to explain whatever is happening.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5281.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"4926vb","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Does light that barely escapes the gravitational field of a black hole have decreased wave length meaning different color?","c_root_id_A":"d0olzcy","c_root_id_B":"d0omwhe","created_at_utc_A":1457194910,"created_at_utc_B":1457196580,"score_A":3,"score_B":72,"human_ref_A":"has the light been affected by the time shift of the black hole! Ie being so close, time has slowed down (for it) and upon leaving the vacinity of the black hole, still going at the same speed as far as it is concerned, but slower for the rest of us observing it?","human_ref_B":"It depends on where the light starts.  Scenario 1:  You are hovering near a black hole.  You shine a yellow flashlight towards your friend, who is far from the black hole.  Your friend reports that the light is reddish.  Scenario 2:  You and your friend are far apart, with a black hole near the midpoint between you.  You shine your yellow flashlight towards your friend.  Your friend reports that the light is yellow, just as it normally is.  (However, another friend, who is hovering near the black hole, disagrees and says it's definitely bluish.)  Warning: Do not try these experiments at home.  It's not realistic to expect to hover that close to a black hole; and with the distances involved, your friends might have a very long wait.  As the light approaches the black hole, it becomes blue-shifted (increased in frequency, i.e. decreased in wavelength) and then as it moves away  again from the black hole after going past it, it becomes red-shifted (decreased frequency, increased wavelength). If the distances are the same, these two effects cancel out, leaving the light looking the way it did when it started.  Edit: The light would also change direction as it passes the black hole, its path bent by the gravitational field, so it's best if the black hole is placed not midway between the friends but off to one side.  You shine your flashlight in the general direction of the black hole, and some of the light bends around at just the angle needed to end up going towards your friend.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1670.0,"score_ratio":24.0}
{"post_id":"4926vb","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Does light that barely escapes the gravitational field of a black hole have decreased wave length meaning different color?","c_root_id_A":"d0oot2f","c_root_id_B":"d0olzcy","created_at_utc_A":1457199992,"created_at_utc_B":1457194910,"score_A":13,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"In fact, all light gets redshifted as it leaves the gravitational effect of a regular star or any mass.  Gravitationally speaking, and sufficiently far away, a black hole is no different than a star of the same mass.  https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gravitational_redshift  You can think of this as the photon expending energy to climb out of the gravitational distortion of a heavy mass, and the only way that a photon can change energy (and remain a photon) is by changing wavelength.","human_ref_B":"has the light been affected by the time shift of the black hole! Ie being so close, time has slowed down (for it) and upon leaving the vacinity of the black hole, still going at the same speed as far as it is concerned, but slower for the rest of us observing it?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5082.0,"score_ratio":4.3333333333}
{"post_id":"4926vb","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Does light that barely escapes the gravitational field of a black hole have decreased wave length meaning different color?","c_root_id_A":"d0oz5r6","c_root_id_B":"d0olzcy","created_at_utc_A":1457218503,"created_at_utc_B":1457194910,"score_A":8,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"I'm posting a top-level comment here to address something that was repeated multiple times deeper in the comments :  It has often been stated on this thread that the apparent loss of energy due to gravitational redshift can be seen as the photon \"doing work\" against the gravitation field, and so the photon gains gravitational potential energy.  However, according to this paper (which is very readable), there is no such thing as photon potential energy, and trying to derive an equation for the photon's potential energy this way gives results that don't match experimental results.  Instead, they (and most major textbooks, they say) prefer the approach that the photon does not change in energy, however the clocks down the gravity well run slower and therefore they measure an increased frequency for the same photon compared to clocks further out.","human_ref_B":"has the light been affected by the time shift of the black hole! Ie being so close, time has slowed down (for it) and upon leaving the vacinity of the black hole, still going at the same speed as far as it is concerned, but slower for the rest of us observing it?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":23593.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"4926vb","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Does light that barely escapes the gravitational field of a black hole have decreased wave length meaning different color?","c_root_id_A":"d0oz5r6","c_root_id_B":"d0opp9z","created_at_utc_A":1457218503,"created_at_utc_B":1457201552,"score_A":8,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"I'm posting a top-level comment here to address something that was repeated multiple times deeper in the comments :  It has often been stated on this thread that the apparent loss of energy due to gravitational redshift can be seen as the photon \"doing work\" against the gravitation field, and so the photon gains gravitational potential energy.  However, according to this paper (which is very readable), there is no such thing as photon potential energy, and trying to derive an equation for the photon's potential energy this way gives results that don't match experimental results.  Instead, they (and most major textbooks, they say) prefer the approach that the photon does not change in energy, however the clocks down the gravity well run slower and therefore they measure an increased frequency for the same photon compared to clocks further out.","human_ref_B":"I know that the answer to this is yes (but *increased* wavelength), but how is it interpreted in terms of photons? How does the energy of an individual photon change?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":16951.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"vl5x7c","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.64,"history":"More than 80 % of the ocean has never been mapped, explored, or even seen by humans. How we could benefit from discovering our aquatic world? Do you have some examples (in science, everyday life), how we could benefit from discovering our aquatic world?","c_root_id_A":"idtnk1x","c_root_id_B":"idtkcg1","created_at_utc_A":1656261801,"created_at_utc_B":1656260426,"score_A":17,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"That figure is something of a myth that keeps getting repeated. It certainly has been mapped if only by sonar and in coarser detail than if it had been actually visited. All the large scale features and depth are known about. In places that are important to nuclear submarine operations it is known in good detail.","human_ref_B":"The ocean regulates all aspects of the planet's life support system. It transports heat from the equator to the poles, regulates atmospheric gasses, cycles nutrients and elements, etc.  The seafloor, its formation at mid-ocean ridges and destruction at subduction zones and vast areas of sedimentation, contributes significantly to the chemistry, biology and physics of the ocean. Therefore, at least mapping the seafloor to understand where areas of greatest interest exist is the first step towards exploring then characterizing the ocean.  It is important to understand the baseline characteristics of the seafloor and ocean so the affects of change can be assessed and a more sustainable approach for using their resources can be developed.  Specific potential benefits include:  Navigation  Fisheries  Marine minerals  Recreation  Security  Carbon cycle understanding  Pharmaceuticals  Energy production  And, a big factor could be that increased exposure to the ocean, keeping in mind there is over twice as much seafloor as land, could be that increased public appreciation for oceanographic wonders could lead to treating the ocean as more of a garden that a dump.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1375.0,"score_ratio":1.2142857143}
{"post_id":"yz8px1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Quote from an article on the Guardian news website, \"a single bit of data stored on a mobile phone adds about 10 quectograms to its mass\". Is this an accurate statement, and if so, how does data add mass? https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/science\/2022\/nov\/18\/earth-six-ronnagrams-new-prefixes-big-and-small","c_root_id_A":"iwzju6o","c_root_id_B":"iwz812j","created_at_utc_A":1668874090,"created_at_utc_B":1668868582,"score_A":407,"score_B":76,"human_ref_A":"I believe it is an inaccurate statement.  They are misapplying the Landauer Limit which states the theoretical minimum entropy change (and thus energy required) to change a bit of information.  Since energy equates to mass (e=mc\\^2), you can frame this energy as mass.  In fact, if you take the value from the wikipedia article (2.805 zeptoJoules) and run it through e=mc\\^2, you wind up with 31 quectograms, which is I'm sure where they got the value in the article.  However- this is a theoretical minimum amount of energy (which would be converted to heat) needed to change a bit of information in a perfectly efficient computer.  So wrong for two reasons:  1) Your mobile phone is not nearly this efficient.  By many, many orders of magnitude.   2) It does not change the mass of the computing device.  The energy came in a low-entropy form from a battery, and converts to a high-entropy form as heat.  The energy is neither created nor destroyed, the mass of the device does not change (until that heat is radiated away, which is a completely separate issue).  https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Landauer%27s\\_principle","human_ref_B":"Bits on your phone are recorded as small electrical charges and that new SI prefix represents a mass so small it can be used to measure individual electrons. I don\u2019t know if that exact number is accurate but that\u2019s how data can change mass\u2014 it\u2019s such an unfathomably tiny amount of mass that it\u2019s basically zero for us humans up here in the normal world and not in the quantum realm with Ant-Man.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5508.0,"score_ratio":5.3552631579}
{"post_id":"yz8px1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Quote from an article on the Guardian news website, \"a single bit of data stored on a mobile phone adds about 10 quectograms to its mass\". Is this an accurate statement, and if so, how does data add mass? https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/science\/2022\/nov\/18\/earth-six-ronnagrams-new-prefixes-big-and-small","c_root_id_A":"ix036id","c_root_id_B":"ix0jsuh","created_at_utc_A":1668882404,"created_at_utc_B":1668889497,"score_A":13,"score_B":16,"human_ref_A":"I remember hearing that the entire internet weighs about as much as an egg in terms of all the electrons going through it at any given point.     source","human_ref_B":"As a man who\u2019s job is essentially just taking a pile of boards known as a stack, and rearranging them into a different shaped pile known as a house - this is all a bit outside of my sphere. However:  If I remember correctly mass is an equation of size and density.  Assuming the statement from the article is correct, once this mass is added to my phone is it more dense, or more big?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7093.0,"score_ratio":1.2307692308}
{"post_id":"yz8px1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Quote from an article on the Guardian news website, \"a single bit of data stored on a mobile phone adds about 10 quectograms to its mass\". Is this an accurate statement, and if so, how does data add mass? https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/science\/2022\/nov\/18\/earth-six-ronnagrams-new-prefixes-big-and-small","c_root_id_A":"ix0hkm4","c_root_id_B":"ix0jsuh","created_at_utc_A":1668888544,"created_at_utc_B":1668889497,"score_A":13,"score_B":16,"human_ref_A":"Information is a property of matter.The punch cards from the start of computer programming were heavier before being programmed (hole-punched)Holes in things reduces mass.  In an SSD, there are a kajillion NAND flash cells etched into the semiconductor and the bits are recorded as electrical potential inside these transistors.Electrons are the lightest particle in the standard model... it's the smallest addition of mass allowed by physics. A full SSD has more mass than an empty one, but not enough to worry about.   PS Isn't the polite version of \"quectograms\" spelled \"times 10\u207b\u00b3\u00b3 kg\"...  ha ha ha....  TL:DR we aren't adding atoms, we're just making the atoms already in the chip heavier     This is actually exactly why film photography is still relevant. Film records the light more securely; photosensitive emulsion is made from the light that was there.     I forget my original point....","human_ref_B":"As a man who\u2019s job is essentially just taking a pile of boards known as a stack, and rearranging them into a different shaped pile known as a house - this is all a bit outside of my sphere. However:  If I remember correctly mass is an equation of size and density.  Assuming the statement from the article is correct, once this mass is added to my phone is it more dense, or more big?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":953.0,"score_ratio":1.2307692308}
{"post_id":"yz8px1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Quote from an article on the Guardian news website, \"a single bit of data stored on a mobile phone adds about 10 quectograms to its mass\". Is this an accurate statement, and if so, how does data add mass? https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/science\/2022\/nov\/18\/earth-six-ronnagrams-new-prefixes-big-and-small","c_root_id_A":"ix0jsuh","c_root_id_B":"ix02dhj","created_at_utc_A":1668889497,"created_at_utc_B":1668882070,"score_A":16,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"As a man who\u2019s job is essentially just taking a pile of boards known as a stack, and rearranging them into a different shaped pile known as a house - this is all a bit outside of my sphere. However:  If I remember correctly mass is an equation of size and density.  Assuming the statement from the article is correct, once this mass is added to my phone is it more dense, or more big?","human_ref_B":"Ah ... but where do they come from?   My guess would be the battery so in the end the phone weighs the same.  I did not read your reference, but if you except is correct its another journalist who writes an article for $$ without any concern for reality.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7427.0,"score_ratio":5.3333333333}
{"post_id":"yz8px1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Quote from an article on the Guardian news website, \"a single bit of data stored on a mobile phone adds about 10 quectograms to its mass\". Is this an accurate statement, and if so, how does data add mass? https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/science\/2022\/nov\/18\/earth-six-ronnagrams-new-prefixes-big-and-small","c_root_id_A":"ix036id","c_root_id_B":"ix02dhj","created_at_utc_A":1668882404,"created_at_utc_B":1668882070,"score_A":13,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"I remember hearing that the entire internet weighs about as much as an egg in terms of all the electrons going through it at any given point.     source","human_ref_B":"Ah ... but where do they come from?   My guess would be the battery so in the end the phone weighs the same.  I did not read your reference, but if you except is correct its another journalist who writes an article for $$ without any concern for reality.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":334.0,"score_ratio":4.3333333333}
{"post_id":"yz8px1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Quote from an article on the Guardian news website, \"a single bit of data stored on a mobile phone adds about 10 quectograms to its mass\". Is this an accurate statement, and if so, how does data add mass? https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/science\/2022\/nov\/18\/earth-six-ronnagrams-new-prefixes-big-and-small","c_root_id_A":"ix02dhj","c_root_id_B":"ix0hkm4","created_at_utc_A":1668882070,"created_at_utc_B":1668888544,"score_A":3,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"Ah ... but where do they come from?   My guess would be the battery so in the end the phone weighs the same.  I did not read your reference, but if you except is correct its another journalist who writes an article for $$ without any concern for reality.","human_ref_B":"Information is a property of matter.The punch cards from the start of computer programming were heavier before being programmed (hole-punched)Holes in things reduces mass.  In an SSD, there are a kajillion NAND flash cells etched into the semiconductor and the bits are recorded as electrical potential inside these transistors.Electrons are the lightest particle in the standard model... it's the smallest addition of mass allowed by physics. A full SSD has more mass than an empty one, but not enough to worry about.   PS Isn't the polite version of \"quectograms\" spelled \"times 10\u207b\u00b3\u00b3 kg\"...  ha ha ha....  TL:DR we aren't adding atoms, we're just making the atoms already in the chip heavier     This is actually exactly why film photography is still relevant. Film records the light more securely; photosensitive emulsion is made from the light that was there.     I forget my original point....","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6474.0,"score_ratio":4.3333333333}
{"post_id":"ovlrfc","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Why are Marie Curie's possessions kept in lead boxes? I keep seeing posts like this saying her body and belongings are so radioactive that they're kept in lead boxes.  The Radium isotope with the longest half life is Ra^256, which is an alpha emitter.  The longest lived Polonium isotope has a half life of 4 months and is also an alpha emitter.  She worked with Uranium and Thorium - much longer lived but also alpha emitters. So you should be able to store them in a cardboard box - you just don't want to handle them in ways that might cause you to ingest or breathe in radioactive material.   So what are they contaminated with that requires a lead box?","c_root_id_A":"h7aeowd","c_root_id_B":"h7ae17m","created_at_utc_A":1627801000,"created_at_utc_B":1627800450,"score_A":2625,"score_B":463,"human_ref_A":"The standard for nuclear safety is ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable). The Curies' possessions are not highly radioactive, and realistically don't pose an exposure hazard even if they were handled frequently by a specific patron or staff member. Even so, under the ALARA principle you should avoid getting any small dose unless it were necessary. (And if you already have a lead box, why not keep using it)?   A detailed analysis of one of Marie Curie's notebooks can be found here:  https:\/\/aurorahp.co.uk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/06\/Curies-Contaminated-Notebook-Lindsey-Simcox.pdf  Of note is that there is a measurably elevated gamma activity, suggesting that the lead box may provide some benefit under ALARA.   They also point out that even though the measured activity of the article is relatively low, the alpha and beta emitters are contained in a hundred-year-old book that could likely shed material when handled. They are significantly more hazardous when ingested or inhaled, so a container of any kind is wise to reduce such contamination.","human_ref_B":"Radium-226 does emit some gamma in addition to alpha decay, but the real problem is that it eventually decays into lead-214 and Bismuth-214 which are intense gamma emitters.  According to the source below, in an equilibrium mix of Radium and its daughters, the daughters\u2019 total gamma emission is as intense as the radium\u2019s alpha.  https:\/\/www.ezag.com\/fileadmin\/ezag\/user-uploads\/isotopes\/isotopes\/Isotrak\/isotrak-pdf\/Decay_Schema_Data\/Ra-226.pdf","labels":1,"seconds_difference":550.0,"score_ratio":5.6695464363}
{"post_id":"w2cnqd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Is it possible to use multiple satellites across space to speed up space communication? Reading about the Webb teleacope amd it sending info back at 25mb a sec, i was thinking abput if it were possible to put satellites throughout space as relays. Kinda like lighting the torches of Gondor. Would that actually allow for faster communication?","c_root_id_A":"igpg7be","c_root_id_B":"igpv5g1","created_at_utc_A":1658185986,"created_at_utc_B":1658192655,"score_A":58,"score_B":1049,"human_ref_A":"As long as there's a clear line of sight, a single satellite should be sufficient.  Radio waves travel at the speed of light, so the message is already going as fast as possible.  Where multiple satellites DO come in handy is when there is communications between two planets, or even Earth-Moon.  By positioning relay satellites at strategic locations , you can maintain a line of sight radio communication.  Picture a Lunar Base on the far side of the Moon, the side that never faces Earth.  By orbiting 3 small relay satellites about 120\u2070 apart around the Moon, the base can be in constant contact with Earth.  On a larger scale, a Mars base would require relay satellites much further out from Mars.  Necessary because there are times when Mars and Earth are on opposite sides of the Sun.    Earth cannot blast a radio message through the Sun to reach the Mars base.  But maybe 3 satellites spaced out can relay a message \"behind\" the Sun to Mars.","human_ref_B":"The area you probably want to look into as part of signals and systems is Shannon\u2019s Theory. It states that you can trade signal power (or strictly signal to noise ratio, SNR, which is effectively the same as power as long as the noise floor on the channel remains the same) for bandwidth.  As signal power drops off with distance, it follows that for a given broadcast power at a certain distance, with a given noise floor, there is a bandwidth limit. Adding relays that rebroadcast at the same power but closer to the telescope could help as the reduced distance effectively reduces the SNR but because space is hard we don\u2019t do that as orbital mechanics says we can\u2019t have satellites orbiting (stably) at different altitudes moving with the same orbital velocity.  So in some sense you are right. In fact sub-sea fibre optic cables use this very principle to ensure good SNR and thus maximise bandwidth. They have repeaters every so often powered from copper wires inside the fibre bundle to retransmit the signal.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6669.0,"score_ratio":18.0862068966}
{"post_id":"w2cnqd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Is it possible to use multiple satellites across space to speed up space communication? Reading about the Webb teleacope amd it sending info back at 25mb a sec, i was thinking abput if it were possible to put satellites throughout space as relays. Kinda like lighting the torches of Gondor. Would that actually allow for faster communication?","c_root_id_A":"igpv5g1","c_root_id_B":"igpmwaq","created_at_utc_A":1658192655,"created_at_utc_B":1658188983,"score_A":1049,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"The area you probably want to look into as part of signals and systems is Shannon\u2019s Theory. It states that you can trade signal power (or strictly signal to noise ratio, SNR, which is effectively the same as power as long as the noise floor on the channel remains the same) for bandwidth.  As signal power drops off with distance, it follows that for a given broadcast power at a certain distance, with a given noise floor, there is a bandwidth limit. Adding relays that rebroadcast at the same power but closer to the telescope could help as the reduced distance effectively reduces the SNR but because space is hard we don\u2019t do that as orbital mechanics says we can\u2019t have satellites orbiting (stably) at different altitudes moving with the same orbital velocity.  So in some sense you are right. In fact sub-sea fibre optic cables use this very principle to ensure good SNR and thus maximise bandwidth. They have repeaters every so often powered from copper wires inside the fibre bundle to retransmit the signal.","human_ref_B":"As the signal gets weak you have to choose a less efficient error correcting code to ensure you recieve all the information correctly.  But error correcting codes are pretty good. Voyager used a Reed-Solomon code that sent 255 symbols for every 223 symbols in the original message, that would correct up to 16 errors.  But eventually you'd get gains from a relay. If you kept going to Alpha Centauri or some such place. Pack your own power source though ... It's dark out there in interstellar space.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3672.0,"score_ratio":131.125}
{"post_id":"w2cnqd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Is it possible to use multiple satellites across space to speed up space communication? Reading about the Webb teleacope amd it sending info back at 25mb a sec, i was thinking abput if it were possible to put satellites throughout space as relays. Kinda like lighting the torches of Gondor. Would that actually allow for faster communication?","c_root_id_A":"igpwn42","c_root_id_B":"igpg7be","created_at_utc_A":1658193332,"created_at_utc_B":1658185986,"score_A":82,"score_B":58,"human_ref_A":"You could try to put relays out there to use shorter range signals with higher bandwidth but the JWST is quite far out and, while its position at a Lagrange point is relatively easy to maintain and naturally follows us in our orbit around the sun (technically the JWST is in its own solar orbit not orbiting is).  The relays would have to stay in between earth and the JWST while still orbiting earth. This would be very difficult if not impossible to achieve.   The other big question is whether or not there is anything to gain by doing this. Faster download of data would be nice but a lot of the work the telescope does takes time anyway - it\u2019s not like taking a snap with your phone where the exposure time is a tiny fraction of a second or even a second. The first image they released had an exposure time of 12.5 hours so even at only 25mb\/s the time to download the images is likely to be less than the time to capture them","human_ref_B":"As long as there's a clear line of sight, a single satellite should be sufficient.  Radio waves travel at the speed of light, so the message is already going as fast as possible.  Where multiple satellites DO come in handy is when there is communications between two planets, or even Earth-Moon.  By positioning relay satellites at strategic locations , you can maintain a line of sight radio communication.  Picture a Lunar Base on the far side of the Moon, the side that never faces Earth.  By orbiting 3 small relay satellites about 120\u2070 apart around the Moon, the base can be in constant contact with Earth.  On a larger scale, a Mars base would require relay satellites much further out from Mars.  Necessary because there are times when Mars and Earth are on opposite sides of the Sun.    Earth cannot blast a radio message through the Sun to reach the Mars base.  But maybe 3 satellites spaced out can relay a message \"behind\" the Sun to Mars.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7346.0,"score_ratio":1.4137931034}
{"post_id":"w2cnqd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Is it possible to use multiple satellites across space to speed up space communication? Reading about the Webb teleacope amd it sending info back at 25mb a sec, i was thinking abput if it were possible to put satellites throughout space as relays. Kinda like lighting the torches of Gondor. Would that actually allow for faster communication?","c_root_id_A":"igpwn42","c_root_id_B":"igpmwaq","created_at_utc_A":1658193332,"created_at_utc_B":1658188983,"score_A":82,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"You could try to put relays out there to use shorter range signals with higher bandwidth but the JWST is quite far out and, while its position at a Lagrange point is relatively easy to maintain and naturally follows us in our orbit around the sun (technically the JWST is in its own solar orbit not orbiting is).  The relays would have to stay in between earth and the JWST while still orbiting earth. This would be very difficult if not impossible to achieve.   The other big question is whether or not there is anything to gain by doing this. Faster download of data would be nice but a lot of the work the telescope does takes time anyway - it\u2019s not like taking a snap with your phone where the exposure time is a tiny fraction of a second or even a second. The first image they released had an exposure time of 12.5 hours so even at only 25mb\/s the time to download the images is likely to be less than the time to capture them","human_ref_B":"As the signal gets weak you have to choose a less efficient error correcting code to ensure you recieve all the information correctly.  But error correcting codes are pretty good. Voyager used a Reed-Solomon code that sent 255 symbols for every 223 symbols in the original message, that would correct up to 16 errors.  But eventually you'd get gains from a relay. If you kept going to Alpha Centauri or some such place. Pack your own power source though ... It's dark out there in interstellar space.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4349.0,"score_ratio":10.25}
{"post_id":"w2cnqd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Is it possible to use multiple satellites across space to speed up space communication? Reading about the Webb teleacope amd it sending info back at 25mb a sec, i was thinking abput if it were possible to put satellites throughout space as relays. Kinda like lighting the torches of Gondor. Would that actually allow for faster communication?","c_root_id_A":"igqfr5w","c_root_id_B":"igpmwaq","created_at_utc_A":1658202223,"created_at_utc_B":1658188983,"score_A":10,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"The concept of \"repeaters\" comes up in many types of communications systems - microwave links, fiber optic links, cable TV, old HF radio networks, mountain top fires, and more.  These receive a weak signal, regenerate it into a fresh signal, and then re-transmit it. You are right that these can help overcome signal degradation caused when a radio signal travels a long distance and starts to get lost in background noise (which causes a lower data rate).   The problem with repeaters in space is that there aren't really any orbits between the Web telescope and the Earth where things would appear stationary to each other. Thus, any use of a repeater system would require complicated systems to constantly keep all the antennas pointed in the right direction. That  would provide lots of opportunities for things to go wrong, and cost a lot of money.  NASA did use such techniques for many of the recent Mars landers. For those, data is sent to a spacecraft orbiting Mars, and then passed back to Earth. This allows the landers to use low power transmitters, and shows such techniques can be practical sometimes. But, in the case of the space telescope it would likely cause many complicated spacecraft, a lot of extra risk, and a high cost.","human_ref_B":"As the signal gets weak you have to choose a less efficient error correcting code to ensure you recieve all the information correctly.  But error correcting codes are pretty good. Voyager used a Reed-Solomon code that sent 255 symbols for every 223 symbols in the original message, that would correct up to 16 errors.  But eventually you'd get gains from a relay. If you kept going to Alpha Centauri or some such place. Pack your own power source though ... It's dark out there in interstellar space.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":13240.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"w2cnqd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Is it possible to use multiple satellites across space to speed up space communication? Reading about the Webb teleacope amd it sending info back at 25mb a sec, i was thinking abput if it were possible to put satellites throughout space as relays. Kinda like lighting the torches of Gondor. Would that actually allow for faster communication?","c_root_id_A":"igqc91k","c_root_id_B":"igqfr5w","created_at_utc_A":1658200450,"created_at_utc_B":1658202223,"score_A":8,"score_B":10,"human_ref_A":"Antenna size beats distance.  To match the radiation received by a 70 meter antenna on Earth (DSN antennas you would need a 35 meter antenna at half the distance, or a 70\/3 meter antenna at 1\/3 the distance, or similar. There is no orbit that keeps them there, and even if there were: Such a big antenna in space is far more expensive than a 70 meter antenna on Earth.","human_ref_B":"The concept of \"repeaters\" comes up in many types of communications systems - microwave links, fiber optic links, cable TV, old HF radio networks, mountain top fires, and more.  These receive a weak signal, regenerate it into a fresh signal, and then re-transmit it. You are right that these can help overcome signal degradation caused when a radio signal travels a long distance and starts to get lost in background noise (which causes a lower data rate).   The problem with repeaters in space is that there aren't really any orbits between the Web telescope and the Earth where things would appear stationary to each other. Thus, any use of a repeater system would require complicated systems to constantly keep all the antennas pointed in the right direction. That  would provide lots of opportunities for things to go wrong, and cost a lot of money.  NASA did use such techniques for many of the recent Mars landers. For those, data is sent to a spacecraft orbiting Mars, and then passed back to Earth. This allows the landers to use low power transmitters, and shows such techniques can be practical sometimes. But, in the case of the space telescope it would likely cause many complicated spacecraft, a lot of extra risk, and a high cost.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1773.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er4uscw","c_root_id_B":"er4wemp","created_at_utc_A":1560510427,"created_at_utc_B":1560511726,"score_A":44,"score_B":111,"human_ref_A":">research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory.   -Military wise what would be the best use for the spider glue?   -how expensive would it be to mass produce spider glue?  Also how do extract this stuff from such small creatures?","human_ref_B":"Are there any genetic differences between wild and domestic silkworms, and can those changes be implemented in spiders to allow easier spider silk production?  Also, what ever happened to those silk-producing  genetically modified goats that I heard about in the early 2000s?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1299.0,"score_ratio":2.5227272727}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er4wemp","c_root_id_B":"er4vzgz","created_at_utc_A":1560511726,"created_at_utc_B":1560511390,"score_A":111,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Are there any genetic differences between wild and domestic silkworms, and can those changes be implemented in spiders to allow easier spider silk production?  Also, what ever happened to those silk-producing  genetically modified goats that I heard about in the early 2000s?","human_ref_B":"Have you worked on spider silk in general, and if so, how versatile would the material be, if scaled up to let's say 5mm in diameter?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":336.0,"score_ratio":7.4}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er4ydne","c_root_id_B":"er4x8d1","created_at_utc_A":1560513241,"created_at_utc_B":1560512367,"score_A":24,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Know of any other interesting animal-produced materials being looked at by fellow geneticists that catch your attention? I hear Hagfish slime has some interesting properties.","human_ref_B":"Great research, wonderful to see all the potential applications! Do you already have some thoughts on the large scale production of the glue? What kind of hosts do you think would be suited for producing the compound and what do you think about the downstream processing? If the glue is excreted I can imagine it would result in a mixture that is pretty difficult to separate. Keep up the good work!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":874.0,"score_ratio":1.6}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er4ydne","c_root_id_B":"er4vzgz","created_at_utc_A":1560513241,"created_at_utc_B":1560511390,"score_A":24,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Know of any other interesting animal-produced materials being looked at by fellow geneticists that catch your attention? I hear Hagfish slime has some interesting properties.","human_ref_B":"Have you worked on spider silk in general, and if so, how versatile would the material be, if scaled up to let's say 5mm in diameter?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1851.0,"score_ratio":1.6}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er4x3fy","c_root_id_B":"er4ydne","created_at_utc_A":1560512261,"created_at_utc_B":1560513241,"score_A":9,"score_B":24,"human_ref_A":"Do scientists have a theory as to why some genes are so long?","human_ref_B":"Know of any other interesting animal-produced materials being looked at by fellow geneticists that catch your attention? I hear Hagfish slime has some interesting properties.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":980.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er4xoqx","c_root_id_B":"er4ydne","created_at_utc_A":1560512716,"created_at_utc_B":1560513241,"score_A":3,"score_B":24,"human_ref_A":"It seems like tissue engineering scaffolds are massively on the rise at the moment as far as implantable materials go, so aside from tools and instruments, what kind of biomaterial applications could this have?","human_ref_B":"Know of any other interesting animal-produced materials being looked at by fellow geneticists that catch your attention? I hear Hagfish slime has some interesting properties.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":525.0,"score_ratio":8.0}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er4x8d1","c_root_id_B":"er4yxol","created_at_utc_A":1560512367,"created_at_utc_B":1560513663,"score_A":15,"score_B":19,"human_ref_A":"Great research, wonderful to see all the potential applications! Do you already have some thoughts on the large scale production of the glue? What kind of hosts do you think would be suited for producing the compound and what do you think about the downstream processing? If the glue is excreted I can imagine it would result in a mixture that is pretty difficult to separate. Keep up the good work!","human_ref_B":"Think about a more specific AMA? impossible :)  Congrats on your science, I have no clue what could I ask you. But you sure know about your spiderman stuff!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1296.0,"score_ratio":1.2666666667}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er4yxol","c_root_id_B":"er4vzgz","created_at_utc_A":1560513663,"created_at_utc_B":1560511390,"score_A":19,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Think about a more specific AMA? impossible :)  Congrats on your science, I have no clue what could I ask you. But you sure know about your spiderman stuff!","human_ref_B":"Have you worked on spider silk in general, and if so, how versatile would the material be, if scaled up to let's say 5mm in diameter?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2273.0,"score_ratio":1.2666666667}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er4x3fy","c_root_id_B":"er4yxol","created_at_utc_A":1560512261,"created_at_utc_B":1560513663,"score_A":9,"score_B":19,"human_ref_A":"Do scientists have a theory as to why some genes are so long?","human_ref_B":"Think about a more specific AMA? impossible :)  Congrats on your science, I have no clue what could I ask you. But you sure know about your spiderman stuff!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1402.0,"score_ratio":2.1111111111}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er4xoqx","c_root_id_B":"er4yxol","created_at_utc_A":1560512716,"created_at_utc_B":1560513663,"score_A":3,"score_B":19,"human_ref_A":"It seems like tissue engineering scaffolds are massively on the rise at the moment as far as implantable materials go, so aside from tools and instruments, what kind of biomaterial applications could this have?","human_ref_B":"Think about a more specific AMA? impossible :)  Congrats on your science, I have no clue what could I ask you. But you sure know about your spiderman stuff!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":947.0,"score_ratio":6.3333333333}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er4x3fy","c_root_id_B":"er4x8d1","created_at_utc_A":1560512261,"created_at_utc_B":1560512367,"score_A":9,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Do scientists have a theory as to why some genes are so long?","human_ref_B":"Great research, wonderful to see all the potential applications! Do you already have some thoughts on the large scale production of the glue? What kind of hosts do you think would be suited for producing the compound and what do you think about the downstream processing? If the glue is excreted I can imagine it would result in a mixture that is pretty difficult to separate. Keep up the good work!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":106.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er4zfe4","c_root_id_B":"er4x3fy","created_at_utc_A":1560514023,"created_at_utc_B":1560512261,"score_A":11,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"In the article (umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue) linked it mentioned there are tens of thousands of different species of spiders  > There are more than 45,000 known species of spiders, each of which makes between one and seven types of silk. However, despite many partial sequences, less is known about the full genetic structure of spider silk: Only about 20 complete genes have been sequenced.  Do different species of spiders produce glue and silk in different ways or did they evolve a kind of uniform method to do it?  If spiders do have different ways of producing silk and glue did you have to choose a certain species to investigate genetically over other species?","human_ref_B":"Do scientists have a theory as to why some genes are so long?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1762.0,"score_ratio":1.2222222222}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er4zfe4","c_root_id_B":"er4xoqx","created_at_utc_A":1560514023,"created_at_utc_B":1560512716,"score_A":11,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"In the article (umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue) linked it mentioned there are tens of thousands of different species of spiders  > There are more than 45,000 known species of spiders, each of which makes between one and seven types of silk. However, despite many partial sequences, less is known about the full genetic structure of spider silk: Only about 20 complete genes have been sequenced.  Do different species of spiders produce glue and silk in different ways or did they evolve a kind of uniform method to do it?  If spiders do have different ways of producing silk and glue did you have to choose a certain species to investigate genetically over other species?","human_ref_B":"It seems like tissue engineering scaffolds are massively on the rise at the moment as far as implantable materials go, so aside from tools and instruments, what kind of biomaterial applications could this have?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1307.0,"score_ratio":3.6666666667}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er50uqy","c_root_id_B":"er5598q","created_at_utc_A":1560515112,"created_at_utc_B":1560518358,"score_A":8,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"Hey Dr. Stellwagen,  Congrats again to you and Dr. Renberg on this accomplishment. I am a UMBC alum and have a question for you about the sequence.   1) Were there any coding regions that were similar to silk sequences within the same spider species?  2) Have you manufactured this glue yet now that you know the sequence?  If not, how do you plan to mass produce it?  3) Do you envision it being sprayed directly over crops as a insect deterrent, or as part of a dome-like composite for crop protection?  4) What are the military applications of this sequence?  Thanks slot and keep up the great work!!!!","human_ref_B":"Hey guys, I love your work.  As someone who works with Drosophila genetics, I work with an organism that already has a fully sequenced genome and countless mutations from years of service as a model organism.  As genome sequencing becomes more easy for more species, do you see model organisms like Drosophila becoming less important?  More fun question: what\u2019s the dumbest reason you\u2019ve ever had to throw away the results of an experiment? (for me it was not getting the results of a key experimental group in an 8 day sleep study with a super specific cross because I forgot to plug in the monitor fml).  Thanks!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3246.0,"score_ratio":1.125}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er4xoqx","c_root_id_B":"er50uqy","created_at_utc_A":1560512716,"created_at_utc_B":1560515112,"score_A":3,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"It seems like tissue engineering scaffolds are massively on the rise at the moment as far as implantable materials go, so aside from tools and instruments, what kind of biomaterial applications could this have?","human_ref_B":"Hey Dr. Stellwagen,  Congrats again to you and Dr. Renberg on this accomplishment. I am a UMBC alum and have a question for you about the sequence.   1) Were there any coding regions that were similar to silk sequences within the same spider species?  2) Have you manufactured this glue yet now that you know the sequence?  If not, how do you plan to mass produce it?  3) Do you envision it being sprayed directly over crops as a insect deterrent, or as part of a dome-like composite for crop protection?  4) What are the military applications of this sequence?  Thanks slot and keep up the great work!!!!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2396.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er4zliq","c_root_id_B":"er50uqy","created_at_utc_A":1560514146,"created_at_utc_B":1560515112,"score_A":5,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"You say that this could be used as an insecticide for crops.  How would it be mass produced?  Surely by not extracting from thousands of spiders.  When and if applied to crops in the future, how long does the spider glue remain sticky?  Would it need to be reapplied often?  Are there any potential negative affects that you can foresee with its application to crops such as preventing cross pollination, etc.?Thanks for taking to the time here to answer everyone\u2019s questions!","human_ref_B":"Hey Dr. Stellwagen,  Congrats again to you and Dr. Renberg on this accomplishment. I am a UMBC alum and have a question for you about the sequence.   1) Were there any coding regions that were similar to silk sequences within the same spider species?  2) Have you manufactured this glue yet now that you know the sequence?  If not, how do you plan to mass produce it?  3) Do you envision it being sprayed directly over crops as a insect deterrent, or as part of a dome-like composite for crop protection?  4) What are the military applications of this sequence?  Thanks slot and keep up the great work!!!!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":966.0,"score_ratio":1.6}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er50uqy","c_root_id_B":"er4zlyo","created_at_utc_A":1560515112,"created_at_utc_B":1560514155,"score_A":8,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Hey Dr. Stellwagen,  Congrats again to you and Dr. Renberg on this accomplishment. I am a UMBC alum and have a question for you about the sequence.   1) Were there any coding regions that were similar to silk sequences within the same spider species?  2) Have you manufactured this glue yet now that you know the sequence?  If not, how do you plan to mass produce it?  3) Do you envision it being sprayed directly over crops as a insect deterrent, or as part of a dome-like composite for crop protection?  4) What are the military applications of this sequence?  Thanks slot and keep up the great work!!!!","human_ref_B":"Any interest from NASA ESA SpaceX etc yet? I can see light strong bio materials being an enormous boon for the space sector. Space lift cables, perhaps?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":957.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er5598q","c_root_id_B":"er53vsy","created_at_utc_A":1560518358,"created_at_utc_B":1560517393,"score_A":9,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Hey guys, I love your work.  As someone who works with Drosophila genetics, I work with an organism that already has a fully sequenced genome and countless mutations from years of service as a model organism.  As genome sequencing becomes more easy for more species, do you see model organisms like Drosophila becoming less important?  More fun question: what\u2019s the dumbest reason you\u2019ve ever had to throw away the results of an experiment? (for me it was not getting the results of a key experimental group in an 8 day sleep study with a super specific cross because I forgot to plug in the monitor fml).  Thanks!","human_ref_B":"What kind of post-transcriptional processing occurs?  What roadblocks remain in order to use the DNA sequence to manufacture spider silk in the laboratory?  At present, we are using silk as a scaffold for tissue engineering, and I am wondering what will be needed to get new samples with unique properties in quantities sufficient for use.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":965.0,"score_ratio":1.2857142857}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er5598q","c_root_id_B":"er4xoqx","created_at_utc_A":1560518358,"created_at_utc_B":1560512716,"score_A":9,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Hey guys, I love your work.  As someone who works with Drosophila genetics, I work with an organism that already has a fully sequenced genome and countless mutations from years of service as a model organism.  As genome sequencing becomes more easy for more species, do you see model organisms like Drosophila becoming less important?  More fun question: what\u2019s the dumbest reason you\u2019ve ever had to throw away the results of an experiment? (for me it was not getting the results of a key experimental group in an 8 day sleep study with a super specific cross because I forgot to plug in the monitor fml).  Thanks!","human_ref_B":"It seems like tissue engineering scaffolds are massively on the rise at the moment as far as implantable materials go, so aside from tools and instruments, what kind of biomaterial applications could this have?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5642.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er5598q","c_root_id_B":"er4zliq","created_at_utc_A":1560518358,"created_at_utc_B":1560514146,"score_A":9,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Hey guys, I love your work.  As someone who works with Drosophila genetics, I work with an organism that already has a fully sequenced genome and countless mutations from years of service as a model organism.  As genome sequencing becomes more easy for more species, do you see model organisms like Drosophila becoming less important?  More fun question: what\u2019s the dumbest reason you\u2019ve ever had to throw away the results of an experiment? (for me it was not getting the results of a key experimental group in an 8 day sleep study with a super specific cross because I forgot to plug in the monitor fml).  Thanks!","human_ref_B":"You say that this could be used as an insecticide for crops.  How would it be mass produced?  Surely by not extracting from thousands of spiders.  When and if applied to crops in the future, how long does the spider glue remain sticky?  Would it need to be reapplied often?  Are there any potential negative affects that you can foresee with its application to crops such as preventing cross pollination, etc.?Thanks for taking to the time here to answer everyone\u2019s questions!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4212.0,"score_ratio":1.8}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er4zlyo","c_root_id_B":"er5598q","created_at_utc_A":1560514155,"created_at_utc_B":1560518358,"score_A":3,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"Any interest from NASA ESA SpaceX etc yet? I can see light strong bio materials being an enormous boon for the space sector. Space lift cables, perhaps?","human_ref_B":"Hey guys, I love your work.  As someone who works with Drosophila genetics, I work with an organism that already has a fully sequenced genome and countless mutations from years of service as a model organism.  As genome sequencing becomes more easy for more species, do you see model organisms like Drosophila becoming less important?  More fun question: what\u2019s the dumbest reason you\u2019ve ever had to throw away the results of an experiment? (for me it was not getting the results of a key experimental group in an 8 day sleep study with a super specific cross because I forgot to plug in the monitor fml).  Thanks!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4203.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er4xoqx","c_root_id_B":"er53vsy","created_at_utc_A":1560512716,"created_at_utc_B":1560517393,"score_A":3,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"It seems like tissue engineering scaffolds are massively on the rise at the moment as far as implantable materials go, so aside from tools and instruments, what kind of biomaterial applications could this have?","human_ref_B":"What kind of post-transcriptional processing occurs?  What roadblocks remain in order to use the DNA sequence to manufacture spider silk in the laboratory?  At present, we are using silk as a scaffold for tissue engineering, and I am wondering what will be needed to get new samples with unique properties in quantities sufficient for use.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4677.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er53vsy","c_root_id_B":"er4zliq","created_at_utc_A":1560517393,"created_at_utc_B":1560514146,"score_A":7,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"What kind of post-transcriptional processing occurs?  What roadblocks remain in order to use the DNA sequence to manufacture spider silk in the laboratory?  At present, we are using silk as a scaffold for tissue engineering, and I am wondering what will be needed to get new samples with unique properties in quantities sufficient for use.","human_ref_B":"You say that this could be used as an insecticide for crops.  How would it be mass produced?  Surely by not extracting from thousands of spiders.  When and if applied to crops in the future, how long does the spider glue remain sticky?  Would it need to be reapplied often?  Are there any potential negative affects that you can foresee with its application to crops such as preventing cross pollination, etc.?Thanks for taking to the time here to answer everyone\u2019s questions!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3247.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er4zlyo","c_root_id_B":"er53vsy","created_at_utc_A":1560514155,"created_at_utc_B":1560517393,"score_A":3,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Any interest from NASA ESA SpaceX etc yet? I can see light strong bio materials being an enormous boon for the space sector. Space lift cables, perhaps?","human_ref_B":"What kind of post-transcriptional processing occurs?  What roadblocks remain in order to use the DNA sequence to manufacture spider silk in the laboratory?  At present, we are using silk as a scaffold for tissue engineering, and I am wondering what will be needed to get new samples with unique properties in quantities sufficient for use.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3238.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er4xoqx","c_root_id_B":"er4zliq","created_at_utc_A":1560512716,"created_at_utc_B":1560514146,"score_A":3,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"It seems like tissue engineering scaffolds are massively on the rise at the moment as far as implantable materials go, so aside from tools and instruments, what kind of biomaterial applications could this have?","human_ref_B":"You say that this could be used as an insecticide for crops.  How would it be mass produced?  Surely by not extracting from thousands of spiders.  When and if applied to crops in the future, how long does the spider glue remain sticky?  Would it need to be reapplied often?  Are there any potential negative affects that you can foresee with its application to crops such as preventing cross pollination, etc.?Thanks for taking to the time here to answer everyone\u2019s questions!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1430.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er4xoqx","c_root_id_B":"er5cacj","created_at_utc_A":1560512716,"created_at_utc_B":1560522990,"score_A":3,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"It seems like tissue engineering scaffolds are massively on the rise at the moment as far as implantable materials go, so aside from tools and instruments, what kind of biomaterial applications could this have?","human_ref_B":"Go UMBC! It is a fantastic school for research and I\u2019m glad more findings are originating from my college!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":10274.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er5cacj","c_root_id_B":"er5bbss","created_at_utc_A":1560522990,"created_at_utc_B":1560522375,"score_A":4,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Go UMBC! It is a fantastic school for research and I\u2019m glad more findings are originating from my college!","human_ref_B":"Working with a 42 kb CDS seems very annoying. How do you approach cloning?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":615.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er5cacj","c_root_id_B":"er4zlyo","created_at_utc_A":1560522990,"created_at_utc_B":1560514155,"score_A":4,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Go UMBC! It is a fantastic school for research and I\u2019m glad more findings are originating from my college!","human_ref_B":"Any interest from NASA ESA SpaceX etc yet? I can see light strong bio materials being an enormous boon for the space sector. Space lift cables, perhaps?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8835.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"c0ir5e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT \/ 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu\/go\/spider-glue Read the study at https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/9\/6\/1909","c_root_id_A":"er59557","c_root_id_B":"er5cacj","created_at_utc_A":1560520916,"created_at_utc_B":1560522990,"score_A":3,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Congrats on the cool paper. Could you talk a bit about your experience with the MinION? What kind of read length do you get, and is the error rate really so bad that you can't reliably overcome it by increasing the coverage? I'm wondering when we'll be able to sequence long repetitive regions with the MinION alone, without using short read sequencing for error correction... Also, why did you use Illumina sequencing of mRNA, rather than genomic DNA?  As for the proteins themselves, as a biochemist who knows nothing about spider silk, I have to wonder: have you tried using the sequence for some kind of structural prediction? Or are these megadalton-monsters entirely unstructured? And can you speculate why they are so big to begin with? If I understand correctly, they are thought to polymerize mostly through hydrophobic interactions; do you think that a huge protein with lots of repeats forms a stronger elastic material than a smaller protein would with stronger inter-monomer bonding?","human_ref_B":"Go UMBC! It is a fantastic school for research and I\u2019m glad more findings are originating from my college!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2074.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"1pqv8s","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.82,"history":"The antibiotic Cefuroxim has an half life of only 80 minutes and is given twice daily. Why does it still work, even if half of it is eliminated in the body after such a short time? My guess is, that its dosage is so high, that the minimum inhibitory concentration of some bacteria is still achieved over a day, far beyond the MIC. But why is it, that my brother gets 500mg twice a day and I just 250mg twice a day?  What serum level is necessary to achive a sufficient MIC? Should a higher dosage do nothing but get a faster steady state? Otherwise the 250 bid dosage would be useless? But if the MIC gets achieved with just 250mg bid wouldn't the 500mg be useless?  We have a similar coinfection going on, and our doctor hasn't a very high reputation and is pretty much incompetent on many topics.  Any in-depth explanation how half life works, and how it affects the effect of drugs, not just Cerufoxim specific, would be HIGHLY appreciated!","c_root_id_A":"cd567da","c_root_id_B":"cd55as9","created_at_utc_A":1383412256,"created_at_utc_B":1383409516,"score_A":7,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":">But why is it, that my brother gets 500mg twice a day and I just 250mg twice a day?  There are two possible explanations here.  Either you weigh less than your brother by enough that the Doctor wanted you to have a decreased dose, or it might be that you were being treated for a different indication of the drug that required a lower dose (i.e. urinary tract vs. sinus infection: a UTI would require a lower dose because it is readily filtered into the urine).  It's also likely that either dose would be effective.  >What serum level is necessary to ache]ive a sufficient MIC?  O.K... Now you could delve into the literature or talk to a microbiologist about this one, but I'm a pharmacist and practically no one memorizes this information(especially not Doctors :P).  This is because at some point lots of studies were done on this drug and the doses were devised to satisfactorily treat a bacterial infection based on the MIC.  What is *much much more* important is the concentration of the drug in the *target area* of the infection unless you are talking about treating sepsis, an infection of the blood.  The doses have been formulated to meet and keep the drug level above the MIC in the *target area.*  If you are talking about a sinus infection, then the drug's half life is no longer it's \"biological half life\" reference value because the kidneys aren't rapidly filtering out the drug from the mucous in your nose and sinuses.  >Should a higher dosage do nothing but get a faster steady state? Otherwise the 250 bid dosage would be useless? But if the MIC gets achieved with just 250mg bid wouldn't the 500mg be useless?  This drug, unlike most drugs(but like almost all beta-lactam antibiotics) don't really depend on a steady state in the blood for their effect.  They are given in big bolus doses and they diffuse into the sinuses, lungs, etc. and work there because they aren't being filtered out by your kidneys any longer.  This is also why much lower doses are needed with many antibiotics to treat urinary tract infections.  The drugs naturally concentrate themselves in the urine.  >Any in-depth explanation how half life works, and how it affects the effect of drugs, not just Cerufoxim specific, would be HIGHLY appreciated!  [This Website is very useful for understanding what you are asking.  Specifically this Module","human_ref_B":"Here this will help explain drug kinetics and steady state slightly better.   http:\/\/i.imgur.com\/MedeSFG.jpg  The point is, it's difficult for most people to infuse medications directly into their blood stream so you take tablets orally often enough to maintain plasma concentrations inside the therapeutic window (above minimum effective concentration and below minimum toxic concentration).   Now the issue with your doctor, cefuroxime isn't exactly first line medication for any infection I can think of. If you tell me what infection you and your brother have and relative weight\/severity of infection between the two of you. I might be able to explain why the difference in dosing strengths and reason for the prescription. But your best bet would be to just ask the pharmacist you're getting the medication from, since we would treading very close to medical advice.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2740.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"y23ytd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Does the salinity of ocean water increase as depth increases? Or do currents\/other factors make the difference negligible at best?","c_root_id_A":"is1rcg3","c_root_id_B":"is1r77a","created_at_utc_A":1665597157,"created_at_utc_B":1665597100,"score_A":406,"score_B":368,"human_ref_A":"Cooled water from the poles sinks as a result of both its salinity and temperature profile. Cooler water is denser than warmer water. Cooler water with high amounts of salt is even more dense. So it sinks and is replaced by less dense and less saline (fresher) water. So yes, the salinity of water increases with depth. See this.","human_ref_B":"As mentioned by \/u\/jellyfixh, most of the processes that modify the salinity of water (e.g. evaporation, precipitation, riverine inputs, and sea-ice formation) occur at the surface. As a result, to a reasonable approximation (ignoring the effects of mixing), you can assume the salinity of a water parcel is *roughly* constant once it leaves the surface of the ocean. In other words, understanding the salinity structure of the deep ocean is completely dependent on the three-dimensional circulation of the ocean interior, because the salinity of a deep water parcel is set by where that water parcel came from.  A good example of this is the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation, or AMOC (which is sometimes misleadingly called the thermohaline circulation). Simply put, intense cooling and salinification in the subpolar North Atlantic results in water becoming fairly cold and very salty, which then sinks to a depth of around 2km (we call this resulting water *North Atlantic Deep Water* (NADW)). This water then travels south, mixing a little on the way, but mostly being dragged up  towards the surface (upwelling) in the Southern Ocean, around Antarctica. There, some of the water gets pushed towards the north by the winds, freshening due to precipitation, but eventually being forced down as it sinks below the warmer, lighter waters to the north, settling at intermediate depths of around 1km (called the *Antarctic Intermediate Water* (AAIW)). However, some of the water upwelling around Antarctica instead moves south, freshening somewhat, but cooling intensely and forming an extremely dense water mass that sinks to the bottom of the ocean (called *Antarctic Bottom Water* (AABW)).  Have a look at this diagram, showing a cross-section of salinity in the Atlantic (North Atlantic on the right, South Atlantic on the left). Orange represents saltier water, blues represent fresher water. That big orange blob that goes from the surface to a depth of around 2km and moving southward is the NADW. The blue (fresh) tongue of water moving northwards and settling above the NADW is the AAIW. Finally, the blue(ish) (fresh(ish)) tongue of water sinking to the bottom of the ocean at the far left is AABW.  In the Pacific, by contrast, no deep-water formation occurs (contrary to the Atlantic). As a result, the depth-structure of salinity in the Pacific is more-or-less set by the depth-structure of salinity of deep waters entering the Pacific from other ocean basins so, whilst salinity does vary in the (subsurface) Pacific in depth, the lateral variations are fairly small compared to the Atlantic.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":57.0,"score_ratio":1.1032608696}
{"post_id":"y23ytd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Does the salinity of ocean water increase as depth increases? Or do currents\/other factors make the difference negligible at best?","c_root_id_A":"is3skbj","c_root_id_B":"is3rwa2","created_at_utc_A":1665627349,"created_at_utc_B":1665627040,"score_A":10,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"If this interests you, you can find places to download (I couldn\u2019t find without trial, fee, etc.) the RP-33. Fleet oceanographic acoustic reference manual. It\u2019s unclassified and will tell you all the things about salinity in water columns.","human_ref_B":"As far as I know, the ocean has separated layers collectively called a Halocline (halo = salt, 'cline' as in slope\/grade). Water can hold more if its cold and therefor heavy, thus sinks (more pressure). Warm water rises upward and can't hold onto things, thus less dense on the surface. The \"cline\" here is the separated vertical levels (like layers) that differ in salinity. So generally, cold, dense water holds more salt at the bottom and warm, non-dense, less-salty water at the top.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":309.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"y23ytd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Does the salinity of ocean water increase as depth increases? Or do currents\/other factors make the difference negligible at best?","c_root_id_A":"is3z6mp","c_root_id_B":"is3rwa2","created_at_utc_A":1665630511,"created_at_utc_B":1665627040,"score_A":8,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"The costal areas along Vietnam has much lower salinity  due to the Monsoon rains. The corals don't like that so they disappesf. No corals, no fish. The coasts are mostly barren sand. Harvard is looking in to low-salinity corals, but it's still early in that research. Tuburtity is also a concern because the silica cuts the fishes gills.","human_ref_B":"As far as I know, the ocean has separated layers collectively called a Halocline (halo = salt, 'cline' as in slope\/grade). Water can hold more if its cold and therefor heavy, thus sinks (more pressure). Warm water rises upward and can't hold onto things, thus less dense on the surface. The \"cline\" here is the separated vertical levels (like layers) that differ in salinity. So generally, cold, dense water holds more salt at the bottom and warm, non-dense, less-salty water at the top.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3471.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"zril7","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"If a first-world person had to store their own waste (garbage\/rubbish, not human waste) instead of sending it to landfill, how much space would it require over a lifetime? Assuming nothing gets recycled, the person is literally just collecting every piece of garbage that would otherwise go to landfill. Would we be talking about a swimming pool sized volume? Or more?  The reason I ask is that I'm a little surprised there aren't more landfill sites all over the place considering how many people there are and how much waste we generate.","c_root_id_A":"c678jub","c_root_id_B":"c677kce","created_at_utc_A":1347478322,"created_at_utc_B":1347474762,"score_A":38,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"I think a lot of these answers are missing the point. I just took an Environmental Engineering course on landfills, and here's the data they gave us:  A person generates around 5kg of waste per day, which includes a tolerance for industrial waste generated by the products that you use (this would be around half of that; definitely needs to be considered). Over a lifetime, that means around 140 tonnes of waste. Typical density of waste varies greatly, but tends to be around 300kg\/m^3 before compaction, and up to 600kg\/m^3 after.  I assume you're more interested in the non-compacted waste, so that results in a landfill of around 450m^3. A smallish house is around 175m^2, so ignoring the ceiling and filling all the way up to the pitched roof, it's about that much.  If you don't care about industrial waste, just halve that and you'll have a good idea.","human_ref_B":"As a garbage man, I throw about 50 tons of garbage a week that gets dumped at the landfill. It may not seem like much, but then you add our 5 other trucks that dump there, so about 300 tons a week from 6 trucks. On top of that, add tractor trailer sized transfers that are repeatedly dumping there all day, roll-off dumpsters from construction sites, all of waste managements garbage trucks, and all the other garbage companies close by that dump there everyday...  That's a lot of trash. The worst part is how much of it could be recycled. I'd say at least a third of the garbage I pick up could be recycled, and that's just what I can see outside of the bag.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3560.0,"score_ratio":7.6}
{"post_id":"zril7","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"If a first-world person had to store their own waste (garbage\/rubbish, not human waste) instead of sending it to landfill, how much space would it require over a lifetime? Assuming nothing gets recycled, the person is literally just collecting every piece of garbage that would otherwise go to landfill. Would we be talking about a swimming pool sized volume? Or more?  The reason I ask is that I'm a little surprised there aren't more landfill sites all over the place considering how many people there are and how much waste we generate.","c_root_id_A":"c678jub","c_root_id_B":"c673zs6","created_at_utc_A":1347478322,"created_at_utc_B":1347461338,"score_A":38,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"I think a lot of these answers are missing the point. I just took an Environmental Engineering course on landfills, and here's the data they gave us:  A person generates around 5kg of waste per day, which includes a tolerance for industrial waste generated by the products that you use (this would be around half of that; definitely needs to be considered). Over a lifetime, that means around 140 tonnes of waste. Typical density of waste varies greatly, but tends to be around 300kg\/m^3 before compaction, and up to 600kg\/m^3 after.  I assume you're more interested in the non-compacted waste, so that results in a landfill of around 450m^3. A smallish house is around 175m^2, so ignoring the ceiling and filling all the way up to the pitched roof, it's about that much.  If you don't care about industrial waste, just halve that and you'll have a good idea.","human_ref_B":"The guy on *this* programme is from the UK and has thrown literally nothing away for the last 35 or so years. Additionally, none of the things he has \"collected\" have been compacted so he now has two houses filled with everything he has purchased or acquired over that time period including trash\/garbage\/rubbish.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":16984.0,"score_ratio":9.5}
{"post_id":"zril7","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"If a first-world person had to store their own waste (garbage\/rubbish, not human waste) instead of sending it to landfill, how much space would it require over a lifetime? Assuming nothing gets recycled, the person is literally just collecting every piece of garbage that would otherwise go to landfill. Would we be talking about a swimming pool sized volume? Or more?  The reason I ask is that I'm a little surprised there aren't more landfill sites all over the place considering how many people there are and how much waste we generate.","c_root_id_A":"c678jub","c_root_id_B":"c675wbd","created_at_utc_A":1347478322,"created_at_utc_B":1347468569,"score_A":38,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"I think a lot of these answers are missing the point. I just took an Environmental Engineering course on landfills, and here's the data they gave us:  A person generates around 5kg of waste per day, which includes a tolerance for industrial waste generated by the products that you use (this would be around half of that; definitely needs to be considered). Over a lifetime, that means around 140 tonnes of waste. Typical density of waste varies greatly, but tends to be around 300kg\/m^3 before compaction, and up to 600kg\/m^3 after.  I assume you're more interested in the non-compacted waste, so that results in a landfill of around 450m^3. A smallish house is around 175m^2, so ignoring the ceiling and filling all the way up to the pitched roof, it's about that much.  If you don't care about industrial waste, just halve that and you'll have a good idea.","human_ref_B":"Several individuals living in North America have experimented with living for one year without throwing away anything (they recycled and composted what they could, and stored what garbage they couldn't). Most accumulated about 1 bag full of actual garbage over the entire year, but this is by carefully shopping for goods that minimize waste.  It seems as though if you try, you can accumulate less than 1 kg of garbage per year, so less than 100kg per lifetime. A year's worth of garbage occupies what looks like a few litres (5-10), so over a lifetime, that's 500-1000 litres, or a cube 1 m per side (3 feet per side).  You might be surprised at how many landfills there are, you just don't see most of them. There are over 3000 active landfills in the USA, and 10000 that are no longer in use. The average American produces about 1 ton (ambiguous unit, but I assume ~1000kg) of waste per year. Stats and links to EPA data here: http:\/\/www.zerowasteamerica.org\/Statistics.htm","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9753.0,"score_ratio":7.6}
{"post_id":"zril7","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"If a first-world person had to store their own waste (garbage\/rubbish, not human waste) instead of sending it to landfill, how much space would it require over a lifetime? Assuming nothing gets recycled, the person is literally just collecting every piece of garbage that would otherwise go to landfill. Would we be talking about a swimming pool sized volume? Or more?  The reason I ask is that I'm a little surprised there aren't more landfill sites all over the place considering how many people there are and how much waste we generate.","c_root_id_A":"c678ci4","c_root_id_B":"c678jub","created_at_utc_A":1347477591,"created_at_utc_B":1347478322,"score_A":2,"score_B":38,"human_ref_A":"I haven't seen any good volume estimates yet. Let's say you produce one large trash bag (50L) per week at home (that's what I do). Assume you produce another half bag at work or out and about. We're up to 75L\/week. That's 3900 Liters per year, 312,000 Liters in a lifetime (80 years).   These three tanks are each 100k Liters.","human_ref_B":"I think a lot of these answers are missing the point. I just took an Environmental Engineering course on landfills, and here's the data they gave us:  A person generates around 5kg of waste per day, which includes a tolerance for industrial waste generated by the products that you use (this would be around half of that; definitely needs to be considered). Over a lifetime, that means around 140 tonnes of waste. Typical density of waste varies greatly, but tends to be around 300kg\/m^3 before compaction, and up to 600kg\/m^3 after.  I assume you're more interested in the non-compacted waste, so that results in a landfill of around 450m^3. A smallish house is around 175m^2, so ignoring the ceiling and filling all the way up to the pitched roof, it's about that much.  If you don't care about industrial waste, just halve that and you'll have a good idea.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":731.0,"score_ratio":19.0}
{"post_id":"zril7","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"If a first-world person had to store their own waste (garbage\/rubbish, not human waste) instead of sending it to landfill, how much space would it require over a lifetime? Assuming nothing gets recycled, the person is literally just collecting every piece of garbage that would otherwise go to landfill. Would we be talking about a swimming pool sized volume? Or more?  The reason I ask is that I'm a little surprised there aren't more landfill sites all over the place considering how many people there are and how much waste we generate.","c_root_id_A":"c673zs6","c_root_id_B":"c677kce","created_at_utc_A":1347461338,"created_at_utc_B":1347474762,"score_A":4,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"The guy on *this* programme is from the UK and has thrown literally nothing away for the last 35 or so years. Additionally, none of the things he has \"collected\" have been compacted so he now has two houses filled with everything he has purchased or acquired over that time period including trash\/garbage\/rubbish.","human_ref_B":"As a garbage man, I throw about 50 tons of garbage a week that gets dumped at the landfill. It may not seem like much, but then you add our 5 other trucks that dump there, so about 300 tons a week from 6 trucks. On top of that, add tractor trailer sized transfers that are repeatedly dumping there all day, roll-off dumpsters from construction sites, all of waste managements garbage trucks, and all the other garbage companies close by that dump there everyday...  That's a lot of trash. The worst part is how much of it could be recycled. I'd say at least a third of the garbage I pick up could be recycled, and that's just what I can see outside of the bag.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":13424.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"zril7","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"If a first-world person had to store their own waste (garbage\/rubbish, not human waste) instead of sending it to landfill, how much space would it require over a lifetime? Assuming nothing gets recycled, the person is literally just collecting every piece of garbage that would otherwise go to landfill. Would we be talking about a swimming pool sized volume? Or more?  The reason I ask is that I'm a little surprised there aren't more landfill sites all over the place considering how many people there are and how much waste we generate.","c_root_id_A":"c675wbd","c_root_id_B":"c673zs6","created_at_utc_A":1347468569,"created_at_utc_B":1347461338,"score_A":5,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Several individuals living in North America have experimented with living for one year without throwing away anything (they recycled and composted what they could, and stored what garbage they couldn't). Most accumulated about 1 bag full of actual garbage over the entire year, but this is by carefully shopping for goods that minimize waste.  It seems as though if you try, you can accumulate less than 1 kg of garbage per year, so less than 100kg per lifetime. A year's worth of garbage occupies what looks like a few litres (5-10), so over a lifetime, that's 500-1000 litres, or a cube 1 m per side (3 feet per side).  You might be surprised at how many landfills there are, you just don't see most of them. There are over 3000 active landfills in the USA, and 10000 that are no longer in use. The average American produces about 1 ton (ambiguous unit, but I assume ~1000kg) of waste per year. Stats and links to EPA data here: http:\/\/www.zerowasteamerica.org\/Statistics.htm","human_ref_B":"The guy on *this* programme is from the UK and has thrown literally nothing away for the last 35 or so years. Additionally, none of the things he has \"collected\" have been compacted so he now has two houses filled with everything he has purchased or acquired over that time period including trash\/garbage\/rubbish.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7231.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"qwwp2o","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Blood bank pioneer Charles Drew was killed in a car crash in 1950. His injuries were too severe for him to be saved. Per wiki a passenger says a blood transfusion might have killed him sooner. Are there any reasons\/conditions why a blood transfusion could kill a trauma victim sooner ? If so, how ? By 1950, the major blood groups and RH would surely have been known  for transfusion, (eg in North Carolina where the crash occurred)","c_root_id_A":"hl5w04y","c_root_id_B":"hl5tqpd","created_at_utc_A":1637266267,"created_at_utc_B":1637265388,"score_A":2419,"score_B":177,"human_ref_A":"Blood transfusions increase blood pressure. Since his superior vena cava was blocked, blood flow from the head\/neck\/chest was blocked. But blood flow to the head\/neck\/chest continued.  This causes a spike in blood pressure localized to these regions. A further  increase of blood pressure from the transfusion could  result in a cerebral edema, throat swelling, or hemorrhaging","human_ref_B":"According to a link in the Wikipedia article you mentioned:  *Drew didn\u2019t receive a transfusion because his injuries wouldn\u2019t permit it. \u201cHe had a superior vena cava syndrome \u2014 blood was blocked getting back to his heart from his brain and upper extremities,\u201d Ford said. \u201cTo give him a transfusion would have killed him sooner.*  I can't vouch for the veracity of this statement.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":879.0,"score_ratio":13.6666666667}
{"post_id":"s2o6r3","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Is the universe 13.8 billion years old everywhere?","c_root_id_A":"hsgkmiy","c_root_id_B":"hsgg79z","created_at_utc_A":1642058295,"created_at_utc_B":1642055246,"score_A":4885,"score_B":143,"human_ref_A":"No. As others have stated, time dilation messes around with the passage of time, and some parts of the universe will have experienced a different passage of time since the Big Bang.   The one remaining piece of the puzzle, however, is asking the question: if the universe is 14bn years old.....says who?  Which reference frame do we use when we make such a powerful, general statement -- when we are using a framework (GR) where the idea of objective time doesn't make sense?  The answer lies in the fact that, although GR forbids us from choosing a universal reference frame as \"the truth\", it doesn't forbid us from using an *obvious* reference frame as a standard measure. When we say \"the universe is 13.77bn years old\" there is an unspoken addition to the end of the sentence which says \"in the standard cosmological reference frame.\"  So what is this standard reference frame, and why is it obvious?   One of the foundations of the theory of modern cosmology is the quasi-observed \"fact\"* that, above a certain lengthscale, the universe is both homogeneous and isotropic. That is, if you zoom out enough (looking at the scales of hundreds of  millions of lightyears), the universe appears to be made up of a uniform, *stationary* cosmological fluid. Our galaxies are simply perturbations in the density of this fluid.   It is this fluid with which we define our reference frame -- and we can measure how fast we are moving with respect to that frame by using the CMB dipole -- given that the CMB should be isotropic in the cosmological frame. We can see that we are moving at about ~600km\/sec with respect to the CMB, and hence the cosmological reference frame.  Remember, there's nothing inherently *special* about this frame, it is merely the most convenient one for cosmologists to use as a basis for doing these kind of calculations.    *Why did I say quasi-observed? Because most people would say that we haven't observed any deviations yet, which is not the same as having observed it. One of my colleagues, Professor Subir Sarkar, believes he has spotted such a deviation, though the matter is still controversial.  [Edit: Some formatting]","human_ref_B":"When looking at the universe as a whole, one uses the FLRW metric in which time is unaffected by any modification (-c^2 dt^2 + a(t) d\u03a3^2 ). Observers in local regions of spacetime would, however, measure a different age of the universe based on their local curvature. So, yes, the universe is the same age everywhere, but not every observer would calculate the same age of the universe unless they use GR to correct their observation.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3049.0,"score_ratio":34.1608391608}
{"post_id":"s2o6r3","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Is the universe 13.8 billion years old everywhere?","c_root_id_A":"hsganer","c_root_id_B":"hsgkmiy","created_at_utc_A":1642051862,"created_at_utc_B":1642058295,"score_A":109,"score_B":4885,"human_ref_A":"The current expansionary universe starting at the Big Bang is the same age in all locations, as it all emerged from the same event.    Specific structures in the universe such as stars, galaxies and the various forms of matter have ages less than that of the universe as they could not come into being until the universe underwent the necessary changes to allow them to form.","human_ref_B":"No. As others have stated, time dilation messes around with the passage of time, and some parts of the universe will have experienced a different passage of time since the Big Bang.   The one remaining piece of the puzzle, however, is asking the question: if the universe is 14bn years old.....says who?  Which reference frame do we use when we make such a powerful, general statement -- when we are using a framework (GR) where the idea of objective time doesn't make sense?  The answer lies in the fact that, although GR forbids us from choosing a universal reference frame as \"the truth\", it doesn't forbid us from using an *obvious* reference frame as a standard measure. When we say \"the universe is 13.77bn years old\" there is an unspoken addition to the end of the sentence which says \"in the standard cosmological reference frame.\"  So what is this standard reference frame, and why is it obvious?   One of the foundations of the theory of modern cosmology is the quasi-observed \"fact\"* that, above a certain lengthscale, the universe is both homogeneous and isotropic. That is, if you zoom out enough (looking at the scales of hundreds of  millions of lightyears), the universe appears to be made up of a uniform, *stationary* cosmological fluid. Our galaxies are simply perturbations in the density of this fluid.   It is this fluid with which we define our reference frame -- and we can measure how fast we are moving with respect to that frame by using the CMB dipole -- given that the CMB should be isotropic in the cosmological frame. We can see that we are moving at about ~600km\/sec with respect to the CMB, and hence the cosmological reference frame.  Remember, there's nothing inherently *special* about this frame, it is merely the most convenient one for cosmologists to use as a basis for doing these kind of calculations.    *Why did I say quasi-observed? Because most people would say that we haven't observed any deviations yet, which is not the same as having observed it. One of my colleagues, Professor Subir Sarkar, believes he has spotted such a deviation, though the matter is still controversial.  [Edit: Some formatting]","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6433.0,"score_ratio":44.8165137615}
{"post_id":"s2o6r3","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Is the universe 13.8 billion years old everywhere?","c_root_id_A":"hsgkmiy","c_root_id_B":"hsghipr","created_at_utc_A":1642058295,"created_at_utc_B":1642056126,"score_A":4885,"score_B":27,"human_ref_A":"No. As others have stated, time dilation messes around with the passage of time, and some parts of the universe will have experienced a different passage of time since the Big Bang.   The one remaining piece of the puzzle, however, is asking the question: if the universe is 14bn years old.....says who?  Which reference frame do we use when we make such a powerful, general statement -- when we are using a framework (GR) where the idea of objective time doesn't make sense?  The answer lies in the fact that, although GR forbids us from choosing a universal reference frame as \"the truth\", it doesn't forbid us from using an *obvious* reference frame as a standard measure. When we say \"the universe is 13.77bn years old\" there is an unspoken addition to the end of the sentence which says \"in the standard cosmological reference frame.\"  So what is this standard reference frame, and why is it obvious?   One of the foundations of the theory of modern cosmology is the quasi-observed \"fact\"* that, above a certain lengthscale, the universe is both homogeneous and isotropic. That is, if you zoom out enough (looking at the scales of hundreds of  millions of lightyears), the universe appears to be made up of a uniform, *stationary* cosmological fluid. Our galaxies are simply perturbations in the density of this fluid.   It is this fluid with which we define our reference frame -- and we can measure how fast we are moving with respect to that frame by using the CMB dipole -- given that the CMB should be isotropic in the cosmological frame. We can see that we are moving at about ~600km\/sec with respect to the CMB, and hence the cosmological reference frame.  Remember, there's nothing inherently *special* about this frame, it is merely the most convenient one for cosmologists to use as a basis for doing these kind of calculations.    *Why did I say quasi-observed? Because most people would say that we haven't observed any deviations yet, which is not the same as having observed it. One of my colleagues, Professor Subir Sarkar, believes he has spotted such a deviation, though the matter is still controversial.  [Edit: Some formatting]","human_ref_B":"A bit off topic, but I have a decent knowledge of cosmology and I can't understand how apparently the expansion of the universe can't be reversed to find a coordinate of origin in 3 dimensions. Can anyone explain it to me?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2169.0,"score_ratio":180.9259259259}
{"post_id":"s2o6r3","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Is the universe 13.8 billion years old everywhere?","c_root_id_A":"hsganer","c_root_id_B":"hsgg79z","created_at_utc_A":1642051862,"created_at_utc_B":1642055246,"score_A":109,"score_B":143,"human_ref_A":"The current expansionary universe starting at the Big Bang is the same age in all locations, as it all emerged from the same event.    Specific structures in the universe such as stars, galaxies and the various forms of matter have ages less than that of the universe as they could not come into being until the universe underwent the necessary changes to allow them to form.","human_ref_B":"When looking at the universe as a whole, one uses the FLRW metric in which time is unaffected by any modification (-c^2 dt^2 + a(t) d\u03a3^2 ). Observers in local regions of spacetime would, however, measure a different age of the universe based on their local curvature. So, yes, the universe is the same age everywhere, but not every observer would calculate the same age of the universe unless they use GR to correct their observation.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3384.0,"score_ratio":1.3119266055}
{"post_id":"s2o6r3","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Is the universe 13.8 billion years old everywhere?","c_root_id_A":"hsghipr","c_root_id_B":"hshqnn2","created_at_utc_A":1642056126,"created_at_utc_B":1642085707,"score_A":27,"score_B":93,"human_ref_A":"A bit off topic, but I have a decent knowledge of cosmology and I can't understand how apparently the expansion of the universe can't be reversed to find a coordinate of origin in 3 dimensions. Can anyone explain it to me?","human_ref_B":"To add to the excellent top answer, the question doesn\u2019t really make sense, because \u201csimultaneity\u201d doesn\u2019t exist in relativity. You can\u2019t ask how old the universe is *right now* at faraway galaxy X, because there is no *right now* at galaxy X.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":29581.0,"score_ratio":3.4444444444}
{"post_id":"s2o6r3","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Is the universe 13.8 billion years old everywhere?","c_root_id_A":"hshrllq","c_root_id_B":"hsghipr","created_at_utc_A":1642086104,"created_at_utc_B":1642056126,"score_A":34,"score_B":27,"human_ref_A":"A question:  Could black holes act as a \u201cmeans\u201d of \u201ctime travel\u201d? For example, assuming a super massive black hole: we go as close to the black hole as possible but far enough to not be stuck in its trajectory, i.e. event horizon, meaning traveling away from it is possible.   Assume that in that distance, 1 minute becomes 10 years.   If we stayed there for 1 day, this would become 14,400 years. Effectively \u201ctime travel\u201d through time distortion. We would age 1 day, but upon moving away from the black hole everything else would have aged 14,400 years. Is this correct and more so is this something that can be done in the future?","human_ref_B":"A bit off topic, but I have a decent knowledge of cosmology and I can't understand how apparently the expansion of the universe can't be reversed to find a coordinate of origin in 3 dimensions. Can anyone explain it to me?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":29978.0,"score_ratio":1.2592592593}
{"post_id":"ur1b50","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.76,"history":"What caused the earth\u2019s rotation and what dictated the rate at which it spins? Have we lost any speed over the billions of years? My son asked my a perplexing question regarding earth and why it actually spins. I didn\u2019t have a 100% grasp on the subject so I gave him the \u201cI dunno buddy,\u201d answer. I\u2019m familiar with the Big Bang, but were all planets, suns, stars created at this one event? Did the order of chaos (planets collided\/were destroyed and what we see is the aftermath) create our solar system to revolve around the sun in the same direction? Did the same Big Bang that made these enormous rocks also cause them to spin while being yanked into ellipses around a large grav source?","c_root_id_A":"i8wwth9","c_root_id_B":"i8vy9f6","created_at_utc_A":1652765525,"created_at_utc_B":1652746288,"score_A":12,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"The Earth's spin rate is appreciably higher than what would be dictated by it simply forming from accretion. And its axial tilt is kind of cockeyed as well,.   The most plausible explanation is the hypothesis that a Mars-sized planet (which they named Theia) smacked us at a particular velocity\/angle\/location around 4 1\/2B years ago--most likely twice, a few hundred thousand years apart.   The Wikipedia entry at https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Giant-impact\\_hypothesis includes the technical links needed to explore this more deeply. As far as I know this is the only hypothesis that can account for the current state of affairs of Earth and the Moon in our solar system.  What's truly fascinating to speculate about is the possibility that we wouldn't be here if Theia hadn't paid that fateful visit back in the day. One study proposes that the volatiles needed to form life were produced by Theia's impact:  https:\/\/www.universetoday.com\/141342\/without-the-impact-that-formed-the-moon-we-might-not-have-life-on-earth\/  And our remarkably large Moon (relative to Earth) formed by this impact stabilizes Earth on its polar axis. Otherwise Earth's axial wobble would be much greater.   And Theia's iron core merged with ours, giving us a stronger Van Allen belt, which prevents the surface of the Earth from being bombarded by anywhere near as much radiation as would be the case otherwise.   We don't know if the amped-up Van Allen Belt and the \"gift of the volatiles\" and the faster rotation and the Moon-induced larger tides contributed to making Earth more favorable to life beginning here, but it seems plausible. And if all that is true--if life couldn't have started without our remarkably mild planetary climate and other conditions--then we could be alone in our galaxy.   As I said, this is all speculation piled on speculation, but it all does wrap around proven facts that are otherwise hard to arrive at.","human_ref_B":"Way back when the solar system was just beginning matter was going every which way with almost no preferred direction. Then enough matter came together to form a small gravity well. All of the nearby surrounding matter was attracted to it. However some of the surrounding matter had just enough velocity to miss the gravity well and avoid becoming part of the proto star that eventually became our Sun. This matter started orbiting the sun because it had just enough kinetic energy to not fall in. Again there was almost no preferred direction or plane of orbit. However, in the pure chaos things started colliding. If the momenta of colliding objects was roughly equal, those objects would fall into the star. If one object in the collision had more momentum, than the resulting combined object would have momentum in that direction. Given another few million-billion years and this process does an effective job at making most objects orbit the star in a single plane in one direction. Now each proto planet is formed by objects crashing together. Relative to the center of mass of what will eventually become the planet these objects will be going all different ways. However eventually after several billion years whichever spin direction has slightly more momentum will become the direction of rotation of the resulting planet","labels":1,"seconds_difference":19237.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"ur1b50","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.76,"history":"What caused the earth\u2019s rotation and what dictated the rate at which it spins? Have we lost any speed over the billions of years? My son asked my a perplexing question regarding earth and why it actually spins. I didn\u2019t have a 100% grasp on the subject so I gave him the \u201cI dunno buddy,\u201d answer. I\u2019m familiar with the Big Bang, but were all planets, suns, stars created at this one event? Did the order of chaos (planets collided\/were destroyed and what we see is the aftermath) create our solar system to revolve around the sun in the same direction? Did the same Big Bang that made these enormous rocks also cause them to spin while being yanked into ellipses around a large grav source?","c_root_id_A":"i8wwth9","c_root_id_B":"i8vj8s7","created_at_utc_A":1652765525,"created_at_utc_B":1652739132,"score_A":12,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"The Earth's spin rate is appreciably higher than what would be dictated by it simply forming from accretion. And its axial tilt is kind of cockeyed as well,.   The most plausible explanation is the hypothesis that a Mars-sized planet (which they named Theia) smacked us at a particular velocity\/angle\/location around 4 1\/2B years ago--most likely twice, a few hundred thousand years apart.   The Wikipedia entry at https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Giant-impact\\_hypothesis includes the technical links needed to explore this more deeply. As far as I know this is the only hypothesis that can account for the current state of affairs of Earth and the Moon in our solar system.  What's truly fascinating to speculate about is the possibility that we wouldn't be here if Theia hadn't paid that fateful visit back in the day. One study proposes that the volatiles needed to form life were produced by Theia's impact:  https:\/\/www.universetoday.com\/141342\/without-the-impact-that-formed-the-moon-we-might-not-have-life-on-earth\/  And our remarkably large Moon (relative to Earth) formed by this impact stabilizes Earth on its polar axis. Otherwise Earth's axial wobble would be much greater.   And Theia's iron core merged with ours, giving us a stronger Van Allen belt, which prevents the surface of the Earth from being bombarded by anywhere near as much radiation as would be the case otherwise.   We don't know if the amped-up Van Allen Belt and the \"gift of the volatiles\" and the faster rotation and the Moon-induced larger tides contributed to making Earth more favorable to life beginning here, but it seems plausible. And if all that is true--if life couldn't have started without our remarkably mild planetary climate and other conditions--then we could be alone in our galaxy.   As I said, this is all speculation piled on speculation, but it all does wrap around proven facts that are otherwise hard to arrive at.","human_ref_B":"Rocky planets like our couldn\u2019t be made until earlier stars forged the heavier elements that make up the planets. The reason we rotate is basically because of  conservation of momentum. The rocks that made us up had some angular momentum of their own and it just stayed as it came together to make the planets.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":26393.0,"score_ratio":6.0}
{"post_id":"ur1b50","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.76,"history":"What caused the earth\u2019s rotation and what dictated the rate at which it spins? Have we lost any speed over the billions of years? My son asked my a perplexing question regarding earth and why it actually spins. I didn\u2019t have a 100% grasp on the subject so I gave him the \u201cI dunno buddy,\u201d answer. I\u2019m familiar with the Big Bang, but were all planets, suns, stars created at this one event? Did the order of chaos (planets collided\/were destroyed and what we see is the aftermath) create our solar system to revolve around the sun in the same direction? Did the same Big Bang that made these enormous rocks also cause them to spin while being yanked into ellipses around a large grav source?","c_root_id_A":"i8wvcl8","c_root_id_B":"i8wwth9","created_at_utc_A":1652764472,"created_at_utc_B":1652765525,"score_A":2,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"Not all was made at the same instant of the Big Bang. Many galaxies, solar systems, and planets had already lived their entire lives before the Milky Way was born.  Spin is due gravitational pull of the sun as well as all the other planets in the solar system. Each sun and planetary system has different rates of spin and radii of orbits based on the relative sizes of sun and planets in a particular system.","human_ref_B":"The Earth's spin rate is appreciably higher than what would be dictated by it simply forming from accretion. And its axial tilt is kind of cockeyed as well,.   The most plausible explanation is the hypothesis that a Mars-sized planet (which they named Theia) smacked us at a particular velocity\/angle\/location around 4 1\/2B years ago--most likely twice, a few hundred thousand years apart.   The Wikipedia entry at https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Giant-impact\\_hypothesis includes the technical links needed to explore this more deeply. As far as I know this is the only hypothesis that can account for the current state of affairs of Earth and the Moon in our solar system.  What's truly fascinating to speculate about is the possibility that we wouldn't be here if Theia hadn't paid that fateful visit back in the day. One study proposes that the volatiles needed to form life were produced by Theia's impact:  https:\/\/www.universetoday.com\/141342\/without-the-impact-that-formed-the-moon-we-might-not-have-life-on-earth\/  And our remarkably large Moon (relative to Earth) formed by this impact stabilizes Earth on its polar axis. Otherwise Earth's axial wobble would be much greater.   And Theia's iron core merged with ours, giving us a stronger Van Allen belt, which prevents the surface of the Earth from being bombarded by anywhere near as much radiation as would be the case otherwise.   We don't know if the amped-up Van Allen Belt and the \"gift of the volatiles\" and the faster rotation and the Moon-induced larger tides contributed to making Earth more favorable to life beginning here, but it seems plausible. And if all that is true--if life couldn't have started without our remarkably mild planetary climate and other conditions--then we could be alone in our galaxy.   As I said, this is all speculation piled on speculation, but it all does wrap around proven facts that are otherwise hard to arrive at.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1053.0,"score_ratio":6.0}
{"post_id":"ur1b50","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.76,"history":"What caused the earth\u2019s rotation and what dictated the rate at which it spins? Have we lost any speed over the billions of years? My son asked my a perplexing question regarding earth and why it actually spins. I didn\u2019t have a 100% grasp on the subject so I gave him the \u201cI dunno buddy,\u201d answer. I\u2019m familiar with the Big Bang, but were all planets, suns, stars created at this one event? Did the order of chaos (planets collided\/were destroyed and what we see is the aftermath) create our solar system to revolve around the sun in the same direction? Did the same Big Bang that made these enormous rocks also cause them to spin while being yanked into ellipses around a large grav source?","c_root_id_A":"i8vj8s7","c_root_id_B":"i8vy9f6","created_at_utc_A":1652739132,"created_at_utc_B":1652746288,"score_A":2,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Rocky planets like our couldn\u2019t be made until earlier stars forged the heavier elements that make up the planets. The reason we rotate is basically because of  conservation of momentum. The rocks that made us up had some angular momentum of their own and it just stayed as it came together to make the planets.","human_ref_B":"Way back when the solar system was just beginning matter was going every which way with almost no preferred direction. Then enough matter came together to form a small gravity well. All of the nearby surrounding matter was attracted to it. However some of the surrounding matter had just enough velocity to miss the gravity well and avoid becoming part of the proto star that eventually became our Sun. This matter started orbiting the sun because it had just enough kinetic energy to not fall in. Again there was almost no preferred direction or plane of orbit. However, in the pure chaos things started colliding. If the momenta of colliding objects was roughly equal, those objects would fall into the star. If one object in the collision had more momentum, than the resulting combined object would have momentum in that direction. Given another few million-billion years and this process does an effective job at making most objects orbit the star in a single plane in one direction. Now each proto planet is formed by objects crashing together. Relative to the center of mass of what will eventually become the planet these objects will be going all different ways. However eventually after several billion years whichever spin direction has slightly more momentum will become the direction of rotation of the resulting planet","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7156.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"xtqtvm","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"If objects in space are far away, does light get scattered enough that it would look \u201clow resolution\u201d by the time it reaches us?","c_root_id_A":"iqrd0oq","c_root_id_B":"iqrjv82","created_at_utc_A":1664724303,"created_at_utc_B":1664727028,"score_A":60,"score_B":322,"human_ref_A":"Light *mostly* doesn't scatter in a vacuum, but it does a little teeny bit because of the photons interacting with each other as they travel almost parallel but not the same wavelength and polarity (that would be laser light).  In the solar system, it's pretty negligible. If you get outside the atmosphere, the size of your lens\/reflector and the brightness for far-out objects are the only limits to human-scale resolution. I don't know the math off the top of my head, but I doubt self-interference in the light would cause problems with even milimeter-on-Pluto-from-Earth resolution if you had a big enough telescope to capture and magnify that image.  Can anyone with more optics\/physics\/astronomy than me confirm, deny, or elaborate on that?","human_ref_B":"There's a lot of nothing in space, so not much scattering happens until the light reaches the Earth's atmosphere. The images we get from such telescopes as JWST are \"diffraction limited\", which means that the resolution is a function of the size of the telescope's mirror, in the case of JWST it's the mirror segments that cause the starburst pattern. A huge single-mirror telescope in space could make much higher resolution images.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2725.0,"score_ratio":5.3666666667}
{"post_id":"wptgoj","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"Why don't galaxies from the early universes appear to have a larger angular size compared to galaxies closer to us? I was looking at some of the pictures taken by the JWTS and it occurred to me that because the universe has grown in size since the light was emitted from the earliest galaxies, wouldn't the angular size of the oldest galaxies should be larger than galaxies in the foreground from our perspective? I'm thinking about it sorta like if you half inflate a balloon, draw an image on it, and then continue to blow it up, the image would appear stretched and larger.     My guess; between when the universe first became visible and now, the universe hasn't expanded much and that older galaxies are larger than they appear, but not by much.","c_root_id_A":"ikj3yzz","c_root_id_B":"ikj3olx","created_at_utc_A":1660663721,"created_at_utc_B":1660663615,"score_A":42,"score_B":20,"human_ref_A":"They do! here's an XKCD comic illustrating it , and here's the explanation  Why isn't the sky full of huge galaxies from the beginning of the universe? Galaxies didn't form til later, and the structures that were present in the early universe are so redshifted that they're invisible to the naked eye","human_ref_B":"They actually kind of do, but not for the reason you\u2019re thinking.  First of all the expansion of space doesn\u2019t change the actual shape of galaxies, at least not appreciably. The shape of space time in galaxies is dominated by their mass which overwhelms any contribution from dark energy which would otherwise cause an expansion.   However if we graph the angular size of galaxies against distance we do see that after a certain point it \u2018turns over\u2019. This is not due to the expansion stretching out galaxies, but because when the light from them was emitted they were much closer, and so the image of them in the sky is larger.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":106.0,"score_ratio":2.1}
{"post_id":"vpxv1k","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"This may sound a bit silly, but how does the sun not fall apart if it's entirely made out of gas?","c_root_id_A":"iemhwep","c_root_id_B":"iem8xv8","created_at_utc_A":1656797869,"created_at_utc_B":1656793651,"score_A":231,"score_B":159,"human_ref_A":"Gravity.   The center of mass of the ENTIRE solar system (all the planets, asteroids, moons, etc) is more or less right next to the core of the sun, slightly offset from the center. So you can imagine how much gravity would be pulling on the gas, preventing it from escaping into space","human_ref_B":"Generally a star exists because it has reached Hydrostatic Equilibrium.   The gravity trying to crush the star from its mass is perfectly balanced with the nuclear forces trying to blow it apart.  It exists as a plasma, an electrically charged gas.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4218.0,"score_ratio":1.4528301887}
{"post_id":"vpxv1k","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"This may sound a bit silly, but how does the sun not fall apart if it's entirely made out of gas?","c_root_id_A":"iemnvk1","c_root_id_B":"ienw0nn","created_at_utc_A":1656800703,"created_at_utc_B":1656824003,"score_A":29,"score_B":32,"human_ref_A":"It's constantly imploding from gravity and constantly exploding from nuclear bombs going off, and its current size is simply where these two's tug-of-war has settled. If one of those two gets stronger, the size of the sun will increase or decrease to find a new balance.","human_ref_B":"As others have said, the answer is gravity. But to be a bit more specific, it's the mass that generates the gravity that keeps it together. But it's a bit more crazy than that.  To illustrate, think of a dogpile, the more people pile on top, the more weight you feel and you get crushed.  Another way to think of it is the ocean. The deeper you go the more weight is on top of you and you feel crushed by the weight of the ocean on top of you.  Now the same thing happens with the atmosphere, because while the elements in the atmosphere are lighter than you or I, they still have mass. Which thankfully our atmosphere doesn't just take off since we need it for life to exist.   So like taking a clear water bottle and filling it up with water and dirt, mixing it up will make the dirt float in the water making it murky. But give it time and the dirt settles to the bottom and the water will become more clear. So different air molecules will similarly separate, the ones with greater density and mass sink lower, the particles will less density and mass rise higher up.  Now, consider the sun. As the solar system was forming the mass in the center was the greatest, drawing in the rest of the objects around it. Since hydrogen is one of the most abundant elements in the solar system, and indeed, the universe, the sun is mostly made up of hydrogen.  But as you pile more and more and more particles in the dogpile, something starts to happen. At some point the pressure is so immense that the very atoms are pressed together. So while you can accumulate a lot of mass in one place, such as with the gas giant planets in our solar system, they are still not enough to achieve nuclear fusion. Though the gas that makes up the likes of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune is still under immense pressure there, it's not enough mass for fusion. Though you will see things like liquid nitrogen and oxygen on the gas giants because the immense pressure that is exerted due to their size.   But once you reach a certain threshold of mass, basically enough to cause nuclear fusion by pressing atoms together so hard that they actually fuse together, you have a sun. An astoundingly mind boggling amount of mass presses the very atoms together.  Which on a side note, nuclear fusion actually causes the atoms to change. They change from hydrogen into heavier elements. Until you get iron. Iron comes from stars forging new elements, and is the end of the fusion process. Once it reaches iron it can't be fused into heavier elements. Though it's believe some heavy elements like gold are created when the star explodes in a supernova. So all the elements that make up our planet are essentially made of elements forged in the center of stars! So that's what people mean when they say you and I are made of star dust.  But back to fusion and the pressure of stars. You get a sort of equilibrium that forms between the pressure caused by the sheer mass, and thus gravity of the sun, and the powerful nuclear explosion pressing back as shown here. This keeps the sun mostly stable.    But understanding this principle can help you better understand the science behind something like the expansion of the sun over time. In billions of years the sun will actually grow in diameter until it actually encompasses the Earth entirely, destroying it in the process. Yet this seems paradoxical since the sun gets bigger as it loses mass. But therein lies the key. The sun burns up the hydrogen fuel over time. Less mass means less gravity pulling against itself, and the nuclear explosion begins to press more than the sun can contain. So the sun actually gets larger with age as the nuclear fusion begins to win out over gravity.  The biggest thing I've learned about space is that the numbers are just astronomical in every sense of the word. It's much larger than we can really even comprehend. The sun is just so unfathomably huge that its own weight causes nuclear fusion to occur. And the way matter behaves under these immense pressures is similarly unfathomable. Like if you tried to stand on the \"surface\" of a gas giant in our solar system, you would be crushed so thoroughly your molecules wouldn't be able to stay together. You'd descend into an atmosphere that would just get thicker and thicker until it was a soup and you'd be absolutely crushed. And you'd be long gone before you ever got anything solid. And the deeper in you go toward the core of the planet the atoms themselves are mashed together in ways that change how matter behaves.   Bumping up to the sun the atoms literally fuse together and create new elements. That's how wild and immense the kinds of forces we're dealing with when it comes to an object that large.  TL;DR, gravity attracts particles with mass. And gasses, while lighter and less dense, still have mass. The atmosphere has mass and is attracted to Earth and gravity keeps it in. Same with the sun, but stuff gets weird when looking at objects at that scale.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":23300.0,"score_ratio":1.1034482759}
{"post_id":"y8wwmc","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Why do colonies of insects such as ants or bees not suffer from inbreeding depression?","c_root_id_A":"it2d9og","c_root_id_B":"it2y8xi","created_at_utc_A":1666271456,"created_at_utc_B":1666280161,"score_A":1425,"score_B":3821,"human_ref_A":"Because they don't inbreed. To from a new colony, a queen from a colony and a male (correction, multiple males) from a completely different colony mate. The female then holds on to the male's sperm and uses it throughout her life time to produce her offspring.  I think the females in this newly formed colony are all just from the Queen and not the male she mated with as they are the result of unfertilised eggs, while any new males this colony makes would be from fertilised eggs.(correction, other way around). Either way no chance of inbreeding as _no two members from the same colony ever mate._","human_ref_B":"I don't know about other insects, but with honeybees, the virgin queen will go on mating flights.  While on the mating flight they intentionally fly a long way from the hive to ensure they're not mating with drones (males) from the same hive.  They'll then mate with multiple drones (which kills the drone) and store the sperm in an organ called the spermatheca.  The queen can then selectively release sperm to fertilize eggs throughout the rest of her life.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8705.0,"score_ratio":2.6814035088}
{"post_id":"wybohy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.77,"history":"What is the significance of isotropy in the cosmological principle? What would a cosmology that was homogeneous but *not* isotropic look like?","c_root_id_A":"im0gxeq","c_root_id_B":"ilzpmuu","created_at_utc_A":1661614210,"created_at_utc_B":1661600969,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Homogeneity is when the distribution of energy\/matter is the same everywhere. Isotropy is when there's no preferred direction in the laws of nature.  At smaller scales, space is both inhomogeneous and anisotropic, and that's exactly what characterizes a gravitational field. Spacetime is curved, but note that the gravitational attraction is only due to the \"slope\" of the gravitational potential (at the surface of the Earth spacetime is basically flat, yet objects still fall); the curvature is responsible for tidal forces.  At the largest scales, the universe appears homogeneous and isotropic, meaning there's no overall gravitational field. Anisotropy at these scales could mean various things, such as a preferred direction for the expansion or for an overall \"motion\" of structures.  I'll mention that there actually appears to be some sort of dipole in the cosmic microwave background (called \"The Axis of Evil\"), even after you subtract the movement of the Earth relative to it. What this means is still up to debate, but it could be a hint that the universe might be rotating even at the largest scales.","human_ref_B":"Isotropic means that there aren't special directions. The laws of physics work the same way in any directions. Lets look at a few examples:  A point charge. It creates a spherically symmetric electric field around itself. If the universe isn't isotropic this isn't necessarily true. Any spherically symmetric system wouldn't really have that symmetry if there are special directions.  Light is a good indicator, light could be faster or slower in certain directions.   A cool thing to note that because of how the Earth moves if there is a field that is absolutely at rest called ether we could measure our motion against it and the universe on Earth would be 100% isotropic. So does an absolute universal rest frame exists. No. Einstein even got the maths of it straight.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":13241.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v96wyd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How can we switch from automatic unconscious breathing to counscious breathing? How does it work in our brain, nerves and diaphragm?","c_root_id_A":"ibw1vwd","c_root_id_B":"ibw3lwd","created_at_utc_A":1654888424,"created_at_utc_B":1654889179,"score_A":3,"score_B":28,"human_ref_A":"It's hard to explain exactly because the neuroscience just isn't known quite yet as to what defines consciousness.   In the simplest explanation I can give, it's by shifting your attention. If I told you to pay attention to how much your clothes weigh on your body, you'd start to feel how heavy they are even though you haven't noticed it the entire time beforehand.   In another way, your breathing is like the setting of a thermostat. It's set to a number and runs on its own, but you can always change the setting or override it entirely to put out hot or cold air.","human_ref_B":"Basically, there's a part of your brain that is the respiratory rhythm generator - its called the pre-botzinger complex.  It's located in the ventrolateral medulla in the respiratory control center of the medulla, close to other structures like the retrotrapezoid nucleus and brains \"integration center\" called the nucleus tractus solitarius.    For breathing you aren't paying attention to, this is where your breathing generally starts - respiratory rhythm generated by the pre-BotzC.  The Pre-BotzC projects to primarily the inspiratory muscles (ie diaphragm).  You can think of the motor cortex projecting to the same motor neurons, but downstream of where the Pre-BotzC does.  So, signal from the motor cortex can \"override\" the signal from the pre-BotzC, which is what allows us to pause our breath to speak or shout, things like that.  Disclaimer: neural control of breathing is something I try to actively avoid thinking about because I'm not a neurologist, I'm just a lowly respiratory physiologist.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":755.0,"score_ratio":9.3333333333}
{"post_id":"m69z3o","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Which fruits and vegetables most closely resemble their original wild form, before humans domesticated them? I've recently learned that many fruits and vegetables looked nothing like what they do today, before we started growing them. But is there something we consume daily, that remained unchanged or almost unchanged?","c_root_id_A":"gr7fv3e","c_root_id_B":"gr6swy8","created_at_utc_A":1615956558,"created_at_utc_B":1615943175,"score_A":68,"score_B":26,"human_ref_A":"As an outdoors guy (North America) wild raspberries and blueberries sitting in the middle of remote wilderness are just as delicious as the stuff in the stores. Though they are being bred to make them easier to farm (both are *horrible* plants to have a lot of in one place.)  Though I think the real winner would be the humble supermarket white\/brown\/portabella mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus.) They grow pretty much everywhere.","human_ref_B":"Dry beans are pretty close. Your kidney, pinto, and black beans. Not realy a vegetable though. Green beans are a far remove.   Edamame, vegetable soybeans, are perhaps close. Less poisonous than the wild ones.  Collards are the closest familiar form to wild cabbage.   The various rapini variants are similar to wild flowering cabbage relatives.  Apples are remarkably similar to the wild species.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":13383.0,"score_ratio":2.6153846154}
{"post_id":"m69z3o","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Which fruits and vegetables most closely resemble their original wild form, before humans domesticated them? I've recently learned that many fruits and vegetables looked nothing like what they do today, before we started growing them. But is there something we consume daily, that remained unchanged or almost unchanged?","c_root_id_A":"gr6i1zt","c_root_id_B":"gr7fv3e","created_at_utc_A":1615937470,"created_at_utc_B":1615956558,"score_A":5,"score_B":68,"human_ref_A":"The act of farming in general causes changes, since things don't grow in controlled fertile soils in well managed rows in monoculture in nature.  Since foraged foods from natural sources in-situ are also not viable for wide scale collection and redistribution, they are never enough that \"we\" could \"consume daily\".  To have that level of production factory methods must be used, which changes the thing.  Plantains are somewhat closer to an original banana, except bananas were smaller and even more starchy\/potatolike than soft and sugary.  There are some heirloom varieties of some things, which can be very different from current varieties found in stores, but are still not like the original thing they once were in the wild.  Crab apples are pretty close to the original apple, but are gross and small.","human_ref_B":"As an outdoors guy (North America) wild raspberries and blueberries sitting in the middle of remote wilderness are just as delicious as the stuff in the stores. Though they are being bred to make them easier to farm (both are *horrible* plants to have a lot of in one place.)  Though I think the real winner would be the humble supermarket white\/brown\/portabella mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus.) They grow pretty much everywhere.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":19088.0,"score_ratio":13.6}
{"post_id":"m69z3o","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Which fruits and vegetables most closely resemble their original wild form, before humans domesticated them? I've recently learned that many fruits and vegetables looked nothing like what they do today, before we started growing them. But is there something we consume daily, that remained unchanged or almost unchanged?","c_root_id_A":"gr6swy8","c_root_id_B":"gr7gy0b","created_at_utc_A":1615943175,"created_at_utc_B":1615957344,"score_A":26,"score_B":30,"human_ref_A":"Dry beans are pretty close. Your kidney, pinto, and black beans. Not realy a vegetable though. Green beans are a far remove.   Edamame, vegetable soybeans, are perhaps close. Less poisonous than the wild ones.  Collards are the closest familiar form to wild cabbage.   The various rapini variants are similar to wild flowering cabbage relatives.  Apples are remarkably similar to the wild species.","human_ref_B":"- chives - cassava - pinion nuts - oyster mushrooms  - maple syrup - tea - einkorn wheat - quinoa - taro - coconut - macadamia nuts - new world wild \"rice\" - various red\/green\/brown algae (edible seaweeds)  The above have relatively minor changes in some domestic cultivars.  Would wild foods like dandelion greens or truffles count?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":14169.0,"score_ratio":1.1538461538}
{"post_id":"m69z3o","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Which fruits and vegetables most closely resemble their original wild form, before humans domesticated them? I've recently learned that many fruits and vegetables looked nothing like what they do today, before we started growing them. But is there something we consume daily, that remained unchanged or almost unchanged?","c_root_id_A":"gr6i1zt","c_root_id_B":"gr7gy0b","created_at_utc_A":1615937470,"created_at_utc_B":1615957344,"score_A":5,"score_B":30,"human_ref_A":"The act of farming in general causes changes, since things don't grow in controlled fertile soils in well managed rows in monoculture in nature.  Since foraged foods from natural sources in-situ are also not viable for wide scale collection and redistribution, they are never enough that \"we\" could \"consume daily\".  To have that level of production factory methods must be used, which changes the thing.  Plantains are somewhat closer to an original banana, except bananas were smaller and even more starchy\/potatolike than soft and sugary.  There are some heirloom varieties of some things, which can be very different from current varieties found in stores, but are still not like the original thing they once were in the wild.  Crab apples are pretty close to the original apple, but are gross and small.","human_ref_B":"- chives - cassava - pinion nuts - oyster mushrooms  - maple syrup - tea - einkorn wheat - quinoa - taro - coconut - macadamia nuts - new world wild \"rice\" - various red\/green\/brown algae (edible seaweeds)  The above have relatively minor changes in some domestic cultivars.  Would wild foods like dandelion greens or truffles count?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":19874.0,"score_ratio":6.0}
{"post_id":"m69z3o","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Which fruits and vegetables most closely resemble their original wild form, before humans domesticated them? I've recently learned that many fruits and vegetables looked nothing like what they do today, before we started growing them. But is there something we consume daily, that remained unchanged or almost unchanged?","c_root_id_A":"gr6i1zt","c_root_id_B":"gr6swy8","created_at_utc_A":1615937470,"created_at_utc_B":1615943175,"score_A":5,"score_B":26,"human_ref_A":"The act of farming in general causes changes, since things don't grow in controlled fertile soils in well managed rows in monoculture in nature.  Since foraged foods from natural sources in-situ are also not viable for wide scale collection and redistribution, they are never enough that \"we\" could \"consume daily\".  To have that level of production factory methods must be used, which changes the thing.  Plantains are somewhat closer to an original banana, except bananas were smaller and even more starchy\/potatolike than soft and sugary.  There are some heirloom varieties of some things, which can be very different from current varieties found in stores, but are still not like the original thing they once were in the wild.  Crab apples are pretty close to the original apple, but are gross and small.","human_ref_B":"Dry beans are pretty close. Your kidney, pinto, and black beans. Not realy a vegetable though. Green beans are a far remove.   Edamame, vegetable soybeans, are perhaps close. Less poisonous than the wild ones.  Collards are the closest familiar form to wild cabbage.   The various rapini variants are similar to wild flowering cabbage relatives.  Apples are remarkably similar to the wild species.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5705.0,"score_ratio":5.2}
{"post_id":"m69z3o","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Which fruits and vegetables most closely resemble their original wild form, before humans domesticated them? I've recently learned that many fruits and vegetables looked nothing like what they do today, before we started growing them. But is there something we consume daily, that remained unchanged or almost unchanged?","c_root_id_A":"gr7ku0m","c_root_id_B":"gr7l18e","created_at_utc_A":1615960475,"created_at_utc_B":1615960644,"score_A":9,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"As a chilehead, I feel a need to throw in that one can find everything from the original wild forms to heavily domesticated ones in the capsicums. Botanically, berries, btw.  Chiltepin (and some \"bird peppers\" among other species) still grow wild and are probably how the chile peppers looked originally. Very small, round berries separating from the calyx, presented above the leaves.  Then came domestication...","human_ref_B":"Just on this subject, the wild forms of most domesticated crops can still be found in the wild but one that has baffled scientists is the wild form of maize apparently.  Nothing around anything much like it.   Someone who knows more than me may shed some light on this.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":169.0,"score_ratio":1.2222222222}
{"post_id":"m69z3o","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Which fruits and vegetables most closely resemble their original wild form, before humans domesticated them? I've recently learned that many fruits and vegetables looked nothing like what they do today, before we started growing them. But is there something we consume daily, that remained unchanged or almost unchanged?","c_root_id_A":"gr6i1zt","c_root_id_B":"gr7l18e","created_at_utc_A":1615937470,"created_at_utc_B":1615960644,"score_A":5,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"The act of farming in general causes changes, since things don't grow in controlled fertile soils in well managed rows in monoculture in nature.  Since foraged foods from natural sources in-situ are also not viable for wide scale collection and redistribution, they are never enough that \"we\" could \"consume daily\".  To have that level of production factory methods must be used, which changes the thing.  Plantains are somewhat closer to an original banana, except bananas were smaller and even more starchy\/potatolike than soft and sugary.  There are some heirloom varieties of some things, which can be very different from current varieties found in stores, but are still not like the original thing they once were in the wild.  Crab apples are pretty close to the original apple, but are gross and small.","human_ref_B":"Just on this subject, the wild forms of most domesticated crops can still be found in the wild but one that has baffled scientists is the wild form of maize apparently.  Nothing around anything much like it.   Someone who knows more than me may shed some light on this.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":23174.0,"score_ratio":2.2}
{"post_id":"m69z3o","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Which fruits and vegetables most closely resemble their original wild form, before humans domesticated them? I've recently learned that many fruits and vegetables looked nothing like what they do today, before we started growing them. But is there something we consume daily, that remained unchanged or almost unchanged?","c_root_id_A":"gr6i1zt","c_root_id_B":"gr7ku0m","created_at_utc_A":1615937470,"created_at_utc_B":1615960475,"score_A":5,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"The act of farming in general causes changes, since things don't grow in controlled fertile soils in well managed rows in monoculture in nature.  Since foraged foods from natural sources in-situ are also not viable for wide scale collection and redistribution, they are never enough that \"we\" could \"consume daily\".  To have that level of production factory methods must be used, which changes the thing.  Plantains are somewhat closer to an original banana, except bananas were smaller and even more starchy\/potatolike than soft and sugary.  There are some heirloom varieties of some things, which can be very different from current varieties found in stores, but are still not like the original thing they once were in the wild.  Crab apples are pretty close to the original apple, but are gross and small.","human_ref_B":"As a chilehead, I feel a need to throw in that one can find everything from the original wild forms to heavily domesticated ones in the capsicums. Botanically, berries, btw.  Chiltepin (and some \"bird peppers\" among other species) still grow wild and are probably how the chile peppers looked originally. Very small, round berries separating from the calyx, presented above the leaves.  Then came domestication...","labels":0,"seconds_difference":23005.0,"score_ratio":1.8}
{"post_id":"nqvz98","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"What exactly is missing for the covid-19 vaccines to be full approved, and not only emergency approved? I trust the results that show that the vaccinea are safe and effective. I was talking to someone who is not an anti Vax, but didn't want to take any covid vaccine because he said it was rushed. I explained him that it did follow a thorough blind test, and did not skip any important step. And I also explained that it was possible to make this fast because it was a priority to everyone and because we had many subjects who allowed the trials to run faster, which usually doesn't happen normally. But then he questioned me about why were the vaccines not fully approved, by the FDA for example. I don't know the reason and I could not find an answer online.  Can someone explain me what exactly is missing or was skipped to get a full approval?","c_root_id_A":"h0d946u","c_root_id_B":"h0d82nz","created_at_utc_A":1622671688,"created_at_utc_B":1622671212,"score_A":5062,"score_B":103,"human_ref_A":"TL;DR -  FDA approval is designed on purpose to be a *slow ass process* to make sure a product is **safe, pure, and potent.** It's a process made hard on purpose.   Meanwhile, an emergency use authorization slims down the red tape while still requiring a proven safety and efficacy record.   **ETA:** If normal FDA approval is like a 300-guest wedding event, then emergency use authorization is a small courthouse wedding six months in advance of the main event so that they can file joint taxes and one spouse can technically be on the other's health insurance and dental.   ---  Right now the FDA has cleared just three of many vaccines (Pfizer, Moderna, J&J) for use via Emergency Use Authroization (EUA). To get there, they had to go through three phases, and at each stage demonstrate both a) effectiveness and b) safety.   - Phase 1: given to a small number of healthy people to see if it's safe at various doses and prompts an immune response (if OK, move to 2) - Phase 2: given to hundreds of people, randomized and controlled, to see short term side effects and immune response at varying doses (if no major short term side effects, move to 3) - Phase 3: given to thousands of people to measure effectiveness and more safety information vs. a placebo  >For an EUA to be issued for a vaccine, for which there is adequate manufacturing information to ensure quality and consistency, FDA must determine that the known and potential benefits outweigh the known and potential risks of the vaccine.  > From a safety perspective, FDA expects an **EUA submission will include all safety data accumulated from phase 1 and 2 studies conducted with the vaccine, with an expectation that phase 3 data will include a median follow-up of at least 2-months** (meaning that at least half of vaccine recipients in phase 3 clinical trials have at least 2 months of follow-up) after completion of the full vaccination regimen. In addition, FDA expects that an EUA request will include a phase 3 safety database of well over 3,000 vaccine recipients, representing a high proportion of participants enrolled in the phase 3 study, who have been followed for serious adverse events and adverse events of special interest for at least one month after completion of the full vaccination regimen.  So far only 3 have made it to EUA. **That means we know it works, we know *for sure* it's safe in the short term, and we know it's manufactured correctly and consistently.** You have a vaccine, you proved it works, and you proved it's safe - you can produce it while you go through the rest of the slow-on-purpose process.  Now to have full approval, and under normal circumstances, the vaccine makers have to get full approval through a **Biologics License Application (BLA)** submitted to the Food and Drug Administration. This is a 3-stage process.  The BLA application itself includes:  - Applicant information  - Product\/Manufacturing information  - Pre-clinical studies  - Clinical studies  - Labeling  1. They schedule a bioresearch monitoring inspection. FDA comes out to inspect the production process and facilities.  2. Then they file a Form FDA 356th which includes:  - A summary of information submitted as part of the application.  - Information on the applicant submitting the biologics license application.  - A preclinical data section.  - A clinical data section that includes safety and efficacy data on the product.  - Draft labeling of the product to be licensed.  - Information on the manufacturing, chemistry, and controls of the product.  - A data summary of validation of important processes and assays involved in the manufacture of the product.  - A description of the facility where the product is manufactured.  - Case report form tabulations on the manufacturer\u2019s clinical experience with the product.  - Case report forms and serious event narratives.  - An index.  3. Then we wait for the FDA review. This can take as much time as it needs to take.   Sources:  https:\/\/www.thefdagroup.com\/blog\/2014\/07\/test-the-biologics-license-application-bla-process\/  https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/vaccines-blood-biologics\/vaccines\/emergency-use-authorization-vaccines-explained   https:\/\/www.pfizer.com\/news\/press-release\/press-release-detail\/pfizer-and-biontech-initiate-rolling-submission-biologics","human_ref_B":"Time; as more people are vaccinated and more people can be monitored for side effects, more data can be gathered, analyzed, and submitted to the FDA for full approval. Normally, the process of testing in all 3 phases and approval is done before full scale manufacturing begins. With Warp Speed, testing and manufacturing were done at the same time, with the government eating the cost of any vaccines manufactured that turned out not to make it through the three phases. With more data available to analyze, I believe all 3 US vaccines are being presented for approval in the near future.   This link summarizes the process.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":476.0,"score_ratio":49.145631068}
{"post_id":"nqvz98","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"What exactly is missing for the covid-19 vaccines to be full approved, and not only emergency approved? I trust the results that show that the vaccinea are safe and effective. I was talking to someone who is not an anti Vax, but didn't want to take any covid vaccine because he said it was rushed. I explained him that it did follow a thorough blind test, and did not skip any important step. And I also explained that it was possible to make this fast because it was a priority to everyone and because we had many subjects who allowed the trials to run faster, which usually doesn't happen normally. But then he questioned me about why were the vaccines not fully approved, by the FDA for example. I don't know the reason and I could not find an answer online.  Can someone explain me what exactly is missing or was skipped to get a full approval?","c_root_id_A":"h0d82nz","c_root_id_B":"h0eek86","created_at_utc_A":1622671212,"created_at_utc_B":1622692636,"score_A":103,"score_B":265,"human_ref_A":"Time; as more people are vaccinated and more people can be monitored for side effects, more data can be gathered, analyzed, and submitted to the FDA for full approval. Normally, the process of testing in all 3 phases and approval is done before full scale manufacturing begins. With Warp Speed, testing and manufacturing were done at the same time, with the government eating the cost of any vaccines manufactured that turned out not to make it through the three phases. With more data available to analyze, I believe all 3 US vaccines are being presented for approval in the near future.   This link summarizes the process.","human_ref_B":"I know it's not your main ask here, but in case it helps your discussions in the future you should know another reason the vaccine was developed so fast was because some people had already done work for the better part of a decade on an mRNA vaccine against the spike protein of MERS (Middle East Respiratory Syndrome, another coronavirus that had pandemic potential). By an incredible stroke of luck, the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein is pretty damn similar to the MERS spike protein, so they were able to essentially dust off their work and have a new vaccine in human trials in something crazy like 2 months.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":21424.0,"score_ratio":2.572815534}
{"post_id":"nqvz98","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"What exactly is missing for the covid-19 vaccines to be full approved, and not only emergency approved? I trust the results that show that the vaccinea are safe and effective. I was talking to someone who is not an anti Vax, but didn't want to take any covid vaccine because he said it was rushed. I explained him that it did follow a thorough blind test, and did not skip any important step. And I also explained that it was possible to make this fast because it was a priority to everyone and because we had many subjects who allowed the trials to run faster, which usually doesn't happen normally. But then he questioned me about why were the vaccines not fully approved, by the FDA for example. I don't know the reason and I could not find an answer online.  Can someone explain me what exactly is missing or was skipped to get a full approval?","c_root_id_A":"h0e7cop","c_root_id_B":"h0eek86","created_at_utc_A":1622688615,"created_at_utc_B":1622692636,"score_A":28,"score_B":265,"human_ref_A":"EUA requires 3+ months of clinical trial data.  BLA (application for full approval) requires 6+ months of data.  Pfizer has submitted for BLA.  It generally takes 6 months from submittal to get approval.  But I\u2019m guessing Pfizer is not going to submit for BLA if they aren\u2019t dang sure they\u2019ll get it.  So it\u2019s probably a pretty safe bet that Pfizer will get full approval.","human_ref_B":"I know it's not your main ask here, but in case it helps your discussions in the future you should know another reason the vaccine was developed so fast was because some people had already done work for the better part of a decade on an mRNA vaccine against the spike protein of MERS (Middle East Respiratory Syndrome, another coronavirus that had pandemic potential). By an incredible stroke of luck, the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein is pretty damn similar to the MERS spike protein, so they were able to essentially dust off their work and have a new vaccine in human trials in something crazy like 2 months.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4021.0,"score_ratio":9.4642857143}
{"post_id":"nqvz98","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"What exactly is missing for the covid-19 vaccines to be full approved, and not only emergency approved? I trust the results that show that the vaccinea are safe and effective. I was talking to someone who is not an anti Vax, but didn't want to take any covid vaccine because he said it was rushed. I explained him that it did follow a thorough blind test, and did not skip any important step. And I also explained that it was possible to make this fast because it was a priority to everyone and because we had many subjects who allowed the trials to run faster, which usually doesn't happen normally. But then he questioned me about why were the vaccines not fully approved, by the FDA for example. I don't know the reason and I could not find an answer online.  Can someone explain me what exactly is missing or was skipped to get a full approval?","c_root_id_A":"h0db2yk","c_root_id_B":"h0eek86","created_at_utc_A":1622672610,"created_at_utc_B":1622692636,"score_A":18,"score_B":265,"human_ref_A":"Basically, emergency use is granted when a vaccine has been deemed safe for use in humans and efficacy has been challenged. Prior to full approval a data package will be provided to the FDA for review that contains the continual gathered efficacy data as well as the final labeling requirements (storage requirements, warnings, etc).","human_ref_B":"I know it's not your main ask here, but in case it helps your discussions in the future you should know another reason the vaccine was developed so fast was because some people had already done work for the better part of a decade on an mRNA vaccine against the spike protein of MERS (Middle East Respiratory Syndrome, another coronavirus that had pandemic potential). By an incredible stroke of luck, the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein is pretty damn similar to the MERS spike protein, so they were able to essentially dust off their work and have a new vaccine in human trials in something crazy like 2 months.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":20026.0,"score_ratio":14.7222222222}
{"post_id":"nqvz98","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"What exactly is missing for the covid-19 vaccines to be full approved, and not only emergency approved? I trust the results that show that the vaccinea are safe and effective. I was talking to someone who is not an anti Vax, but didn't want to take any covid vaccine because he said it was rushed. I explained him that it did follow a thorough blind test, and did not skip any important step. And I also explained that it was possible to make this fast because it was a priority to everyone and because we had many subjects who allowed the trials to run faster, which usually doesn't happen normally. But then he questioned me about why were the vaccines not fully approved, by the FDA for example. I don't know the reason and I could not find an answer online.  Can someone explain me what exactly is missing or was skipped to get a full approval?","c_root_id_A":"h0eh1gd","c_root_id_B":"h0e7cop","created_at_utc_A":1622694080,"created_at_utc_B":1622688615,"score_A":38,"score_B":28,"human_ref_A":"Nothing.  The emergency use authorization path allows the various testing stages to overlap.  In the authorization path one would not start testing phase two until phase one had been completed and completely analyzed.  In the emergency use authorization path one can start stage two testing once stage one testing \"looks good enough\",  That does not mean the phase one testing analysis is stopped when phase two begins, it just means that the final statistical analyzes of the data continue to completion after phase two is started.  Then the same thing happens between phase two and phase three. The phase two data is declared good enough and phase three testing begins while the phase two data is carried forward for complete analysis.  Phase three testing finishes and if the data is good enough people start getting the vaccine in bulk while the analysis continues.  At any point if one of the extended complete analyzes show any sort of problem use is halted while the problem is analyzed. So that's sort of what happened with I think the Johnson and Johnson vaccine. Where they stop for a couple days when people started complaining about the blood clot issue. And then the blood clot issue was found to be statistically insignificant or coincidental and use resumed.  There is a phase 4 of testing which is actually the statistical analysis that is done after a vaccine is released and starts getting general use.  Keep in mind that this phase 4 process is identical in both the emergency use authorization, and the normal long form authorization. It's basically the post-release ongoing analysis.  Before any of these vaccines were released for general use the covet vaccines had completed phase three trials and the initial analysis of the results of all the phases, and complete analysis of phase one and I think complete analysis of phase two but I'm not sure.  The people trying to create fear uncertainty in doubt start barking about phase four, as if phase four is something that would be completed before general release which is never the case.  At this point the only difference between the emergency use authorization pathway and the classical pathway is that to be where we are today we would have had to start three or four years ago instead of just one year ago. of course the disease didn't exist three or four years ago.  The sole and only material difference is that the fast way let's some stages overlap.  That raised the potential danger for the people in the stage two and stage three trials compared to a long form approval, but only slightly. And those dangers are long past as we've caught up with the long form approval and we are now happily in phase four analysis.  Aside: All of these words and phrases in terms are terms of art in immunology and medicine, and the people who are using them to scare up fear uncertainty and doubt are relying on the fact that most people use the common ideas and definitions of these words rather than the specific-to-medicine-and-science definitions.  Here's an example: something that is statistically significant is something that is reliably detectable even if just barely. In common usage one thinks of something significant as being something large and overpowering. The term statistically significant in science means anything bigger than the smallest difference you can detect. So the average statistically significant finding is, in common terms, barely significant at all. The scientific definition of the word significant is different than the everyday definition people use.  That's why people who \"do their own research\" are so often pathologically incorrect at every level. They haven't been trained to use the words they're reading under the very specific and precise definitions unique to science.","human_ref_B":"EUA requires 3+ months of clinical trial data.  BLA (application for full approval) requires 6+ months of data.  Pfizer has submitted for BLA.  It generally takes 6 months from submittal to get approval.  But I\u2019m guessing Pfizer is not going to submit for BLA if they aren\u2019t dang sure they\u2019ll get it.  So it\u2019s probably a pretty safe bet that Pfizer will get full approval.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5465.0,"score_ratio":1.3571428571}
{"post_id":"nqvz98","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"What exactly is missing for the covid-19 vaccines to be full approved, and not only emergency approved? I trust the results that show that the vaccinea are safe and effective. I was talking to someone who is not an anti Vax, but didn't want to take any covid vaccine because he said it was rushed. I explained him that it did follow a thorough blind test, and did not skip any important step. And I also explained that it was possible to make this fast because it was a priority to everyone and because we had many subjects who allowed the trials to run faster, which usually doesn't happen normally. But then he questioned me about why were the vaccines not fully approved, by the FDA for example. I don't know the reason and I could not find an answer online.  Can someone explain me what exactly is missing or was skipped to get a full approval?","c_root_id_A":"h0db2yk","c_root_id_B":"h0eh1gd","created_at_utc_A":1622672610,"created_at_utc_B":1622694080,"score_A":18,"score_B":38,"human_ref_A":"Basically, emergency use is granted when a vaccine has been deemed safe for use in humans and efficacy has been challenged. Prior to full approval a data package will be provided to the FDA for review that contains the continual gathered efficacy data as well as the final labeling requirements (storage requirements, warnings, etc).","human_ref_B":"Nothing.  The emergency use authorization path allows the various testing stages to overlap.  In the authorization path one would not start testing phase two until phase one had been completed and completely analyzed.  In the emergency use authorization path one can start stage two testing once stage one testing \"looks good enough\",  That does not mean the phase one testing analysis is stopped when phase two begins, it just means that the final statistical analyzes of the data continue to completion after phase two is started.  Then the same thing happens between phase two and phase three. The phase two data is declared good enough and phase three testing begins while the phase two data is carried forward for complete analysis.  Phase three testing finishes and if the data is good enough people start getting the vaccine in bulk while the analysis continues.  At any point if one of the extended complete analyzes show any sort of problem use is halted while the problem is analyzed. So that's sort of what happened with I think the Johnson and Johnson vaccine. Where they stop for a couple days when people started complaining about the blood clot issue. And then the blood clot issue was found to be statistically insignificant or coincidental and use resumed.  There is a phase 4 of testing which is actually the statistical analysis that is done after a vaccine is released and starts getting general use.  Keep in mind that this phase 4 process is identical in both the emergency use authorization, and the normal long form authorization. It's basically the post-release ongoing analysis.  Before any of these vaccines were released for general use the covet vaccines had completed phase three trials and the initial analysis of the results of all the phases, and complete analysis of phase one and I think complete analysis of phase two but I'm not sure.  The people trying to create fear uncertainty in doubt start barking about phase four, as if phase four is something that would be completed before general release which is never the case.  At this point the only difference between the emergency use authorization pathway and the classical pathway is that to be where we are today we would have had to start three or four years ago instead of just one year ago. of course the disease didn't exist three or four years ago.  The sole and only material difference is that the fast way let's some stages overlap.  That raised the potential danger for the people in the stage two and stage three trials compared to a long form approval, but only slightly. And those dangers are long past as we've caught up with the long form approval and we are now happily in phase four analysis.  Aside: All of these words and phrases in terms are terms of art in immunology and medicine, and the people who are using them to scare up fear uncertainty and doubt are relying on the fact that most people use the common ideas and definitions of these words rather than the specific-to-medicine-and-science definitions.  Here's an example: something that is statistically significant is something that is reliably detectable even if just barely. In common usage one thinks of something significant as being something large and overpowering. The term statistically significant in science means anything bigger than the smallest difference you can detect. So the average statistically significant finding is, in common terms, barely significant at all. The scientific definition of the word significant is different than the everyday definition people use.  That's why people who \"do their own research\" are so often pathologically incorrect at every level. They haven't been trained to use the words they're reading under the very specific and precise definitions unique to science.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":21470.0,"score_ratio":2.1111111111}
{"post_id":"nqvz98","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"What exactly is missing for the covid-19 vaccines to be full approved, and not only emergency approved? I trust the results that show that the vaccinea are safe and effective. I was talking to someone who is not an anti Vax, but didn't want to take any covid vaccine because he said it was rushed. I explained him that it did follow a thorough blind test, and did not skip any important step. And I also explained that it was possible to make this fast because it was a priority to everyone and because we had many subjects who allowed the trials to run faster, which usually doesn't happen normally. But then he questioned me about why were the vaccines not fully approved, by the FDA for example. I don't know the reason and I could not find an answer online.  Can someone explain me what exactly is missing or was skipped to get a full approval?","c_root_id_A":"h0e7cop","c_root_id_B":"h0db2yk","created_at_utc_A":1622688615,"created_at_utc_B":1622672610,"score_A":28,"score_B":18,"human_ref_A":"EUA requires 3+ months of clinical trial data.  BLA (application for full approval) requires 6+ months of data.  Pfizer has submitted for BLA.  It generally takes 6 months from submittal to get approval.  But I\u2019m guessing Pfizer is not going to submit for BLA if they aren\u2019t dang sure they\u2019ll get it.  So it\u2019s probably a pretty safe bet that Pfizer will get full approval.","human_ref_B":"Basically, emergency use is granted when a vaccine has been deemed safe for use in humans and efficacy has been challenged. Prior to full approval a data package will be provided to the FDA for review that contains the continual gathered efficacy data as well as the final labeling requirements (storage requirements, warnings, etc).","labels":1,"seconds_difference":16005.0,"score_ratio":1.5555555556}
{"post_id":"nqvz98","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"What exactly is missing for the covid-19 vaccines to be full approved, and not only emergency approved? I trust the results that show that the vaccinea are safe and effective. I was talking to someone who is not an anti Vax, but didn't want to take any covid vaccine because he said it was rushed. I explained him that it did follow a thorough blind test, and did not skip any important step. And I also explained that it was possible to make this fast because it was a priority to everyone and because we had many subjects who allowed the trials to run faster, which usually doesn't happen normally. But then he questioned me about why were the vaccines not fully approved, by the FDA for example. I don't know the reason and I could not find an answer online.  Can someone explain me what exactly is missing or was skipped to get a full approval?","c_root_id_A":"h0db2yk","c_root_id_B":"h0fgzum","created_at_utc_A":1622672610,"created_at_utc_B":1622721802,"score_A":18,"score_B":20,"human_ref_A":"Basically, emergency use is granted when a vaccine has been deemed safe for use in humans and efficacy has been challenged. Prior to full approval a data package will be provided to the FDA for review that contains the continual gathered efficacy data as well as the final labeling requirements (storage requirements, warnings, etc).","human_ref_B":"Maybe not exactly the answer to your specific question, but there's another important aspect as to why COVID vaccines were approved \/ rolled-out faster: Parallelization.  In essence, pharmaceutical producers skipped a whole bit of the \"is this economical? Will this vaccine be approved? Should we produce X much? And where?\" and started setting up protection chains BEFORE the vaccines were approved... instead of, as would be the normal case, first develop something, then have it approved, and then start investing into manufacturing.  So, if somebody points out that the vaccine seems rushed because it took a lot less time than 'normal', this is another reason as to how the whole process from creation to distribution was sped up.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":49192.0,"score_ratio":1.1111111111}
{"post_id":"yfztqw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"What does Alzheimer\u2019s actually do to the brain? Why is it slow acting in some cases and fast acting in others?","c_root_id_A":"iu8i33j","c_root_id_B":"iu7xtb8","created_at_utc_A":1667043190,"created_at_utc_B":1667025737,"score_A":10,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"There's a mutation in an enzyme that cleaves a protein called amyloid beta, amyloid beta is necessary for the brain and a part of normal physiological function when investigated in KO mice. In AD the protein starts cleaving AB into a toxic form AB42, as the ratio of this to healthy AB begins to shift aggregates build. Many things happen from here, you get resident immune cells trying to dispose of these building aggregates which can make things worse if they're not cleared via the CSF. Eventually this build up can cause problems with the neurovascular unit and the blood brain barrier meaning cells aren't supplied correctly and you see increases in for the sake of simplicity what I'll call toxins. These again cause cell death, this further contributes to toxic build up you start to get inflammatory responses which again make things worse and this cascade just keeps going. I've just finished my PhD thesis on brain inflammation at the BBB. There's still a huge amount we don't know but when I was growing 3D human cortical spheroids and staining them we did see breakdown of the synapses in particular when AD models were compared to controls. There's a lot left to learn about AD and many mechanisms just aren't fully understood.","human_ref_B":"According to a 2013 study Oxysterols in the pathogenesis of major chronic diseases, hypercholesterolemia (specifically oxidized cholesterol) is a primary risk factor for Alzheimer's disease.   Oxidized cholesterol can penetrate the blood brain barrier, allowing long - term accumulation within the brain. This process is enhanced by an oxidative imbalance in the body (lack of antioxidants).   According to a 2012 study, plaque build up in the brain is a larger indicator of Alzheimer's progression than the APOE gene, often associated with the disease. It's just that testing for genotypes is easier than plaque imaging.   Brain autopsies in Alzheimer's patients show significantly more plaque build up in age-controlled brains vs controls. This study \"strongly suggest that atherosclerosis-induced brain hypoperfusion (lack of blood flow) contributes to the clinical and pathological manifestations of AD.\"","labels":1,"seconds_difference":17453.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"yfztqw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"What does Alzheimer\u2019s actually do to the brain? Why is it slow acting in some cases and fast acting in others?","c_root_id_A":"iu8tf1d","c_root_id_B":"iu7xtb8","created_at_utc_A":1667050068,"created_at_utc_B":1667025737,"score_A":7,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Not on a physiological level but, in my cadaver lab at college one of the cadavers had Alzheimer\u2019s. Their brain, unlike a normal one that is all wavy and bumpy and has that texture everyone associates with a brain, was very smooth and lacked definitive texture.","human_ref_B":"According to a 2013 study Oxysterols in the pathogenesis of major chronic diseases, hypercholesterolemia (specifically oxidized cholesterol) is a primary risk factor for Alzheimer's disease.   Oxidized cholesterol can penetrate the blood brain barrier, allowing long - term accumulation within the brain. This process is enhanced by an oxidative imbalance in the body (lack of antioxidants).   According to a 2012 study, plaque build up in the brain is a larger indicator of Alzheimer's progression than the APOE gene, often associated with the disease. It's just that testing for genotypes is easier than plaque imaging.   Brain autopsies in Alzheimer's patients show significantly more plaque build up in age-controlled brains vs controls. This study \"strongly suggest that atherosclerosis-induced brain hypoperfusion (lack of blood flow) contributes to the clinical and pathological manifestations of AD.\"","labels":1,"seconds_difference":24331.0,"score_ratio":1.75}
{"post_id":"z3tlek","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Everyone knows that sharks can smell blood in the water. But are there any air-breathing animals that can smell underwater? Or water-breathing animals that can smell in the air?","c_root_id_A":"ixoam7q","c_root_id_B":"ixoa16v","created_at_utc_A":1669334985,"created_at_utc_B":1669334680,"score_A":268,"score_B":116,"human_ref_A":"Anaconda and other snakes tongue flick underwater. Its a form of smelling since they use their jacobsons organ to pick up \"smells\"  https:\/\/elementalscience.com\/blogs\/science-activities\/how-do-snakes-smell-the-jacobson-organ#:~:text=Snakes%20have%20also%20developed%20a,roof%20of%20the%20snake's%20mouth.","human_ref_B":"Cadaver dogs are trained to smell decomposition, even in water. I've actually seen this done. They put the dog in the boat with them and he hangs his head over the side, sniffing like crazy. If he smells decomposition, he alerts. Usually done in lakes or other relatively still water.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":305.0,"score_ratio":2.3103448276}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqcwg3o","c_root_id_B":"iqcpsup","created_at_utc_A":1664453922,"created_at_utc_B":1664449942,"score_A":18,"score_B":16,"human_ref_A":"How effective are psychedelic assisted therapies vs traditional therapy for PTSD? Have certain psychedelics shown more promise than others when combined with therapy (e.g. psilocybin vs MDMA)?","human_ref_B":"Is there anything you would add to the DSM5 about symptom profiles for PTSD? Our understanding has changed over time, and we\u2019ve since realized that the original \u2018shell shock\u2019 description is oversimplified. Are there any character aspects of PTSD that may be under appreciated by the public or healthcare providers?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3980.0,"score_ratio":1.125}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqcq0p2","c_root_id_B":"iqcwg3o","created_at_utc_A":1664450088,"created_at_utc_B":1664453922,"score_A":14,"score_B":18,"human_ref_A":"Is there a difference between those who experienced sexual trauma and those who say have experienced trauma from war?","human_ref_B":"How effective are psychedelic assisted therapies vs traditional therapy for PTSD? Have certain psychedelics shown more promise than others when combined with therapy (e.g. psilocybin vs MDMA)?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3834.0,"score_ratio":1.2857142857}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqcugnn","c_root_id_B":"iqcwg3o","created_at_utc_A":1664452803,"created_at_utc_B":1664453922,"score_A":10,"score_B":18,"human_ref_A":"Do any strategies work to effectively mitigate the impact of early childhood trauma in adult life?","human_ref_B":"How effective are psychedelic assisted therapies vs traditional therapy for PTSD? Have certain psychedelics shown more promise than others when combined with therapy (e.g. psilocybin vs MDMA)?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1119.0,"score_ratio":1.8}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqcwg3o","c_root_id_B":"iqcvcq2","created_at_utc_A":1664453922,"created_at_utc_B":1664453310,"score_A":18,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"How effective are psychedelic assisted therapies vs traditional therapy for PTSD? Have certain psychedelics shown more promise than others when combined with therapy (e.g. psilocybin vs MDMA)?","human_ref_B":"How close are we to recognizing CPTSD as a legitimate diagnosis?    Do professionals understand that emotional or mental trauma causes physical brain injury?  Like when will people understand that PTSD isn't a mental illness, but a physiological or mental injury?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":612.0,"score_ratio":2.5714285714}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqcwg3o","c_root_id_B":"iqcttgg","created_at_utc_A":1664453922,"created_at_utc_B":1664452426,"score_A":18,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"How effective are psychedelic assisted therapies vs traditional therapy for PTSD? Have certain psychedelics shown more promise than others when combined with therapy (e.g. psilocybin vs MDMA)?","human_ref_B":"Hi Dr van Rooij! Can you take a little bit about the animal models that you utilize in your research at Emory? I'm a lab animal veterinarian and would love a sneak peek!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1496.0,"score_ratio":6.0}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqd2pbg","c_root_id_B":"iqcugnn","created_at_utc_A":1664457120,"created_at_utc_B":1664452803,"score_A":11,"score_B":10,"human_ref_A":"Can trauma produce restructure of the brain, neurologically speaking?","human_ref_B":"Do any strategies work to effectively mitigate the impact of early childhood trauma in adult life?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4317.0,"score_ratio":1.1}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqcvcq2","c_root_id_B":"iqd2pbg","created_at_utc_A":1664453310,"created_at_utc_B":1664457120,"score_A":7,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"How close are we to recognizing CPTSD as a legitimate diagnosis?    Do professionals understand that emotional or mental trauma causes physical brain injury?  Like when will people understand that PTSD isn't a mental illness, but a physiological or mental injury?","human_ref_B":"Can trauma produce restructure of the brain, neurologically speaking?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3810.0,"score_ratio":1.5714285714}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqcttgg","c_root_id_B":"iqd2pbg","created_at_utc_A":1664452426,"created_at_utc_B":1664457120,"score_A":3,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"Hi Dr van Rooij! Can you take a little bit about the animal models that you utilize in your research at Emory? I'm a lab animal veterinarian and would love a sneak peek!","human_ref_B":"Can trauma produce restructure of the brain, neurologically speaking?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4694.0,"score_ratio":3.6666666667}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqd2pbg","c_root_id_B":"iqd2dnh","created_at_utc_A":1664457120,"created_at_utc_B":1664456962,"score_A":11,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Can trauma produce restructure of the brain, neurologically speaking?","human_ref_B":"Why did they take so long to recognize c-ptsd??","labels":1,"seconds_difference":158.0,"score_ratio":3.6666666667}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqd2pbg","c_root_id_B":"iqcxtvx","created_at_utc_A":1664457120,"created_at_utc_B":1664454669,"score_A":11,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Can trauma produce restructure of the brain, neurologically speaking?","human_ref_B":"Do you have any views, insights or experience in exploring the efficacy of using hypnosis to help people resolve trauma and PTSD?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2451.0,"score_ratio":5.5}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqcugnn","c_root_id_B":"iqd592h","created_at_utc_A":1664452803,"created_at_utc_B":1664458309,"score_A":10,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"Do any strategies work to effectively mitigate the impact of early childhood trauma in adult life?","human_ref_B":"Does constant anxiety from something like generalized anxiety disorder, have similar effects as PTSD in the brain?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5506.0,"score_ratio":1.1}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqcvcq2","c_root_id_B":"iqd592h","created_at_utc_A":1664453310,"created_at_utc_B":1664458309,"score_A":7,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"How close are we to recognizing CPTSD as a legitimate diagnosis?    Do professionals understand that emotional or mental trauma causes physical brain injury?  Like when will people understand that PTSD isn't a mental illness, but a physiological or mental injury?","human_ref_B":"Does constant anxiety from something like generalized anxiety disorder, have similar effects as PTSD in the brain?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4999.0,"score_ratio":1.5714285714}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqcttgg","c_root_id_B":"iqd592h","created_at_utc_A":1664452426,"created_at_utc_B":1664458309,"score_A":3,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"Hi Dr van Rooij! Can you take a little bit about the animal models that you utilize in your research at Emory? I'm a lab animal veterinarian and would love a sneak peek!","human_ref_B":"Does constant anxiety from something like generalized anxiety disorder, have similar effects as PTSD in the brain?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5883.0,"score_ratio":3.6666666667}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqd2dnh","c_root_id_B":"iqd592h","created_at_utc_A":1664456962,"created_at_utc_B":1664458309,"score_A":3,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"Why did they take so long to recognize c-ptsd??","human_ref_B":"Does constant anxiety from something like generalized anxiety disorder, have similar effects as PTSD in the brain?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1347.0,"score_ratio":3.6666666667}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqd592h","c_root_id_B":"iqcxtvx","created_at_utc_A":1664458309,"created_at_utc_B":1664454669,"score_A":11,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Does constant anxiety from something like generalized anxiety disorder, have similar effects as PTSD in the brain?","human_ref_B":"Do you have any views, insights or experience in exploring the efficacy of using hypnosis to help people resolve trauma and PTSD?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3640.0,"score_ratio":5.5}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqcttgg","c_root_id_B":"iqcugnn","created_at_utc_A":1664452426,"created_at_utc_B":1664452803,"score_A":3,"score_B":10,"human_ref_A":"Hi Dr van Rooij! Can you take a little bit about the animal models that you utilize in your research at Emory? I'm a lab animal veterinarian and would love a sneak peek!","human_ref_B":"Do any strategies work to effectively mitigate the impact of early childhood trauma in adult life?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":377.0,"score_ratio":3.3333333333}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdmpe4","c_root_id_B":"iqe5i40","created_at_utc_A":1664465669,"created_at_utc_B":1664473111,"score_A":7,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Why can two people experience the same traumatic event, yet process it completely differently?  Why can one person shrug it off, and another person have a lasting impact from the trauma?","human_ref_B":"I've read recently that PTSD and other traumas are essentially \"stored\" in our bodies physically, as well as in our mental and emotional minds, and that due to this, talk therapy by itself is often not enough to effectively treat it. Are you aware of the research regarding that, and if so could you elaborate? What other forms of treatment are helpful?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7442.0,"score_ratio":1.1428571429}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdmpe4","c_root_id_B":"iqdiibv","created_at_utc_A":1664465669,"created_at_utc_B":1664463956,"score_A":7,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Why can two people experience the same traumatic event, yet process it completely differently?  Why can one person shrug it off, and another person have a lasting impact from the trauma?","human_ref_B":"Is EMDR an effective treatment for PTSD?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1713.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdmpe4","c_root_id_B":"iqdm89c","created_at_utc_A":1664465669,"created_at_utc_B":1664465474,"score_A":7,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Why can two people experience the same traumatic event, yet process it completely differently?  Why can one person shrug it off, and another person have a lasting impact from the trauma?","human_ref_B":"As a person who has studied PTSD is it a stretch to say ADHD is a form of PTSD caused by inattentive\/unavailable parent or that PTSD could take hold in the form of ADHD","labels":1,"seconds_difference":195.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdmpe4","c_root_id_B":"iqddqph","created_at_utc_A":1664465669,"created_at_utc_B":1664461996,"score_A":7,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Why can two people experience the same traumatic event, yet process it completely differently?  Why can one person shrug it off, and another person have a lasting impact from the trauma?","human_ref_B":"What is the average time for the effects of PTSD on memory to dissipate on their own?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3673.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdimtf","c_root_id_B":"iqdmpe4","created_at_utc_A":1664464007,"created_at_utc_B":1664465669,"score_A":5,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"About 2 weeks ago I watched a Stanford lecture on the limbic system that\u2019s 11 yrs old  - Has there been any newer pieces of information or updates in recent years compared to 10-20 yrs ago that you find significant\/fascinating?  Assuming its up to date and I\u2019m relaying it right, the hippocampus directly synapses with the amygdala and is involved in influencing behavior i.e. events that are negatively perceived you will remember so you can recognize and better prepare to deal with it next time.  - My 2nd question is why does the hippocampus grow smaller and memory function decrease when all these traumatic events should make this part of the brain more active, more synapsed and more large in size? (Hope that\u2019s sound logic)","human_ref_B":"Why can two people experience the same traumatic event, yet process it completely differently?  Why can one person shrug it off, and another person have a lasting impact from the trauma?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1662.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqcttgg","c_root_id_B":"iqdmpe4","created_at_utc_A":1664452426,"created_at_utc_B":1664465669,"score_A":3,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Hi Dr van Rooij! Can you take a little bit about the animal models that you utilize in your research at Emory? I'm a lab animal veterinarian and would love a sneak peek!","human_ref_B":"Why can two people experience the same traumatic event, yet process it completely differently?  Why can one person shrug it off, and another person have a lasting impact from the trauma?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":13243.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqd2dnh","c_root_id_B":"iqdmpe4","created_at_utc_A":1664456962,"created_at_utc_B":1664465669,"score_A":3,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Why did they take so long to recognize c-ptsd??","human_ref_B":"Why can two people experience the same traumatic event, yet process it completely differently?  Why can one person shrug it off, and another person have a lasting impact from the trauma?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8707.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdmpe4","c_root_id_B":"iqcxtvx","created_at_utc_A":1664465669,"created_at_utc_B":1664454669,"score_A":7,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Why can two people experience the same traumatic event, yet process it completely differently?  Why can one person shrug it off, and another person have a lasting impact from the trauma?","human_ref_B":"Do you have any views, insights or experience in exploring the efficacy of using hypnosis to help people resolve trauma and PTSD?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11000.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqe5i40","c_root_id_B":"iqcvcq2","created_at_utc_A":1664473111,"created_at_utc_B":1664453310,"score_A":8,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"I've read recently that PTSD and other traumas are essentially \"stored\" in our bodies physically, as well as in our mental and emotional minds, and that due to this, talk therapy by itself is often not enough to effectively treat it. Are you aware of the research regarding that, and if so could you elaborate? What other forms of treatment are helpful?","human_ref_B":"How close are we to recognizing CPTSD as a legitimate diagnosis?    Do professionals understand that emotional or mental trauma causes physical brain injury?  Like when will people understand that PTSD isn't a mental illness, but a physiological or mental injury?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":19801.0,"score_ratio":1.1428571429}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdiibv","c_root_id_B":"iqe5i40","created_at_utc_A":1664463956,"created_at_utc_B":1664473111,"score_A":5,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Is EMDR an effective treatment for PTSD?","human_ref_B":"I've read recently that PTSD and other traumas are essentially \"stored\" in our bodies physically, as well as in our mental and emotional minds, and that due to this, talk therapy by itself is often not enough to effectively treat it. Are you aware of the research regarding that, and if so could you elaborate? What other forms of treatment are helpful?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9155.0,"score_ratio":1.6}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdm89c","c_root_id_B":"iqe5i40","created_at_utc_A":1664465474,"created_at_utc_B":1664473111,"score_A":5,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"As a person who has studied PTSD is it a stretch to say ADHD is a form of PTSD caused by inattentive\/unavailable parent or that PTSD could take hold in the form of ADHD","human_ref_B":"I've read recently that PTSD and other traumas are essentially \"stored\" in our bodies physically, as well as in our mental and emotional minds, and that due to this, talk therapy by itself is often not enough to effectively treat it. Are you aware of the research regarding that, and if so could you elaborate? What other forms of treatment are helpful?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7637.0,"score_ratio":1.6}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqddqph","c_root_id_B":"iqe5i40","created_at_utc_A":1664461996,"created_at_utc_B":1664473111,"score_A":3,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"What is the average time for the effects of PTSD on memory to dissipate on their own?","human_ref_B":"I've read recently that PTSD and other traumas are essentially \"stored\" in our bodies physically, as well as in our mental and emotional minds, and that due to this, talk therapy by itself is often not enough to effectively treat it. Are you aware of the research regarding that, and if so could you elaborate? What other forms of treatment are helpful?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":11115.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqe5i40","c_root_id_B":"iqdimtf","created_at_utc_A":1664473111,"created_at_utc_B":1664464007,"score_A":8,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"I've read recently that PTSD and other traumas are essentially \"stored\" in our bodies physically, as well as in our mental and emotional minds, and that due to this, talk therapy by itself is often not enough to effectively treat it. Are you aware of the research regarding that, and if so could you elaborate? What other forms of treatment are helpful?","human_ref_B":"About 2 weeks ago I watched a Stanford lecture on the limbic system that\u2019s 11 yrs old  - Has there been any newer pieces of information or updates in recent years compared to 10-20 yrs ago that you find significant\/fascinating?  Assuming its up to date and I\u2019m relaying it right, the hippocampus directly synapses with the amygdala and is involved in influencing behavior i.e. events that are negatively perceived you will remember so you can recognize and better prepare to deal with it next time.  - My 2nd question is why does the hippocampus grow smaller and memory function decrease when all these traumatic events should make this part of the brain more active, more synapsed and more large in size? (Hope that\u2019s sound logic)","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9104.0,"score_ratio":1.6}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdu6dv","c_root_id_B":"iqe5i40","created_at_utc_A":1664468657,"created_at_utc_B":1664473111,"score_A":4,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Hey! Thanks for doing this.    Have you heard anything about the recent studies involving electrocuting crabs?    >!They get shell shock!<","human_ref_B":"I've read recently that PTSD and other traumas are essentially \"stored\" in our bodies physically, as well as in our mental and emotional minds, and that due to this, talk therapy by itself is often not enough to effectively treat it. Are you aware of the research regarding that, and if so could you elaborate? What other forms of treatment are helpful?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4454.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqe5i40","c_root_id_B":"iqcttgg","created_at_utc_A":1664473111,"created_at_utc_B":1664452426,"score_A":8,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"I've read recently that PTSD and other traumas are essentially \"stored\" in our bodies physically, as well as in our mental and emotional minds, and that due to this, talk therapy by itself is often not enough to effectively treat it. Are you aware of the research regarding that, and if so could you elaborate? What other forms of treatment are helpful?","human_ref_B":"Hi Dr van Rooij! Can you take a little bit about the animal models that you utilize in your research at Emory? I'm a lab animal veterinarian and would love a sneak peek!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":20685.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqe5i40","c_root_id_B":"iqd2dnh","created_at_utc_A":1664473111,"created_at_utc_B":1664456962,"score_A":8,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"I've read recently that PTSD and other traumas are essentially \"stored\" in our bodies physically, as well as in our mental and emotional minds, and that due to this, talk therapy by itself is often not enough to effectively treat it. Are you aware of the research regarding that, and if so could you elaborate? What other forms of treatment are helpful?","human_ref_B":"Why did they take so long to recognize c-ptsd??","labels":1,"seconds_difference":16149.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqe5i40","c_root_id_B":"iqdn0s3","created_at_utc_A":1664473111,"created_at_utc_B":1664465796,"score_A":8,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"I've read recently that PTSD and other traumas are essentially \"stored\" in our bodies physically, as well as in our mental and emotional minds, and that due to this, talk therapy by itself is often not enough to effectively treat it. Are you aware of the research regarding that, and if so could you elaborate? What other forms of treatment are helpful?","human_ref_B":"Have we found any personality types that are more or less prone to the effects of ptsd. It feels as though some people can brush it off and some people lose their life over it. Is this the severity of the trauma or are some people more able to deal with trauma?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7315.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdq20b","c_root_id_B":"iqe5i40","created_at_utc_A":1664467011,"created_at_utc_B":1664473111,"score_A":3,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Is there a clear definition between an anxiety disorder and ptsd ? Are they different names for the same thing?","human_ref_B":"I've read recently that PTSD and other traumas are essentially \"stored\" in our bodies physically, as well as in our mental and emotional minds, and that due to this, talk therapy by itself is often not enough to effectively treat it. Are you aware of the research regarding that, and if so could you elaborate? What other forms of treatment are helpful?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6100.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqcxtvx","c_root_id_B":"iqe5i40","created_at_utc_A":1664454669,"created_at_utc_B":1664473111,"score_A":2,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Do you have any views, insights or experience in exploring the efficacy of using hypnosis to help people resolve trauma and PTSD?","human_ref_B":"I've read recently that PTSD and other traumas are essentially \"stored\" in our bodies physically, as well as in our mental and emotional minds, and that due to this, talk therapy by itself is often not enough to effectively treat it. Are you aware of the research regarding that, and if so could you elaborate? What other forms of treatment are helpful?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":18442.0,"score_ratio":4.0}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqcvcq2","c_root_id_B":"iqcttgg","created_at_utc_A":1664453310,"created_at_utc_B":1664452426,"score_A":7,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"How close are we to recognizing CPTSD as a legitimate diagnosis?    Do professionals understand that emotional or mental trauma causes physical brain injury?  Like when will people understand that PTSD isn't a mental illness, but a physiological or mental injury?","human_ref_B":"Hi Dr van Rooij! Can you take a little bit about the animal models that you utilize in your research at Emory? I'm a lab animal veterinarian and would love a sneak peek!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":884.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdiibv","c_root_id_B":"iqddqph","created_at_utc_A":1664463956,"created_at_utc_B":1664461996,"score_A":5,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Is EMDR an effective treatment for PTSD?","human_ref_B":"What is the average time for the effects of PTSD on memory to dissipate on their own?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1960.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdiibv","c_root_id_B":"iqcttgg","created_at_utc_A":1664463956,"created_at_utc_B":1664452426,"score_A":5,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Is EMDR an effective treatment for PTSD?","human_ref_B":"Hi Dr van Rooij! Can you take a little bit about the animal models that you utilize in your research at Emory? I'm a lab animal veterinarian and would love a sneak peek!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11530.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdiibv","c_root_id_B":"iqd2dnh","created_at_utc_A":1664463956,"created_at_utc_B":1664456962,"score_A":5,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Is EMDR an effective treatment for PTSD?","human_ref_B":"Why did they take so long to recognize c-ptsd??","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6994.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqcxtvx","c_root_id_B":"iqdiibv","created_at_utc_A":1664454669,"created_at_utc_B":1664463956,"score_A":2,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Do you have any views, insights or experience in exploring the efficacy of using hypnosis to help people resolve trauma and PTSD?","human_ref_B":"Is EMDR an effective treatment for PTSD?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9287.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdm89c","c_root_id_B":"iqddqph","created_at_utc_A":1664465474,"created_at_utc_B":1664461996,"score_A":5,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"As a person who has studied PTSD is it a stretch to say ADHD is a form of PTSD caused by inattentive\/unavailable parent or that PTSD could take hold in the form of ADHD","human_ref_B":"What is the average time for the effects of PTSD on memory to dissipate on their own?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3478.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdm89c","c_root_id_B":"iqcttgg","created_at_utc_A":1664465474,"created_at_utc_B":1664452426,"score_A":5,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"As a person who has studied PTSD is it a stretch to say ADHD is a form of PTSD caused by inattentive\/unavailable parent or that PTSD could take hold in the form of ADHD","human_ref_B":"Hi Dr van Rooij! Can you take a little bit about the animal models that you utilize in your research at Emory? I'm a lab animal veterinarian and would love a sneak peek!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":13048.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdm89c","c_root_id_B":"iqd2dnh","created_at_utc_A":1664465474,"created_at_utc_B":1664456962,"score_A":5,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"As a person who has studied PTSD is it a stretch to say ADHD is a form of PTSD caused by inattentive\/unavailable parent or that PTSD could take hold in the form of ADHD","human_ref_B":"Why did they take so long to recognize c-ptsd??","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8512.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdm89c","c_root_id_B":"iqcxtvx","created_at_utc_A":1664465474,"created_at_utc_B":1664454669,"score_A":5,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"As a person who has studied PTSD is it a stretch to say ADHD is a form of PTSD caused by inattentive\/unavailable parent or that PTSD could take hold in the form of ADHD","human_ref_B":"Do you have any views, insights or experience in exploring the efficacy of using hypnosis to help people resolve trauma and PTSD?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":10805.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqddqph","c_root_id_B":"iqdimtf","created_at_utc_A":1664461996,"created_at_utc_B":1664464007,"score_A":3,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"What is the average time for the effects of PTSD on memory to dissipate on their own?","human_ref_B":"About 2 weeks ago I watched a Stanford lecture on the limbic system that\u2019s 11 yrs old  - Has there been any newer pieces of information or updates in recent years compared to 10-20 yrs ago that you find significant\/fascinating?  Assuming its up to date and I\u2019m relaying it right, the hippocampus directly synapses with the amygdala and is involved in influencing behavior i.e. events that are negatively perceived you will remember so you can recognize and better prepare to deal with it next time.  - My 2nd question is why does the hippocampus grow smaller and memory function decrease when all these traumatic events should make this part of the brain more active, more synapsed and more large in size? (Hope that\u2019s sound logic)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2011.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdu6dv","c_root_id_B":"iqddqph","created_at_utc_A":1664468657,"created_at_utc_B":1664461996,"score_A":4,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Hey! Thanks for doing this.    Have you heard anything about the recent studies involving electrocuting crabs?    >!They get shell shock!<","human_ref_B":"What is the average time for the effects of PTSD on memory to dissipate on their own?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6661.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqcxtvx","c_root_id_B":"iqddqph","created_at_utc_A":1664454669,"created_at_utc_B":1664461996,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Do you have any views, insights or experience in exploring the efficacy of using hypnosis to help people resolve trauma and PTSD?","human_ref_B":"What is the average time for the effects of PTSD on memory to dissipate on their own?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7327.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdimtf","c_root_id_B":"iqcttgg","created_at_utc_A":1664464007,"created_at_utc_B":1664452426,"score_A":5,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"About 2 weeks ago I watched a Stanford lecture on the limbic system that\u2019s 11 yrs old  - Has there been any newer pieces of information or updates in recent years compared to 10-20 yrs ago that you find significant\/fascinating?  Assuming its up to date and I\u2019m relaying it right, the hippocampus directly synapses with the amygdala and is involved in influencing behavior i.e. events that are negatively perceived you will remember so you can recognize and better prepare to deal with it next time.  - My 2nd question is why does the hippocampus grow smaller and memory function decrease when all these traumatic events should make this part of the brain more active, more synapsed and more large in size? (Hope that\u2019s sound logic)","human_ref_B":"Hi Dr van Rooij! Can you take a little bit about the animal models that you utilize in your research at Emory? I'm a lab animal veterinarian and would love a sneak peek!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11581.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdimtf","c_root_id_B":"iqd2dnh","created_at_utc_A":1664464007,"created_at_utc_B":1664456962,"score_A":5,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"About 2 weeks ago I watched a Stanford lecture on the limbic system that\u2019s 11 yrs old  - Has there been any newer pieces of information or updates in recent years compared to 10-20 yrs ago that you find significant\/fascinating?  Assuming its up to date and I\u2019m relaying it right, the hippocampus directly synapses with the amygdala and is involved in influencing behavior i.e. events that are negatively perceived you will remember so you can recognize and better prepare to deal with it next time.  - My 2nd question is why does the hippocampus grow smaller and memory function decrease when all these traumatic events should make this part of the brain more active, more synapsed and more large in size? (Hope that\u2019s sound logic)","human_ref_B":"Why did they take so long to recognize c-ptsd??","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7045.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqcxtvx","c_root_id_B":"iqdimtf","created_at_utc_A":1664454669,"created_at_utc_B":1664464007,"score_A":2,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Do you have any views, insights or experience in exploring the efficacy of using hypnosis to help people resolve trauma and PTSD?","human_ref_B":"About 2 weeks ago I watched a Stanford lecture on the limbic system that\u2019s 11 yrs old  - Has there been any newer pieces of information or updates in recent years compared to 10-20 yrs ago that you find significant\/fascinating?  Assuming its up to date and I\u2019m relaying it right, the hippocampus directly synapses with the amygdala and is involved in influencing behavior i.e. events that are negatively perceived you will remember so you can recognize and better prepare to deal with it next time.  - My 2nd question is why does the hippocampus grow smaller and memory function decrease when all these traumatic events should make this part of the brain more active, more synapsed and more large in size? (Hope that\u2019s sound logic)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9338.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdu6dv","c_root_id_B":"iqcttgg","created_at_utc_A":1664468657,"created_at_utc_B":1664452426,"score_A":4,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Hey! Thanks for doing this.    Have you heard anything about the recent studies involving electrocuting crabs?    >!They get shell shock!<","human_ref_B":"Hi Dr van Rooij! Can you take a little bit about the animal models that you utilize in your research at Emory? I'm a lab animal veterinarian and would love a sneak peek!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":16231.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdu6dv","c_root_id_B":"iqd2dnh","created_at_utc_A":1664468657,"created_at_utc_B":1664456962,"score_A":4,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Hey! Thanks for doing this.    Have you heard anything about the recent studies involving electrocuting crabs?    >!They get shell shock!<","human_ref_B":"Why did they take so long to recognize c-ptsd??","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11695.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdn0s3","c_root_id_B":"iqdu6dv","created_at_utc_A":1664465796,"created_at_utc_B":1664468657,"score_A":3,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Have we found any personality types that are more or less prone to the effects of ptsd. It feels as though some people can brush it off and some people lose their life over it. Is this the severity of the trauma or are some people more able to deal with trauma?","human_ref_B":"Hey! Thanks for doing this.    Have you heard anything about the recent studies involving electrocuting crabs?    >!They get shell shock!<","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2861.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdq20b","c_root_id_B":"iqdu6dv","created_at_utc_A":1664467011,"created_at_utc_B":1664468657,"score_A":3,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Is there a clear definition between an anxiety disorder and ptsd ? Are they different names for the same thing?","human_ref_B":"Hey! Thanks for doing this.    Have you heard anything about the recent studies involving electrocuting crabs?    >!They get shell shock!<","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1646.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqcxtvx","c_root_id_B":"iqdu6dv","created_at_utc_A":1664454669,"created_at_utc_B":1664468657,"score_A":2,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Do you have any views, insights or experience in exploring the efficacy of using hypnosis to help people resolve trauma and PTSD?","human_ref_B":"Hey! Thanks for doing this.    Have you heard anything about the recent studies involving electrocuting crabs?    >!They get shell shock!<","labels":0,"seconds_difference":13988.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqd2dnh","c_root_id_B":"iqcxtvx","created_at_utc_A":1664456962,"created_at_utc_B":1664454669,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Why did they take so long to recognize c-ptsd??","human_ref_B":"Do you have any views, insights or experience in exploring the efficacy of using hypnosis to help people resolve trauma and PTSD?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2293.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqcxtvx","c_root_id_B":"iqdn0s3","created_at_utc_A":1664454669,"created_at_utc_B":1664465796,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Do you have any views, insights or experience in exploring the efficacy of using hypnosis to help people resolve trauma and PTSD?","human_ref_B":"Have we found any personality types that are more or less prone to the effects of ptsd. It feels as though some people can brush it off and some people lose their life over it. Is this the severity of the trauma or are some people more able to deal with trauma?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":11127.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqdq20b","c_root_id_B":"iqcxtvx","created_at_utc_A":1664467011,"created_at_utc_B":1664454669,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Is there a clear definition between an anxiety disorder and ptsd ? Are they different names for the same thing?","human_ref_B":"Do you have any views, insights or experience in exploring the efficacy of using hypnosis to help people resolve trauma and PTSD?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":12342.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"xr4sg0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Sanne van Rooij, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. Ask me anything about PTSD, the impact of stress and trauma on the brain, and new treatments for PTSD! Hello all, I've been studying the effect of stress and trauma on the brain for over a decade, and I have studied amygdala ablation for years. The amygdala is the emotion or fear center of the brain and hyperresponsive in PTSD. Because of that, I've been very interested in the region and its role in stress and trauma. In 2020, my team and I studied two patients with epilepsy who also had PTSD characterized by heightened fear responses to things that reminded them of their trauma. Post surgery that targeted the right amygdala, both the patients no longer suffered from PTSD.  In July 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available at 1pm ET (17 UT). Ask me anything about PTSD, the effects of stress and trauma on the brain, and amygdala removal in PTSD.  Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"iqcxtvx","c_root_id_B":"iqe9ytp","created_at_utc_A":1664454669,"created_at_utc_B":1664474855,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Do you have any views, insights or experience in exploring the efficacy of using hypnosis to help people resolve trauma and PTSD?","human_ref_B":"What does long term stress and trauma do to the brain? How does it differ from short term events? If someone is in a long term stressful situation, are there ways to mitigate trauma responses like PTSD?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":20186.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"q5m089","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"What are the physiological differences between the SARS-CoV-2 Alpha and Delta variants? Have they been identified? Genomic sequencing is done to determine what variant an individual has been infected with, so the consequential mutation(s) within the genome has\/have obviously been identified. I would anticipate, then, that the physiological expression of the mutation(s) is\/are also known, but I have been unable to find that information.  I must admit I'm not the most adept at scrounging through scientific databases, though, so I'm hopeful someone here can help me out!  Thanks!","c_root_id_A":"hga2vrr","c_root_id_B":"hgcpgwq","created_at_utc_A":1633989142,"created_at_utc_B":1634045848,"score_A":6,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"The major different spike protein substitutions are E484Q and L452R with quite a few minor mutations.  https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S1413867021000751","human_ref_B":"There are multiple mutations, but these are the most important ones.  L452R is a leucine (nonpolar) to arginine (polar, positive) mutation that slightly changes the physical shape of the spike protein so that it is harder to recognize by Alpha-derived antibodies.  D614G is an aspartic acid (polar, negative) to glycine mutation that better binds to the ACE-2 receptor on a cell's outer membrane, making the virus better equipped to attach to the cell.  P681R is a proline to arginine (polar, positive) mutation that assists the furin cleavage site and enhances fusion of the virus and cell membrane, making it easier for the virus to enter the cell once attached.  Other variants have one or two of these mutations, but these three together are characteristic of the Delta variant (B.1.167.2).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":56706.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"yd636j","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"what is the Difference between fluid intelligence and creativity?   I have read that creativity is the ability to perceive something in a novel manner and thus create something new out of it while intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge and utilise it accordingly. This means you can be intelligent without being creative but how can this be since high fluid intelligence is related to solving novel problems independent of previously acquired knowledge isn't this just creativity?","c_root_id_A":"itrw6uj","c_root_id_B":"itslzc6","created_at_utc_A":1666732162,"created_at_utc_B":1666743457,"score_A":4,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"I think you are making some great points and open up for an interesting discussion.  The way i see it is like this. Feel free to critisize or develope my ideas, id be happy to discuss this subject.  Fluid intelligence refers to the potential capacity for manipulation of information using cognitive working memory tools within the psyche (The psyche being the abstract realm in which we percive ourselves to live from). The psyches working memory is highly connected with functions such as perception, consciousness and long term memory, all playing a role in fluid intelligence potential.   Creativity is the ability to infer realistic abstractions upon a perception. It is the capacity for realising relationships and arrangments that fulfill a real purpose to whatever context in which it (creativity) is being used.  To me it appears that one (fluid intelligence) refers to the real cognitive functionality and one (creativity) refers to the reach of cognitive working memory processes.  In creative people fluid intelligence will be of great use, since it allows for greater association and linking between abstract concepts. However in non creative people, fluid intelligence still performs its function of processing information in sofisticated representations allowing for a deeper understanding of whatever they are trying to comprehend.  An argument which can be made is that a high fluid intelligence perhaps can perform the function of creativity to a limited extent. Since it allows for greater representability of perceptions making it easier to discover relationships. The difference then being that relationships are discoverd, rather than inferd.","human_ref_B":"Fluid intelligence is a term created in the 1950s in the field of psychometry which is a controversial branch of psychology focused an attaching quantifiable measurements to psychological characteristics. It\u2019s controversial because it\u2019s based entirely on correlation and there is no way to demonstrate that the characteristics are actually caused by the thing being measured.  Fluid intelligence is one half of a theory of intelligence put forward in the 60s which posited that general intelligence can be reduced into two subcategories: fluid intelligence which is the ability to solve novel problems and crystalized intelligence which is the capacity to store and execute known solutions to a problem.  Creativity is not a part of that model.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":11295.0,"score_ratio":1.75}
{"post_id":"yd636j","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"what is the Difference between fluid intelligence and creativity?   I have read that creativity is the ability to perceive something in a novel manner and thus create something new out of it while intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge and utilise it accordingly. This means you can be intelligent without being creative but how can this be since high fluid intelligence is related to solving novel problems independent of previously acquired knowledge isn't this just creativity?","c_root_id_A":"itslzc6","c_root_id_B":"itrg54z","created_at_utc_A":1666743457,"created_at_utc_B":1666726072,"score_A":7,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Fluid intelligence is a term created in the 1950s in the field of psychometry which is a controversial branch of psychology focused an attaching quantifiable measurements to psychological characteristics. It\u2019s controversial because it\u2019s based entirely on correlation and there is no way to demonstrate that the characteristics are actually caused by the thing being measured.  Fluid intelligence is one half of a theory of intelligence put forward in the 60s which posited that general intelligence can be reduced into two subcategories: fluid intelligence which is the ability to solve novel problems and crystalized intelligence which is the capacity to store and execute known solutions to a problem.  Creativity is not a part of that model.","human_ref_B":"The only physical difference is the neurological pathways that develop over the course of development, but both intelligence and creativity arise from our relatively high functioning prefrontal cortex.  The real difference is the creative's pathways are not derived or favored by the survival functionality of abstract thought.   General intelligence provides a measurable survival enhancement and artistic creativity is the result of not needing to use all available resources to survive.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":17385.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"yd636j","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"what is the Difference between fluid intelligence and creativity?   I have read that creativity is the ability to perceive something in a novel manner and thus create something new out of it while intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge and utilise it accordingly. This means you can be intelligent without being creative but how can this be since high fluid intelligence is related to solving novel problems independent of previously acquired knowledge isn't this just creativity?","c_root_id_A":"itslzc6","c_root_id_B":"itqynfu","created_at_utc_A":1666743457,"created_at_utc_B":1666719372,"score_A":7,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Fluid intelligence is a term created in the 1950s in the field of psychometry which is a controversial branch of psychology focused an attaching quantifiable measurements to psychological characteristics. It\u2019s controversial because it\u2019s based entirely on correlation and there is no way to demonstrate that the characteristics are actually caused by the thing being measured.  Fluid intelligence is one half of a theory of intelligence put forward in the 60s which posited that general intelligence can be reduced into two subcategories: fluid intelligence which is the ability to solve novel problems and crystalized intelligence which is the capacity to store and execute known solutions to a problem.  Creativity is not a part of that model.","human_ref_B":"(High) Fluid intelligence is measured by how much complexity can be dealt with in terms of patterns, sequences of elements, and depth to said elements and patterns (learn faster, learn more, learn what others can't).  Creativity is something else. It's related to consciousness, and altering it. When that happens, differing thought patterns emerge. Mental dispositions (disorders) are probably the strongest cases for this as well as drugs such as alcohol or psychedelics (discoverer of DNA strand). The risk is insanity at the extremes.   For just lower grades of creativity, personality features matter. Divergent thinking comes to mind as well.   In the brain they are also opposites, high intelligence means efficient networks. Highly creative persons have more of the opposite.   Getting them both is rare. Most smart people are just intelligent.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":24085.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"yd636j","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"what is the Difference between fluid intelligence and creativity?   I have read that creativity is the ability to perceive something in a novel manner and thus create something new out of it while intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge and utilise it accordingly. This means you can be intelligent without being creative but how can this be since high fluid intelligence is related to solving novel problems independent of previously acquired knowledge isn't this just creativity?","c_root_id_A":"itrw6uj","c_root_id_B":"itrg54z","created_at_utc_A":1666732162,"created_at_utc_B":1666726072,"score_A":4,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"I think you are making some great points and open up for an interesting discussion.  The way i see it is like this. Feel free to critisize or develope my ideas, id be happy to discuss this subject.  Fluid intelligence refers to the potential capacity for manipulation of information using cognitive working memory tools within the psyche (The psyche being the abstract realm in which we percive ourselves to live from). The psyches working memory is highly connected with functions such as perception, consciousness and long term memory, all playing a role in fluid intelligence potential.   Creativity is the ability to infer realistic abstractions upon a perception. It is the capacity for realising relationships and arrangments that fulfill a real purpose to whatever context in which it (creativity) is being used.  To me it appears that one (fluid intelligence) refers to the real cognitive functionality and one (creativity) refers to the reach of cognitive working memory processes.  In creative people fluid intelligence will be of great use, since it allows for greater association and linking between abstract concepts. However in non creative people, fluid intelligence still performs its function of processing information in sofisticated representations allowing for a deeper understanding of whatever they are trying to comprehend.  An argument which can be made is that a high fluid intelligence perhaps can perform the function of creativity to a limited extent. Since it allows for greater representability of perceptions making it easier to discover relationships. The difference then being that relationships are discoverd, rather than inferd.","human_ref_B":"The only physical difference is the neurological pathways that develop over the course of development, but both intelligence and creativity arise from our relatively high functioning prefrontal cortex.  The real difference is the creative's pathways are not derived or favored by the survival functionality of abstract thought.   General intelligence provides a measurable survival enhancement and artistic creativity is the result of not needing to use all available resources to survive.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6090.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"yd636j","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"what is the Difference between fluid intelligence and creativity?   I have read that creativity is the ability to perceive something in a novel manner and thus create something new out of it while intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge and utilise it accordingly. This means you can be intelligent without being creative but how can this be since high fluid intelligence is related to solving novel problems independent of previously acquired knowledge isn't this just creativity?","c_root_id_A":"itrw6uj","c_root_id_B":"itqynfu","created_at_utc_A":1666732162,"created_at_utc_B":1666719372,"score_A":4,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"I think you are making some great points and open up for an interesting discussion.  The way i see it is like this. Feel free to critisize or develope my ideas, id be happy to discuss this subject.  Fluid intelligence refers to the potential capacity for manipulation of information using cognitive working memory tools within the psyche (The psyche being the abstract realm in which we percive ourselves to live from). The psyches working memory is highly connected with functions such as perception, consciousness and long term memory, all playing a role in fluid intelligence potential.   Creativity is the ability to infer realistic abstractions upon a perception. It is the capacity for realising relationships and arrangments that fulfill a real purpose to whatever context in which it (creativity) is being used.  To me it appears that one (fluid intelligence) refers to the real cognitive functionality and one (creativity) refers to the reach of cognitive working memory processes.  In creative people fluid intelligence will be of great use, since it allows for greater association and linking between abstract concepts. However in non creative people, fluid intelligence still performs its function of processing information in sofisticated representations allowing for a deeper understanding of whatever they are trying to comprehend.  An argument which can be made is that a high fluid intelligence perhaps can perform the function of creativity to a limited extent. Since it allows for greater representability of perceptions making it easier to discover relationships. The difference then being that relationships are discoverd, rather than inferd.","human_ref_B":"(High) Fluid intelligence is measured by how much complexity can be dealt with in terms of patterns, sequences of elements, and depth to said elements and patterns (learn faster, learn more, learn what others can't).  Creativity is something else. It's related to consciousness, and altering it. When that happens, differing thought patterns emerge. Mental dispositions (disorders) are probably the strongest cases for this as well as drugs such as alcohol or psychedelics (discoverer of DNA strand). The risk is insanity at the extremes.   For just lower grades of creativity, personality features matter. Divergent thinking comes to mind as well.   In the brain they are also opposites, high intelligence means efficient networks. Highly creative persons have more of the opposite.   Getting them both is rare. Most smart people are just intelligent.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":12790.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"s6m5sa","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"When measuring how high terrain is on the moon and Mars, what do they use for\/how do they determine \u201csea level\u201d?","c_root_id_A":"ht6q98b","c_root_id_B":"ht5noha","created_at_utc_A":1642519869,"created_at_utc_B":1642497066,"score_A":505,"score_B":369,"human_ref_A":"For Mars the current scientific standard is to use the mean (average) radius of the planet at the equator. An older model used the elevation where atmospheric pressure was estimated to be 610Pa (water's triple point).   On the moon, the choice is a little more arbitrary, as the concept of the equator is less pronounced. The LRO, which produced the best altitude maps, uses 1,737.4 km radius as its standard. https:\/\/lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov\/library\/LunCoordWhitePaper-10-08.pdf","human_ref_B":"Note these are usually called Datums or \"datum height\" at least in my corner of the technical world.  I don't know about other planets but on the earth you use a WGS model  whch takes into account that planets aren't perfectly round or even oblate.  Using the geodic models you can come up with a datum height or standard average circumference(s)     I think to planetary scientists there may be more interesting datums that have significance for the planet.       Fun fact: Due to error's in the WGS84 model GPS can misreport your altitude by more than 50 meters in some parts of the globe.  This usually is only important to scientists or engineers who need very accurate models.  Also due to differences in gravity and average density in different parts of the world \"sea level\" even in the middle of the ocean can vary on the order of feet.  They used ths variation to find underwater features.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":22803.0,"score_ratio":1.3685636856}
{"post_id":"ofen4n","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do you get \u201clong\u201d versions of other viruses other than Covid? Long Covid is a thing now but can there be long term versions of other viruses that just don\u2019t get talked about?","c_root_id_A":"h4d7jdv","c_root_id_B":"h4c834e","created_at_utc_A":1625673648,"created_at_utc_B":1625653413,"score_A":2816,"score_B":1009,"human_ref_A":"Yes.   1) Chicken pox causes shingles decades later.  2) Polio can cause post-polio syndrome, which is why my grandfather was 4F-ed in WWII despite being in otherwise good physical health.  3) Rheumatic Fever can cause permanent heart damage which leads to rheumatic heart disease. My uncle's otherwise-healthy best friend had it when he was around 7 and then dropped dead at 35 from a heart attack.   4) SSPE is a 100% fatal long-term complication of Measles that occurs like 5-20 years after infection (usually 6-8 years, but some people in their twenties get it from an infection from when they were like... 5) and causes seizures, coma, and death. There is no cure and no treatment other than getting the preventive MMR shot before measles infection. They used to think it was rare, but now believe it happens in 1 in 600 to 1 in 1400 infections. Measles in general fucks up your immune system, making your cells \"forget\" prior infections and leaving you susceptible to infections you've already had for years after measles infection.","human_ref_B":"Yes, there are a vast number of long-term complications following many virus infections. It does seem that COVID is significantly more likely to lead to chronic problems than many other viruses, but then COVID is also a more severe acute disease than most, so it's probably roughly proportional.   Since influenza is probably the most obvious parallel for COVID in terms of pathogenesis, organs affected, and so on, let's look at some of the long-term complications that can follow influenza infection00072-7\/pdf):  * Heart attacks. Influenza vaccination is the most effective way of reducing heart attacks we know of, as good as or better than any heart medications or stopping smoking.  * Encephalitis and other neurological symptoms * Muscle damage * Narcolepsy  * (Possibly) Parkinson's disease   The broad category of \"long COVID\"-like symptoms have also been seen following other infections, though again it does seem more common with COVID:  >Historically, the common symptom of altered cognition has been reported during earlier pandemics, which include the influenza pandemics of 1889 and 1892 (Russian flu), the Spanish flu pandemic (1918-1919), encephalitis lethargica, diphtheria, and myalgic encephalomyelitis (chronic fatigue syndrome or post-viral fatigue syndrome). There are similarities between chronic fatigue syndrome and the \"brain fog\" described in long COVID.   --Historical Insight into Infections and Disorders Associated with Neurological and Psychiatric Sequelae Similar to Long COVID","labels":1,"seconds_difference":20235.0,"score_ratio":2.7908820614}
{"post_id":"ofen4n","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do you get \u201clong\u201d versions of other viruses other than Covid? Long Covid is a thing now but can there be long term versions of other viruses that just don\u2019t get talked about?","c_root_id_A":"h4ci5v7","c_root_id_B":"h4d7jdv","created_at_utc_A":1625661173,"created_at_utc_B":1625673648,"score_A":204,"score_B":2816,"human_ref_A":"ME or Chronic Fatigue Syndrome may be caused by a virus. link  Glandular fever \/ Epstein Barr virus also can have a long term tiredness link","human_ref_B":"Yes.   1) Chicken pox causes shingles decades later.  2) Polio can cause post-polio syndrome, which is why my grandfather was 4F-ed in WWII despite being in otherwise good physical health.  3) Rheumatic Fever can cause permanent heart damage which leads to rheumatic heart disease. My uncle's otherwise-healthy best friend had it when he was around 7 and then dropped dead at 35 from a heart attack.   4) SSPE is a 100% fatal long-term complication of Measles that occurs like 5-20 years after infection (usually 6-8 years, but some people in their twenties get it from an infection from when they were like... 5) and causes seizures, coma, and death. There is no cure and no treatment other than getting the preventive MMR shot before measles infection. They used to think it was rare, but now believe it happens in 1 in 600 to 1 in 1400 infections. Measles in general fucks up your immune system, making your cells \"forget\" prior infections and leaving you susceptible to infections you've already had for years after measles infection.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12475.0,"score_ratio":13.8039215686}
{"post_id":"ofen4n","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do you get \u201clong\u201d versions of other viruses other than Covid? Long Covid is a thing now but can there be long term versions of other viruses that just don\u2019t get talked about?","c_root_id_A":"h4d7jdv","c_root_id_B":"h4cx30d","created_at_utc_A":1625673648,"created_at_utc_B":1625668986,"score_A":2816,"score_B":124,"human_ref_A":"Yes.   1) Chicken pox causes shingles decades later.  2) Polio can cause post-polio syndrome, which is why my grandfather was 4F-ed in WWII despite being in otherwise good physical health.  3) Rheumatic Fever can cause permanent heart damage which leads to rheumatic heart disease. My uncle's otherwise-healthy best friend had it when he was around 7 and then dropped dead at 35 from a heart attack.   4) SSPE is a 100% fatal long-term complication of Measles that occurs like 5-20 years after infection (usually 6-8 years, but some people in their twenties get it from an infection from when they were like... 5) and causes seizures, coma, and death. There is no cure and no treatment other than getting the preventive MMR shot before measles infection. They used to think it was rare, but now believe it happens in 1 in 600 to 1 in 1400 infections. Measles in general fucks up your immune system, making your cells \"forget\" prior infections and leaving you susceptible to infections you've already had for years after measles infection.","human_ref_B":"The Epstein-Barr virus is one of the nine known human herpesvirus types in the herpes family, and is one of the most common viruses in humans. EBV is a double-stranded DNA virus. It is best known as the cause of infectious mononucleosis.  It is also associated with various non-malignant,\u00a0premalignant, and malignant\u00a0Epstein\u2013Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative diseases\u00a0such as\u00a0Burkitt lymphoma,\u00a0hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis,\u00a0and\u00a0Hodgkin's lymphoma; non-lymphoid malignancies such as\u00a0gastric cancer\u00a0and\u00a0nasopharyngeal carcinoma; and conditions associated with\u00a0human immunodeficiency virus\u00a0such as\u00a0hairy leukoplakia\u00a0and\u00a0central nervous system\u00a0lymphomas.\u00a0The virus is also associated with the childhood disorders of\u00a0Alice in Wonderland syndrome and\u00a0acute cerebellar ataxia and, based on some evidence, higher risks of developing certain\u00a0autoimmune diseases, especially\u00a0dermatomyositis,\u00a0systemic lupus erythematosus,\u00a0rheumatoid arthritis,\u00a0Sj\u00f6gren's syndrome,\u00a0and\u00a0multiple sclerosis. About 200,000 cancer cases per year are thought to be attributable to EBV.  https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr_virus","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4662.0,"score_ratio":22.7096774194}
{"post_id":"ofen4n","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do you get \u201clong\u201d versions of other viruses other than Covid? Long Covid is a thing now but can there be long term versions of other viruses that just don\u2019t get talked about?","c_root_id_A":"h4d7jdv","c_root_id_B":"h4cubdo","created_at_utc_A":1625673648,"created_at_utc_B":1625667686,"score_A":2816,"score_B":113,"human_ref_A":"Yes.   1) Chicken pox causes shingles decades later.  2) Polio can cause post-polio syndrome, which is why my grandfather was 4F-ed in WWII despite being in otherwise good physical health.  3) Rheumatic Fever can cause permanent heart damage which leads to rheumatic heart disease. My uncle's otherwise-healthy best friend had it when he was around 7 and then dropped dead at 35 from a heart attack.   4) SSPE is a 100% fatal long-term complication of Measles that occurs like 5-20 years after infection (usually 6-8 years, but some people in their twenties get it from an infection from when they were like... 5) and causes seizures, coma, and death. There is no cure and no treatment other than getting the preventive MMR shot before measles infection. They used to think it was rare, but now believe it happens in 1 in 600 to 1 in 1400 infections. Measles in general fucks up your immune system, making your cells \"forget\" prior infections and leaving you susceptible to infections you've already had for years after measles infection.","human_ref_B":"It's not terribly common, but anyone who survived Polio can get post-polio syndrome way later on in life.  It isn't the same as long COVID where the symptoms persist - it's similar to varicella but instead of hiding out in the nervous system to cause its late effects, its believed to be more of a motor neuron fatigue but this has not been proven.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5962.0,"score_ratio":24.9203539823}
{"post_id":"ofen4n","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do you get \u201clong\u201d versions of other viruses other than Covid? Long Covid is a thing now but can there be long term versions of other viruses that just don\u2019t get talked about?","c_root_id_A":"h4d7jdv","c_root_id_B":"h4d3111","created_at_utc_A":1625673648,"created_at_utc_B":1625671681,"score_A":2816,"score_B":28,"human_ref_A":"Yes.   1) Chicken pox causes shingles decades later.  2) Polio can cause post-polio syndrome, which is why my grandfather was 4F-ed in WWII despite being in otherwise good physical health.  3) Rheumatic Fever can cause permanent heart damage which leads to rheumatic heart disease. My uncle's otherwise-healthy best friend had it when he was around 7 and then dropped dead at 35 from a heart attack.   4) SSPE is a 100% fatal long-term complication of Measles that occurs like 5-20 years after infection (usually 6-8 years, but some people in their twenties get it from an infection from when they were like... 5) and causes seizures, coma, and death. There is no cure and no treatment other than getting the preventive MMR shot before measles infection. They used to think it was rare, but now believe it happens in 1 in 600 to 1 in 1400 infections. Measles in general fucks up your immune system, making your cells \"forget\" prior infections and leaving you susceptible to infections you've already had for years after measles infection.","human_ref_B":"Chikungunya also has a 'long' form -- fevers, recurring rash, and basically severe arthritis in your hands and feet, to the point where you can't hold a pen and walking is painful. Can last 6 months, 12 months, or the rest of your life.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1967.0,"score_ratio":100.5714285714}
{"post_id":"ofen4n","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do you get \u201clong\u201d versions of other viruses other than Covid? Long Covid is a thing now but can there be long term versions of other viruses that just don\u2019t get talked about?","c_root_id_A":"h4ci5v7","c_root_id_B":"h4d85nr","created_at_utc_A":1625661173,"created_at_utc_B":1625673920,"score_A":204,"score_B":382,"human_ref_A":"ME or Chronic Fatigue Syndrome may be caused by a virus. link  Glandular fever \/ Epstein Barr virus also can have a long term tiredness link","human_ref_B":"SARs  >The most severe sequelae after rehabilitation from SARS are femoral head necrosis and pulmonary fibrosis. We performed a 15-year follow-up on the lung and bone conditions of SARS patients.   https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41413-020-0084-5#:~:text=The%20most%20severe%20sequelae%20after,bone%20conditions%20of%20SARS%20patients.  Measles  >Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE) is a very rare, but fatal disease of the central nervous system that results from a measles virus infection acquired earlier in life.  >Encephalitis. About 1 child out of every 1,000 who get measles will develop encephalitis (swelling of the brain) that can lead to convulsions and can leave the child deaf or with intellectual disability.  https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/measles\/symptoms\/complications.html  Polio  >The most common long-term problems seen in polio are brace problems, knee recurvatum, increasing weakness due to overuse and ankle equinus. A definite increased incidence of problems is seen after the patient is more than 30 years post-polio. The basis for most of these problems is chronic mechanical strain of weak musculature and substituting ligaments. Overuse can cause increasing weakness resulting in pain and decreasing function.  https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/4095015\/  Flu  >They include viral or bacterial pneumonia, dehydration, and ear infections and sinus infections, especially in children. The flu can worsen long-term medical conditions, like congestive heart failure, asthma, or diabetes.You might also have muscle inflammation (myositis), problems with your central nervous system, and heart problems such as heart attacks, inflammation of the organ (myocarditis), and inflammation of the sac around it (pericarditis).  https:\/\/www.webmd.com\/cold-and-flu\/flu-complications  Whooping cough or Pertussis  >People born during whooping cough outbreaks are more likely to die prematurely even if they survive into adulthood, new research has found. Women had a 20% higher risk of an early death, and men a staggering 40%.   >Women also suffered more complications during and after pregnancy, with an increased risk of miscarriage as well as infant death within the first month of life.  https:\/\/www.sciencedaily.com\/releases\/2013\/06\/130618101612.htm  Meningitis  >Some of the most common complications associated with meningitis are:  >hearing loss, which may be partial or total \u2013 people who have had meningitis will usually have a hearing test after a few weeks to check for any problems  >recurrent seizures (epilepsy)  >problems with memory and concentration  >co-ordination, movement and balance problems  >learning difficulties and behavioural problems  >vision loss, which may be partial or total  >loss of limbs \u2013 amputation is sometimes necessary to stop the infection spreading through the body and remove damaged tissue  >bone and joint problems, such as arthritis  >kidney problems  https:\/\/www.nhs.uk\/conditions\/meningitis\/complications\/","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12747.0,"score_ratio":1.8725490196}
{"post_id":"ofen4n","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do you get \u201clong\u201d versions of other viruses other than Covid? Long Covid is a thing now but can there be long term versions of other viruses that just don\u2019t get talked about?","c_root_id_A":"h4cx30d","c_root_id_B":"h4d85nr","created_at_utc_A":1625668986,"created_at_utc_B":1625673920,"score_A":124,"score_B":382,"human_ref_A":"The Epstein-Barr virus is one of the nine known human herpesvirus types in the herpes family, and is one of the most common viruses in humans. EBV is a double-stranded DNA virus. It is best known as the cause of infectious mononucleosis.  It is also associated with various non-malignant,\u00a0premalignant, and malignant\u00a0Epstein\u2013Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative diseases\u00a0such as\u00a0Burkitt lymphoma,\u00a0hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis,\u00a0and\u00a0Hodgkin's lymphoma; non-lymphoid malignancies such as\u00a0gastric cancer\u00a0and\u00a0nasopharyngeal carcinoma; and conditions associated with\u00a0human immunodeficiency virus\u00a0such as\u00a0hairy leukoplakia\u00a0and\u00a0central nervous system\u00a0lymphomas.\u00a0The virus is also associated with the childhood disorders of\u00a0Alice in Wonderland syndrome and\u00a0acute cerebellar ataxia and, based on some evidence, higher risks of developing certain\u00a0autoimmune diseases, especially\u00a0dermatomyositis,\u00a0systemic lupus erythematosus,\u00a0rheumatoid arthritis,\u00a0Sj\u00f6gren's syndrome,\u00a0and\u00a0multiple sclerosis. About 200,000 cancer cases per year are thought to be attributable to EBV.  https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr_virus","human_ref_B":"SARs  >The most severe sequelae after rehabilitation from SARS are femoral head necrosis and pulmonary fibrosis. We performed a 15-year follow-up on the lung and bone conditions of SARS patients.   https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41413-020-0084-5#:~:text=The%20most%20severe%20sequelae%20after,bone%20conditions%20of%20SARS%20patients.  Measles  >Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE) is a very rare, but fatal disease of the central nervous system that results from a measles virus infection acquired earlier in life.  >Encephalitis. About 1 child out of every 1,000 who get measles will develop encephalitis (swelling of the brain) that can lead to convulsions and can leave the child deaf or with intellectual disability.  https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/measles\/symptoms\/complications.html  Polio  >The most common long-term problems seen in polio are brace problems, knee recurvatum, increasing weakness due to overuse and ankle equinus. A definite increased incidence of problems is seen after the patient is more than 30 years post-polio. The basis for most of these problems is chronic mechanical strain of weak musculature and substituting ligaments. Overuse can cause increasing weakness resulting in pain and decreasing function.  https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/4095015\/  Flu  >They include viral or bacterial pneumonia, dehydration, and ear infections and sinus infections, especially in children. The flu can worsen long-term medical conditions, like congestive heart failure, asthma, or diabetes.You might also have muscle inflammation (myositis), problems with your central nervous system, and heart problems such as heart attacks, inflammation of the organ (myocarditis), and inflammation of the sac around it (pericarditis).  https:\/\/www.webmd.com\/cold-and-flu\/flu-complications  Whooping cough or Pertussis  >People born during whooping cough outbreaks are more likely to die prematurely even if they survive into adulthood, new research has found. Women had a 20% higher risk of an early death, and men a staggering 40%.   >Women also suffered more complications during and after pregnancy, with an increased risk of miscarriage as well as infant death within the first month of life.  https:\/\/www.sciencedaily.com\/releases\/2013\/06\/130618101612.htm  Meningitis  >Some of the most common complications associated with meningitis are:  >hearing loss, which may be partial or total \u2013 people who have had meningitis will usually have a hearing test after a few weeks to check for any problems  >recurrent seizures (epilepsy)  >problems with memory and concentration  >co-ordination, movement and balance problems  >learning difficulties and behavioural problems  >vision loss, which may be partial or total  >loss of limbs \u2013 amputation is sometimes necessary to stop the infection spreading through the body and remove damaged tissue  >bone and joint problems, such as arthritis  >kidney problems  https:\/\/www.nhs.uk\/conditions\/meningitis\/complications\/","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4934.0,"score_ratio":3.0806451613}
{"post_id":"ofen4n","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do you get \u201clong\u201d versions of other viruses other than Covid? Long Covid is a thing now but can there be long term versions of other viruses that just don\u2019t get talked about?","c_root_id_A":"h4cubdo","c_root_id_B":"h4d85nr","created_at_utc_A":1625667686,"created_at_utc_B":1625673920,"score_A":113,"score_B":382,"human_ref_A":"It's not terribly common, but anyone who survived Polio can get post-polio syndrome way later on in life.  It isn't the same as long COVID where the symptoms persist - it's similar to varicella but instead of hiding out in the nervous system to cause its late effects, its believed to be more of a motor neuron fatigue but this has not been proven.","human_ref_B":"SARs  >The most severe sequelae after rehabilitation from SARS are femoral head necrosis and pulmonary fibrosis. We performed a 15-year follow-up on the lung and bone conditions of SARS patients.   https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41413-020-0084-5#:~:text=The%20most%20severe%20sequelae%20after,bone%20conditions%20of%20SARS%20patients.  Measles  >Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE) is a very rare, but fatal disease of the central nervous system that results from a measles virus infection acquired earlier in life.  >Encephalitis. About 1 child out of every 1,000 who get measles will develop encephalitis (swelling of the brain) that can lead to convulsions and can leave the child deaf or with intellectual disability.  https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/measles\/symptoms\/complications.html  Polio  >The most common long-term problems seen in polio are brace problems, knee recurvatum, increasing weakness due to overuse and ankle equinus. A definite increased incidence of problems is seen after the patient is more than 30 years post-polio. The basis for most of these problems is chronic mechanical strain of weak musculature and substituting ligaments. Overuse can cause increasing weakness resulting in pain and decreasing function.  https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/4095015\/  Flu  >They include viral or bacterial pneumonia, dehydration, and ear infections and sinus infections, especially in children. The flu can worsen long-term medical conditions, like congestive heart failure, asthma, or diabetes.You might also have muscle inflammation (myositis), problems with your central nervous system, and heart problems such as heart attacks, inflammation of the organ (myocarditis), and inflammation of the sac around it (pericarditis).  https:\/\/www.webmd.com\/cold-and-flu\/flu-complications  Whooping cough or Pertussis  >People born during whooping cough outbreaks are more likely to die prematurely even if they survive into adulthood, new research has found. Women had a 20% higher risk of an early death, and men a staggering 40%.   >Women also suffered more complications during and after pregnancy, with an increased risk of miscarriage as well as infant death within the first month of life.  https:\/\/www.sciencedaily.com\/releases\/2013\/06\/130618101612.htm  Meningitis  >Some of the most common complications associated with meningitis are:  >hearing loss, which may be partial or total \u2013 people who have had meningitis will usually have a hearing test after a few weeks to check for any problems  >recurrent seizures (epilepsy)  >problems with memory and concentration  >co-ordination, movement and balance problems  >learning difficulties and behavioural problems  >vision loss, which may be partial or total  >loss of limbs \u2013 amputation is sometimes necessary to stop the infection spreading through the body and remove damaged tissue  >bone and joint problems, such as arthritis  >kidney problems  https:\/\/www.nhs.uk\/conditions\/meningitis\/complications\/","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6234.0,"score_ratio":3.3805309735}
{"post_id":"ofen4n","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do you get \u201clong\u201d versions of other viruses other than Covid? Long Covid is a thing now but can there be long term versions of other viruses that just don\u2019t get talked about?","c_root_id_A":"h4d85nr","c_root_id_B":"h4d7va9","created_at_utc_A":1625673920,"created_at_utc_B":1625673794,"score_A":382,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"SARs  >The most severe sequelae after rehabilitation from SARS are femoral head necrosis and pulmonary fibrosis. We performed a 15-year follow-up on the lung and bone conditions of SARS patients.   https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41413-020-0084-5#:~:text=The%20most%20severe%20sequelae%20after,bone%20conditions%20of%20SARS%20patients.  Measles  >Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE) is a very rare, but fatal disease of the central nervous system that results from a measles virus infection acquired earlier in life.  >Encephalitis. About 1 child out of every 1,000 who get measles will develop encephalitis (swelling of the brain) that can lead to convulsions and can leave the child deaf or with intellectual disability.  https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/measles\/symptoms\/complications.html  Polio  >The most common long-term problems seen in polio are brace problems, knee recurvatum, increasing weakness due to overuse and ankle equinus. A definite increased incidence of problems is seen after the patient is more than 30 years post-polio. The basis for most of these problems is chronic mechanical strain of weak musculature and substituting ligaments. Overuse can cause increasing weakness resulting in pain and decreasing function.  https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/4095015\/  Flu  >They include viral or bacterial pneumonia, dehydration, and ear infections and sinus infections, especially in children. The flu can worsen long-term medical conditions, like congestive heart failure, asthma, or diabetes.You might also have muscle inflammation (myositis), problems with your central nervous system, and heart problems such as heart attacks, inflammation of the organ (myocarditis), and inflammation of the sac around it (pericarditis).  https:\/\/www.webmd.com\/cold-and-flu\/flu-complications  Whooping cough or Pertussis  >People born during whooping cough outbreaks are more likely to die prematurely even if they survive into adulthood, new research has found. Women had a 20% higher risk of an early death, and men a staggering 40%.   >Women also suffered more complications during and after pregnancy, with an increased risk of miscarriage as well as infant death within the first month of life.  https:\/\/www.sciencedaily.com\/releases\/2013\/06\/130618101612.htm  Meningitis  >Some of the most common complications associated with meningitis are:  >hearing loss, which may be partial or total \u2013 people who have had meningitis will usually have a hearing test after a few weeks to check for any problems  >recurrent seizures (epilepsy)  >problems with memory and concentration  >co-ordination, movement and balance problems  >learning difficulties and behavioural problems  >vision loss, which may be partial or total  >loss of limbs \u2013 amputation is sometimes necessary to stop the infection spreading through the body and remove damaged tissue  >bone and joint problems, such as arthritis  >kidney problems  https:\/\/www.nhs.uk\/conditions\/meningitis\/complications\/","human_ref_B":"It has to do with the injuries sustained from inflammation during your acute illness.   For covid its particularly bad because it works across your endothelium (lining of the blood vessels). Organs have high concentrations of endothelial cells.   Also with covid, because its a novel (new) virus your body doesn't know what to look for in the early part of the infection (we vaccinate to fix this). Covid in particular hides itself in your ACE cells (maybe youve heared of medications called ACE inhibitors). Imagine your ACE cells like little boxes for all the covid to hide in, it lets covid and his covid buddies have a place to hide and accumulate. Eventually the ACE cells breakdown on their own but now they are filled with covid and suddenly its overwhelming. This triggers a big inflammatory response, its called a \"cytokine storm\" by some. This is key because its this sudden and significant amount of inflammation (now spreading across the endothelium), that leaves physical injury and its probably this injury that causes long covid.  Organs and even smaller systems in your body may not feel pain (a symptom obvious to us), an injury to your heart or your brain or pancreas does not present often with pain. A person can have heart disease for years (often do) and only feel diffuse symptoms, stuff like fatigue or swelling of extremities. When they have an accute MI they are often experiencing referred pain, not pain from the heart itself. The MI isnt the heart disease, its the result (often) of longer term damage. So sticking with covid, for which there is a big concern for the heart. Im going to stick to stuff relevant after the acute infection (long covid). So inflammation in the heart happens often with infections, usually this is mild inflammation. In fact, you probably have seen news about myocarditis after vaccinations. While research is ongoing itll likely be the case that its just typical inflammation from the vaccine and because its mild its generally not serious. As we discussed earlier covid generates a big inflammation response (cytokine storm). The heart generally manages inflammation ok except when it lays down scar tissue, depending on where the damage is makes all the difference and covid doesn't care where it leaves damage. Unfortunately covid spreads to all your organs via the lining of the blood vessels, not just the  heart. The types of injuries were seeing with peoples pancreas are due to inflammation and the effect is fluctuating blood sugars, particularly reactive hypoglycemia... and this is in previously healthy people (non diabetics). Ct scans of the head (brain) show inflammation damage, this might explain the neurological symptoms of long covid (fatigue, brain fog). The lungs are just another organ group, they are more obviously impaired with inflammation. They dont feel pain but we can all tell if someone is having trouble breathing.  Its worth noting that a significant number of researchers feel that long covid is a mix of fatigue and ptsd. We should look to the uk on current research for long covid, they are leading this field... which they better do since they are shooting for a herd immunity with vaccines. Latest projections say 100k\/day by the end of summer.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":126.0,"score_ratio":9.7948717949}
{"post_id":"ofen4n","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do you get \u201clong\u201d versions of other viruses other than Covid? Long Covid is a thing now but can there be long term versions of other viruses that just don\u2019t get talked about?","c_root_id_A":"h4d3111","c_root_id_B":"h4d85nr","created_at_utc_A":1625671681,"created_at_utc_B":1625673920,"score_A":28,"score_B":382,"human_ref_A":"Chikungunya also has a 'long' form -- fevers, recurring rash, and basically severe arthritis in your hands and feet, to the point where you can't hold a pen and walking is painful. Can last 6 months, 12 months, or the rest of your life.","human_ref_B":"SARs  >The most severe sequelae after rehabilitation from SARS are femoral head necrosis and pulmonary fibrosis. We performed a 15-year follow-up on the lung and bone conditions of SARS patients.   https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41413-020-0084-5#:~:text=The%20most%20severe%20sequelae%20after,bone%20conditions%20of%20SARS%20patients.  Measles  >Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE) is a very rare, but fatal disease of the central nervous system that results from a measles virus infection acquired earlier in life.  >Encephalitis. About 1 child out of every 1,000 who get measles will develop encephalitis (swelling of the brain) that can lead to convulsions and can leave the child deaf or with intellectual disability.  https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/measles\/symptoms\/complications.html  Polio  >The most common long-term problems seen in polio are brace problems, knee recurvatum, increasing weakness due to overuse and ankle equinus. A definite increased incidence of problems is seen after the patient is more than 30 years post-polio. The basis for most of these problems is chronic mechanical strain of weak musculature and substituting ligaments. Overuse can cause increasing weakness resulting in pain and decreasing function.  https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/4095015\/  Flu  >They include viral or bacterial pneumonia, dehydration, and ear infections and sinus infections, especially in children. The flu can worsen long-term medical conditions, like congestive heart failure, asthma, or diabetes.You might also have muscle inflammation (myositis), problems with your central nervous system, and heart problems such as heart attacks, inflammation of the organ (myocarditis), and inflammation of the sac around it (pericarditis).  https:\/\/www.webmd.com\/cold-and-flu\/flu-complications  Whooping cough or Pertussis  >People born during whooping cough outbreaks are more likely to die prematurely even if they survive into adulthood, new research has found. Women had a 20% higher risk of an early death, and men a staggering 40%.   >Women also suffered more complications during and after pregnancy, with an increased risk of miscarriage as well as infant death within the first month of life.  https:\/\/www.sciencedaily.com\/releases\/2013\/06\/130618101612.htm  Meningitis  >Some of the most common complications associated with meningitis are:  >hearing loss, which may be partial or total \u2013 people who have had meningitis will usually have a hearing test after a few weeks to check for any problems  >recurrent seizures (epilepsy)  >problems with memory and concentration  >co-ordination, movement and balance problems  >learning difficulties and behavioural problems  >vision loss, which may be partial or total  >loss of limbs \u2013 amputation is sometimes necessary to stop the infection spreading through the body and remove damaged tissue  >bone and joint problems, such as arthritis  >kidney problems  https:\/\/www.nhs.uk\/conditions\/meningitis\/complications\/","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2239.0,"score_ratio":13.6428571429}
{"post_id":"ofen4n","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do you get \u201clong\u201d versions of other viruses other than Covid? Long Covid is a thing now but can there be long term versions of other viruses that just don\u2019t get talked about?","c_root_id_A":"h4cubdo","c_root_id_B":"h4cx30d","created_at_utc_A":1625667686,"created_at_utc_B":1625668986,"score_A":113,"score_B":124,"human_ref_A":"It's not terribly common, but anyone who survived Polio can get post-polio syndrome way later on in life.  It isn't the same as long COVID where the symptoms persist - it's similar to varicella but instead of hiding out in the nervous system to cause its late effects, its believed to be more of a motor neuron fatigue but this has not been proven.","human_ref_B":"The Epstein-Barr virus is one of the nine known human herpesvirus types in the herpes family, and is one of the most common viruses in humans. EBV is a double-stranded DNA virus. It is best known as the cause of infectious mononucleosis.  It is also associated with various non-malignant,\u00a0premalignant, and malignant\u00a0Epstein\u2013Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative diseases\u00a0such as\u00a0Burkitt lymphoma,\u00a0hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis,\u00a0and\u00a0Hodgkin's lymphoma; non-lymphoid malignancies such as\u00a0gastric cancer\u00a0and\u00a0nasopharyngeal carcinoma; and conditions associated with\u00a0human immunodeficiency virus\u00a0such as\u00a0hairy leukoplakia\u00a0and\u00a0central nervous system\u00a0lymphomas.\u00a0The virus is also associated with the childhood disorders of\u00a0Alice in Wonderland syndrome and\u00a0acute cerebellar ataxia and, based on some evidence, higher risks of developing certain\u00a0autoimmune diseases, especially\u00a0dermatomyositis,\u00a0systemic lupus erythematosus,\u00a0rheumatoid arthritis,\u00a0Sj\u00f6gren's syndrome,\u00a0and\u00a0multiple sclerosis. About 200,000 cancer cases per year are thought to be attributable to EBV.  https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr_virus","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1300.0,"score_ratio":1.0973451327}
{"post_id":"ofen4n","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do you get \u201clong\u201d versions of other viruses other than Covid? Long Covid is a thing now but can there be long term versions of other viruses that just don\u2019t get talked about?","c_root_id_A":"h4d3111","c_root_id_B":"h4d7va9","created_at_utc_A":1625671681,"created_at_utc_B":1625673794,"score_A":28,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"Chikungunya also has a 'long' form -- fevers, recurring rash, and basically severe arthritis in your hands and feet, to the point where you can't hold a pen and walking is painful. Can last 6 months, 12 months, or the rest of your life.","human_ref_B":"It has to do with the injuries sustained from inflammation during your acute illness.   For covid its particularly bad because it works across your endothelium (lining of the blood vessels). Organs have high concentrations of endothelial cells.   Also with covid, because its a novel (new) virus your body doesn't know what to look for in the early part of the infection (we vaccinate to fix this). Covid in particular hides itself in your ACE cells (maybe youve heared of medications called ACE inhibitors). Imagine your ACE cells like little boxes for all the covid to hide in, it lets covid and his covid buddies have a place to hide and accumulate. Eventually the ACE cells breakdown on their own but now they are filled with covid and suddenly its overwhelming. This triggers a big inflammatory response, its called a \"cytokine storm\" by some. This is key because its this sudden and significant amount of inflammation (now spreading across the endothelium), that leaves physical injury and its probably this injury that causes long covid.  Organs and even smaller systems in your body may not feel pain (a symptom obvious to us), an injury to your heart or your brain or pancreas does not present often with pain. A person can have heart disease for years (often do) and only feel diffuse symptoms, stuff like fatigue or swelling of extremities. When they have an accute MI they are often experiencing referred pain, not pain from the heart itself. The MI isnt the heart disease, its the result (often) of longer term damage. So sticking with covid, for which there is a big concern for the heart. Im going to stick to stuff relevant after the acute infection (long covid). So inflammation in the heart happens often with infections, usually this is mild inflammation. In fact, you probably have seen news about myocarditis after vaccinations. While research is ongoing itll likely be the case that its just typical inflammation from the vaccine and because its mild its generally not serious. As we discussed earlier covid generates a big inflammation response (cytokine storm). The heart generally manages inflammation ok except when it lays down scar tissue, depending on where the damage is makes all the difference and covid doesn't care where it leaves damage. Unfortunately covid spreads to all your organs via the lining of the blood vessels, not just the  heart. The types of injuries were seeing with peoples pancreas are due to inflammation and the effect is fluctuating blood sugars, particularly reactive hypoglycemia... and this is in previously healthy people (non diabetics). Ct scans of the head (brain) show inflammation damage, this might explain the neurological symptoms of long covid (fatigue, brain fog). The lungs are just another organ group, they are more obviously impaired with inflammation. They dont feel pain but we can all tell if someone is having trouble breathing.  Its worth noting that a significant number of researchers feel that long covid is a mix of fatigue and ptsd. We should look to the uk on current research for long covid, they are leading this field... which they better do since they are shooting for a herd immunity with vaccines. Latest projections say 100k\/day by the end of summer.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2113.0,"score_ratio":1.3928571429}
{"post_id":"zv5bij","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"How certain are we that the universe began 13.77 billion years ago? My understanding is that the most recent estimates for the age of the universe are around 13.77 billion years, plus or minus some twenty million years. And that these confidence intervals reflect measurement error, and are conditional on the underlying Lambda-CDM model being accurate.   My question is, how confident are we in the Lambda-CDM model? As physicists continue to work on this stuff and improve and modify the model, is the estimated age likely to change? And if so, how dramatically?  I.e., how certain are we that the Big Bang did not actually happen 14 billion years ago and that the Lambda-CDM model is just slightly off?","c_root_id_A":"j1o647f","c_root_id_B":"j1owf5p","created_at_utc_A":1672016131,"created_at_utc_B":1672030905,"score_A":444,"score_B":1245,"human_ref_A":"The age of the universe is just inferred from the best fit cosmological model, which happens to be the LCDM model. A different model will give a different age.   Right now, this age can be further constrained by measurements of dark energy (read: vacuum energy\/expansion of the universe). This can be done by directly  observing the expansion of the universe (hard), or with the use of standard candles, rulers and baryonic acoustic oscillations of the CMB (easier). The loosest age constraint is given by a growth-of-structure model, which is given by comparing the structure in the CMB and the structure we see today in the universe.  In the future, the true nature of dark energy is known, so another model will be in the place of LCDM. This model will either give similar age of the universe (only more certain), or a different age altogether.   To answer the question about the correctness of LCDM: it's currently the best fit model, where the emphasis is on the words 'currently' and 'best'.","human_ref_B":"Cosmologists are not at all sure that the age of the universe is 13.77 Billion years, and there is increasing evidence that it is not; that 13.1 Billion or younger better matches some observations. The proper-time age of the universe can be inferred from observations in many ways. Ideally these ways would all produce the same result. That's not currently the case for big-bang cosmology! This discrepancy is kind of a big deal and is known as *The Hubble Tension*, and the *Crisis in Cosmology*  To determine the *Hubble Constant* (the physical constant that determines the proportionality relationship between speed and distance for all sufficiently distant astronomical bodies) we use 2 broad categories of methods: Early Universe and Late Universe methods.   Early Universe methods depend heavily on \u039bCDM or other models, plus observations of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation. Essentially deducing the Hubble Constant by the temperature of the CMB and how quickly one would expect it to cool using the \u039bCDM model.  Late Universe methods use observed redshift (basically relative velocity) and various inferred distance measurements known as the Cosmic Distance Ladder.  Both of these methods should agree, and at first they did albeit with large error bars. However Over time, as more observations have been made with more sensitive instruments... They diverged! Now we have this inconsistency in our independent results, and therefore a serious inconsistency in our prediction of the proper-time age of the universe.  The options to resolve this inconsistency boil down to trying to explain why our distance measurements from the cosmic distance ladder are off, or why \u039bCDM is wrong, or at least incomplete as a model. Multiple teams have tried to poke holes in different rungs of the ladder, with varying degrees of success, but recently a new bit of data analysis from some JWST data appears to confirm an earlier Hubble result for the first rung of the ladder.  TL;DR It's not certain and different ways of measuring it give different answers. This is a legitimate problem and has been called a crisis in cosmology!  Videos: https:\/\/youtu.be\/hps-HfpL1vc   https:\/\/youtu.be\/dsCjRjA4O7Y   https:\/\/youtu.be\/JETGS64kTys","labels":0,"seconds_difference":14774.0,"score_ratio":2.8040540541}
{"post_id":"zv5bij","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"How certain are we that the universe began 13.77 billion years ago? My understanding is that the most recent estimates for the age of the universe are around 13.77 billion years, plus or minus some twenty million years. And that these confidence intervals reflect measurement error, and are conditional on the underlying Lambda-CDM model being accurate.   My question is, how confident are we in the Lambda-CDM model? As physicists continue to work on this stuff and improve and modify the model, is the estimated age likely to change? And if so, how dramatically?  I.e., how certain are we that the Big Bang did not actually happen 14 billion years ago and that the Lambda-CDM model is just slightly off?","c_root_id_A":"j1nzzoc","c_root_id_B":"j1owf5p","created_at_utc_A":1672012959,"created_at_utc_B":1672030905,"score_A":25,"score_B":1245,"human_ref_A":"We consider today's expanded universe, and at which rate the universe is expanding today. We use laws of physics instead of going forward we look backward until you get to the start of expansion  . This whole concept can be quite complicated to understand but we use the red shift of light and Hubble's constant.   But at many points it may be inaccurate and is challenged at times but still it is believed that the age of universe is 13.5 billion years approx.","human_ref_B":"Cosmologists are not at all sure that the age of the universe is 13.77 Billion years, and there is increasing evidence that it is not; that 13.1 Billion or younger better matches some observations. The proper-time age of the universe can be inferred from observations in many ways. Ideally these ways would all produce the same result. That's not currently the case for big-bang cosmology! This discrepancy is kind of a big deal and is known as *The Hubble Tension*, and the *Crisis in Cosmology*  To determine the *Hubble Constant* (the physical constant that determines the proportionality relationship between speed and distance for all sufficiently distant astronomical bodies) we use 2 broad categories of methods: Early Universe and Late Universe methods.   Early Universe methods depend heavily on \u039bCDM or other models, plus observations of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation. Essentially deducing the Hubble Constant by the temperature of the CMB and how quickly one would expect it to cool using the \u039bCDM model.  Late Universe methods use observed redshift (basically relative velocity) and various inferred distance measurements known as the Cosmic Distance Ladder.  Both of these methods should agree, and at first they did albeit with large error bars. However Over time, as more observations have been made with more sensitive instruments... They diverged! Now we have this inconsistency in our independent results, and therefore a serious inconsistency in our prediction of the proper-time age of the universe.  The options to resolve this inconsistency boil down to trying to explain why our distance measurements from the cosmic distance ladder are off, or why \u039bCDM is wrong, or at least incomplete as a model. Multiple teams have tried to poke holes in different rungs of the ladder, with varying degrees of success, but recently a new bit of data analysis from some JWST data appears to confirm an earlier Hubble result for the first rung of the ladder.  TL;DR It's not certain and different ways of measuring it give different answers. This is a legitimate problem and has been called a crisis in cosmology!  Videos: https:\/\/youtu.be\/hps-HfpL1vc   https:\/\/youtu.be\/dsCjRjA4O7Y   https:\/\/youtu.be\/JETGS64kTys","labels":0,"seconds_difference":17946.0,"score_ratio":49.8}
{"post_id":"zv5bij","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"How certain are we that the universe began 13.77 billion years ago? My understanding is that the most recent estimates for the age of the universe are around 13.77 billion years, plus or minus some twenty million years. And that these confidence intervals reflect measurement error, and are conditional on the underlying Lambda-CDM model being accurate.   My question is, how confident are we in the Lambda-CDM model? As physicists continue to work on this stuff and improve and modify the model, is the estimated age likely to change? And if so, how dramatically?  I.e., how certain are we that the Big Bang did not actually happen 14 billion years ago and that the Lambda-CDM model is just slightly off?","c_root_id_A":"j1oqwxq","c_root_id_B":"j1owf5p","created_at_utc_A":1672027617,"created_at_utc_B":1672030905,"score_A":19,"score_B":1245,"human_ref_A":"The \"best fit model\" answer gives a good answer, so don't take this as disputing it in any way, but...  It kinda depends on what exactly you mean by \"universe.\" Also, \"began.\" Because we pretty much just have data about the density and temperature of the observable universe. The cosmos may be infinite in both space and time. So, if you're asking \"how certain are we about the age of the entire cosmos,\" the answer would be \"not certain at all.\" Just want to encourage clear language on that topic since many are understandably confused.  As far as the amount of time since the big bang... It doesn't make much difference given the margin of error, but I don't see any reason why we have to go *all* the way back to a \"singularity.\"","human_ref_B":"Cosmologists are not at all sure that the age of the universe is 13.77 Billion years, and there is increasing evidence that it is not; that 13.1 Billion or younger better matches some observations. The proper-time age of the universe can be inferred from observations in many ways. Ideally these ways would all produce the same result. That's not currently the case for big-bang cosmology! This discrepancy is kind of a big deal and is known as *The Hubble Tension*, and the *Crisis in Cosmology*  To determine the *Hubble Constant* (the physical constant that determines the proportionality relationship between speed and distance for all sufficiently distant astronomical bodies) we use 2 broad categories of methods: Early Universe and Late Universe methods.   Early Universe methods depend heavily on \u039bCDM or other models, plus observations of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation. Essentially deducing the Hubble Constant by the temperature of the CMB and how quickly one would expect it to cool using the \u039bCDM model.  Late Universe methods use observed redshift (basically relative velocity) and various inferred distance measurements known as the Cosmic Distance Ladder.  Both of these methods should agree, and at first they did albeit with large error bars. However Over time, as more observations have been made with more sensitive instruments... They diverged! Now we have this inconsistency in our independent results, and therefore a serious inconsistency in our prediction of the proper-time age of the universe.  The options to resolve this inconsistency boil down to trying to explain why our distance measurements from the cosmic distance ladder are off, or why \u039bCDM is wrong, or at least incomplete as a model. Multiple teams have tried to poke holes in different rungs of the ladder, with varying degrees of success, but recently a new bit of data analysis from some JWST data appears to confirm an earlier Hubble result for the first rung of the ladder.  TL;DR It's not certain and different ways of measuring it give different answers. This is a legitimate problem and has been called a crisis in cosmology!  Videos: https:\/\/youtu.be\/hps-HfpL1vc   https:\/\/youtu.be\/dsCjRjA4O7Y   https:\/\/youtu.be\/JETGS64kTys","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3288.0,"score_ratio":65.5263157895}
{"post_id":"zv5bij","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"How certain are we that the universe began 13.77 billion years ago? My understanding is that the most recent estimates for the age of the universe are around 13.77 billion years, plus or minus some twenty million years. And that these confidence intervals reflect measurement error, and are conditional on the underlying Lambda-CDM model being accurate.   My question is, how confident are we in the Lambda-CDM model? As physicists continue to work on this stuff and improve and modify the model, is the estimated age likely to change? And if so, how dramatically?  I.e., how certain are we that the Big Bang did not actually happen 14 billion years ago and that the Lambda-CDM model is just slightly off?","c_root_id_A":"j1nzzoc","c_root_id_B":"j1o647f","created_at_utc_A":1672012959,"created_at_utc_B":1672016131,"score_A":25,"score_B":444,"human_ref_A":"We consider today's expanded universe, and at which rate the universe is expanding today. We use laws of physics instead of going forward we look backward until you get to the start of expansion  . This whole concept can be quite complicated to understand but we use the red shift of light and Hubble's constant.   But at many points it may be inaccurate and is challenged at times but still it is believed that the age of universe is 13.5 billion years approx.","human_ref_B":"The age of the universe is just inferred from the best fit cosmological model, which happens to be the LCDM model. A different model will give a different age.   Right now, this age can be further constrained by measurements of dark energy (read: vacuum energy\/expansion of the universe). This can be done by directly  observing the expansion of the universe (hard), or with the use of standard candles, rulers and baryonic acoustic oscillations of the CMB (easier). The loosest age constraint is given by a growth-of-structure model, which is given by comparing the structure in the CMB and the structure we see today in the universe.  In the future, the true nature of dark energy is known, so another model will be in the place of LCDM. This model will either give similar age of the universe (only more certain), or a different age altogether.   To answer the question about the correctness of LCDM: it's currently the best fit model, where the emphasis is on the words 'currently' and 'best'.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3172.0,"score_ratio":17.76}
{"post_id":"zv5bij","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"How certain are we that the universe began 13.77 billion years ago? My understanding is that the most recent estimates for the age of the universe are around 13.77 billion years, plus or minus some twenty million years. And that these confidence intervals reflect measurement error, and are conditional on the underlying Lambda-CDM model being accurate.   My question is, how confident are we in the Lambda-CDM model? As physicists continue to work on this stuff and improve and modify the model, is the estimated age likely to change? And if so, how dramatically?  I.e., how certain are we that the Big Bang did not actually happen 14 billion years ago and that the Lambda-CDM model is just slightly off?","c_root_id_A":"j1poqnt","c_root_id_B":"j1oqwxq","created_at_utc_A":1672054524,"created_at_utc_B":1672027617,"score_A":20,"score_B":19,"human_ref_A":"I\u2019ll take a slightly different tack\u2026we know reasonably well from radiometric age dating of meteorites that the Earth formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago (+\/- 50 million years) so the universe must be older than that. It\u2019s always struck me that the universe is only about 3x older than the Earth and not much much older.","human_ref_B":"The \"best fit model\" answer gives a good answer, so don't take this as disputing it in any way, but...  It kinda depends on what exactly you mean by \"universe.\" Also, \"began.\" Because we pretty much just have data about the density and temperature of the observable universe. The cosmos may be infinite in both space and time. So, if you're asking \"how certain are we about the age of the entire cosmos,\" the answer would be \"not certain at all.\" Just want to encourage clear language on that topic since many are understandably confused.  As far as the amount of time since the big bang... It doesn't make much difference given the margin of error, but I don't see any reason why we have to go *all* the way back to a \"singularity.\"","labels":1,"seconds_difference":26907.0,"score_ratio":1.0526315789}
{"post_id":"27fd2z","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"We all know about trilobites, dinosaurs, pterodactyls and other animals that have gone extinct, but have we discovered any extinct plants with unique features not seen in plants today?","c_root_id_A":"ci0lub0","c_root_id_B":"ci0p91b","created_at_utc_A":1402054538,"created_at_utc_B":1402065544,"score_A":13,"score_B":22,"human_ref_A":"There were tree-like lycopods at some point, such as *Lepidodendron*, those have been lost for several hundred million years. Lycopods survive, but as small creepy carpet-making mossy things.","human_ref_B":"This isn't precisely what you asked, but since you're interested in extinct plants you may be interested in Encephalartos woodii, the last member of its species.    It is a male cycad from South Africa that was collected from the wild in 1895 and grown in the Royal Botanical Gardens.  No female has ever been found for it to mate with.  That plant and cuttings of it are the only representatives we have and they very well may be the last trace left of the species.  And you can go to a botanical garden and check one out!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":11006.0,"score_ratio":1.6923076923}
{"post_id":"27fd2z","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"We all know about trilobites, dinosaurs, pterodactyls and other animals that have gone extinct, but have we discovered any extinct plants with unique features not seen in plants today?","c_root_id_A":"ci0mrp6","c_root_id_B":"ci0p91b","created_at_utc_A":1402058522,"created_at_utc_B":1402065544,"score_A":11,"score_B":22,"human_ref_A":"Other commenters have mentioned lycopsids, but I want to add that you should check out this link:  http:\/\/www.devoniantimes.org\/who\/pages\/lycopsid.html  In the \"Convergent but Strange\" part it lists some weird things about them that you might be interested in.  Another cool \"plant\" was a giant fungus that may or may not have existed. Check out Prototaxites. Or check out this link for some artist depictions.  Another interesting thing is the Alternation of Generations in plants. Basically, modern plants are usually diploid, and things like the pollen they produce are haploid. The pollen is obviously very reduced compared to the host plant and cannot survive outside the dominant half for long. However, it doesn't have to be this way. You can have the \"pollen\" be the dominant phase in the life cycle, and the \"plant\" be the reduced part, and you can have both phases be self sufficient (so basically 2 plants that look different, but are the same plant with one being the haploid phase and the other being the diploid). The reversal in the diploid\/haploid dominance occurs in things like liverworts and hornworts. There are advantages to both methods, but eventually the diploid dominant modern plants became the norm.","human_ref_B":"This isn't precisely what you asked, but since you're interested in extinct plants you may be interested in Encephalartos woodii, the last member of its species.    It is a male cycad from South Africa that was collected from the wild in 1895 and grown in the Royal Botanical Gardens.  No female has ever been found for it to mate with.  That plant and cuttings of it are the only representatives we have and they very well may be the last trace left of the species.  And you can go to a botanical garden and check one out!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7022.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"27fd2z","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"We all know about trilobites, dinosaurs, pterodactyls and other animals that have gone extinct, but have we discovered any extinct plants with unique features not seen in plants today?","c_root_id_A":"ci0oo0u","c_root_id_B":"ci0p91b","created_at_utc_A":1402064131,"created_at_utc_B":1402065544,"score_A":5,"score_B":22,"human_ref_A":"most biota of the Ediacaran fit the bill for this, there's various body plans (using the term loosely) that don't fit any modern creatures.  Most famous is Charnia, http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charnia which has a definite pattern of alternating \"leaves\" that places it in the fractal rangeomorphs http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rangeomorph  The thing about Ediacaran biota is figuring out what's a plant and what's not. Charnia was originally thought to be an ancestral plant, but it turns out it lived in deep water where no light reached it. It could still technically be a plant, but it would have metabolised sulphur or something similar.   Loads of the Ediacaran creatures, at least those that actually fossilised because they were all soft-bodied and had no predators, have features not seen in modern animals, and then later on the Cambrian explosion happens and there's so many weird things that lasted for a very short time and were never seen again  Opabinia http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Opabinia had 5 eyes,  Nobody agrees what Hallucigenia is http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hallucigenia  And Wiwaxia http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wiwaxia is some kind of swiss-army-mollusc   Whoops, went a bit off topic there, sorry. But yeah, ediacaran biota. Nobody's sure if they're plants, annelids, anemones or relatives of other sea creatures and most of them have their own phyla.","human_ref_B":"This isn't precisely what you asked, but since you're interested in extinct plants you may be interested in Encephalartos woodii, the last member of its species.    It is a male cycad from South Africa that was collected from the wild in 1895 and grown in the Royal Botanical Gardens.  No female has ever been found for it to mate with.  That plant and cuttings of it are the only representatives we have and they very well may be the last trace left of the species.  And you can go to a botanical garden and check one out!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1413.0,"score_ratio":4.4}
{"post_id":"fq245e","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"How did the 1918-19 Spanish Flu end? I know there are competing theories as to how the flu began and we know with a fair degree of certainty why it was so virulent, but how did it seemingly suddenly end? Herd immunity? Better medical precautions? Something else?","c_root_id_A":"flolagb","c_root_id_B":"flohrik","created_at_utc_A":1585340495,"created_at_utc_B":1585338550,"score_A":574,"score_B":198,"human_ref_A":"As always when it comes to epidemics and pandemics, a combination of factors.  The 1918-1919 H1N1 pandemic had two waves, with those who had contracted the flu in the first wave gaining immunity to the flu during the second wave. The second wave did result in more fatalities than the first wave, but that was due to the virus mutating to a deadlier strain which was then spread primarily by soldiers being transported to crowded hospitals on crowded trains whilst soldiers with the milder strain remained near the front line.  This second wave killing off more of the population results in less viable hosts to carry the virus. The elderly, who are typically prime candidates for other flu strains, had picked up partial immunity to the 1918 strain of H1N1 from the 1898-1905 outbreaks of the H3N8 \u201cRussian flu\u201d subtype. With most of the adults either already infected\/dead, being treated for the flu, or already immune from the first wave, it essentially caused what has been termed social distancing during the current SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) - hosts were unable to encounter fresh hosts for the virus and, without a host and being an obligate parasite, the virus begins to die off.  Mutation, not to a deadlier strain, but to a milder strain, is also another factor. This occurs genetically when the virus is not encountering as many hosts, thus having to mutate to cause milder symptoms so that hosts with the new milder strain will spread it more easily. However, it\u2019s easier to recover from a mild strain than a severe one, so still fewer people died from the 1918 H1N1 strain.  These factors, combined with medical treatment of flu sufferers, made the 1918-1919 H1N1 pandemic a flash in the pan (compared to other pandemics - smallpox, bubonic plague, and so on); it was virulent, but it was short-lived. It was short-lived because it was virulent, it was almost *too* good at what it did, to the point that the virus ran out of viable hosts to continue the pandemic.  Now, none of that is to say that H1N1 is gone, it isn\u2019t. H1N1 was responsible for the 2009 swine flu outbreak, as well as avian flu (A\/duck\/Alberta\/35\/76 - Influenza type A\/origin: duck\/found in Alberta, Canada\/ strain 35\/ identified in 1976), and is ever-present in a small percentage of the human population. The 1918-1919 H1N1 pandemic essentially ran out of steam and fizzled out.","human_ref_B":"Many precautions were taken but not many nationally. Schools were closed, theaters were closed(most people didn\u2019t eat out at that time so there wasn\u2019t much change in the restaurants), public gatherings were banned, etc.   Schools used to use communal cups for drinking for the children. This practice was banned.   San Francisco fined people that were out in public without masks $5($93 equivalent now).   World war 1 ended at the end of 1918 and many of the doctors came back to the US.   A lot of factors helped, including social distancing, but ultimately it just ran its course as all viruses do. Either you survive and develop natural defenses in your body or you don\u2019t.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1945.0,"score_ratio":2.898989899}
{"post_id":"21o037","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"When we tag animals so they can be tracked and counted, do the tags affect the way their peers relate to them? Does it affect their mating chances? We often hear about how birds will select mates based on their plumage and I can imagine other animals noticing differences in fur color, quality, etc.   Don't large colorful tags and bands get noticed too?","c_root_id_A":"cgexnet","c_root_id_B":"cgeya04","created_at_utc_A":1396105755,"created_at_utc_B":1396107638,"score_A":6,"score_B":22,"human_ref_A":"Not directly related to color, but it was found that certain penguin tags could increase drag when the birds where swimming and hurt their survival chances, source","human_ref_B":"Yes! You are absolutely right! Even small tags have shown to affect mortality and breeding rates n penguins in this landmark 2011 study: http:\/\/www.nature.com\/news\/2011\/110112\/full\/news.2011.15.html","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1883.0,"score_ratio":3.6666666667}
{"post_id":"21o037","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"When we tag animals so they can be tracked and counted, do the tags affect the way their peers relate to them? Does it affect their mating chances? We often hear about how birds will select mates based on their plumage and I can imagine other animals noticing differences in fur color, quality, etc.   Don't large colorful tags and bands get noticed too?","c_root_id_A":"cgf08t6","c_root_id_B":"cgexnet","created_at_utc_A":1396112928,"created_at_utc_B":1396105755,"score_A":22,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"I worked with a group tagging monkeys, and we had to put quite a lot of instrumentation on the poor guys. They were immediately ostracized from the group because of their unfashionable 'jackets', but we would capture and release then back into the group no problem in a few days.","human_ref_B":"Not directly related to color, but it was found that certain penguin tags could increase drag when the birds where swimming and hurt their survival chances, source","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7173.0,"score_ratio":3.6666666667}
{"post_id":"21o037","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"When we tag animals so they can be tracked and counted, do the tags affect the way their peers relate to them? Does it affect their mating chances? We often hear about how birds will select mates based on their plumage and I can imagine other animals noticing differences in fur color, quality, etc.   Don't large colorful tags and bands get noticed too?","c_root_id_A":"cgf02gp","c_root_id_B":"cgf08t6","created_at_utc_A":1396112475,"created_at_utc_B":1396112928,"score_A":4,"score_B":22,"human_ref_A":"What about the selective process of capturing animals to tag?  A priori I would wager that in general a researcher would be catching less fit individuals.  For example, if a researcher is trapping birds, he \/ she is more likely to trap a sick, unfit bird than a fit, fast, intelligent (and sexually selected) bird.","human_ref_B":"I worked with a group tagging monkeys, and we had to put quite a lot of instrumentation on the poor guys. They were immediately ostracized from the group because of their unfashionable 'jackets', but we would capture and release then back into the group no problem in a few days.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":453.0,"score_ratio":5.5}
{"post_id":"21o037","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"When we tag animals so they can be tracked and counted, do the tags affect the way their peers relate to them? Does it affect their mating chances? We often hear about how birds will select mates based on their plumage and I can imagine other animals noticing differences in fur color, quality, etc.   Don't large colorful tags and bands get noticed too?","c_root_id_A":"cgexnet","c_root_id_B":"cgf2eli","created_at_utc_A":1396105755,"created_at_utc_B":1396118341,"score_A":6,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Not directly related to color, but it was found that certain penguin tags could increase drag when the birds where swimming and hurt their survival chances, source","human_ref_B":"A general rule of thumb is to use a tag or collar no heavier than 2-5% of the individuals body weight. Everyone tagging an animal has hopefully considered all possible costs, including a litany of behavioral costs (foraging, interacting with the same species, raising young, etc). interestingly, lots of reptilian or amphibian tags are actually implanted into body cavities (hellbenders, for example: https:\/\/ag.purdue.edu\/fnr\/discover\/HerpetologyLab\/Documents\/Stouffer_SurgicalImplantation.pdf) or even sewn on to the back of the animal with dissolving sutures (http:\/\/www.herpconbio.org\/volume_1\/issue_1\/Bull_2006.pdf). Wildlife biologists often have to resort to these seemingly invasive methods due to the body shape and skin type of reptiles\/amphibians. These methods are usually used only when everything else has been ruled out as more damaging or a greater hinderance.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12586.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"21o037","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"When we tag animals so they can be tracked and counted, do the tags affect the way their peers relate to them? Does it affect their mating chances? We often hear about how birds will select mates based on their plumage and I can imagine other animals noticing differences in fur color, quality, etc.   Don't large colorful tags and bands get noticed too?","c_root_id_A":"cgf02gp","c_root_id_B":"cgf2eli","created_at_utc_A":1396112475,"created_at_utc_B":1396118341,"score_A":4,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"What about the selective process of capturing animals to tag?  A priori I would wager that in general a researcher would be catching less fit individuals.  For example, if a researcher is trapping birds, he \/ she is more likely to trap a sick, unfit bird than a fit, fast, intelligent (and sexually selected) bird.","human_ref_B":"A general rule of thumb is to use a tag or collar no heavier than 2-5% of the individuals body weight. Everyone tagging an animal has hopefully considered all possible costs, including a litany of behavioral costs (foraging, interacting with the same species, raising young, etc). interestingly, lots of reptilian or amphibian tags are actually implanted into body cavities (hellbenders, for example: https:\/\/ag.purdue.edu\/fnr\/discover\/HerpetologyLab\/Documents\/Stouffer_SurgicalImplantation.pdf) or even sewn on to the back of the animal with dissolving sutures (http:\/\/www.herpconbio.org\/volume_1\/issue_1\/Bull_2006.pdf). Wildlife biologists often have to resort to these seemingly invasive methods due to the body shape and skin type of reptiles\/amphibians. These methods are usually used only when everything else has been ruled out as more damaging or a greater hinderance.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5866.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"21o037","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"When we tag animals so they can be tracked and counted, do the tags affect the way their peers relate to them? Does it affect their mating chances? We often hear about how birds will select mates based on their plumage and I can imagine other animals noticing differences in fur color, quality, etc.   Don't large colorful tags and bands get noticed too?","c_root_id_A":"cgf12kd","c_root_id_B":"cgf2eli","created_at_utc_A":1396115007,"created_at_utc_B":1396118341,"score_A":2,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"I was watching a show the other day about tagging lions. They chose to tag & also give a birth control to the lioness, since her male companion would stay with her. What was interesting is that the reason they don't do the male (for birth control reasons) is that he will lose his mane, therefore losing his stance in the pack.","human_ref_B":"A general rule of thumb is to use a tag or collar no heavier than 2-5% of the individuals body weight. Everyone tagging an animal has hopefully considered all possible costs, including a litany of behavioral costs (foraging, interacting with the same species, raising young, etc). interestingly, lots of reptilian or amphibian tags are actually implanted into body cavities (hellbenders, for example: https:\/\/ag.purdue.edu\/fnr\/discover\/HerpetologyLab\/Documents\/Stouffer_SurgicalImplantation.pdf) or even sewn on to the back of the animal with dissolving sutures (http:\/\/www.herpconbio.org\/volume_1\/issue_1\/Bull_2006.pdf). Wildlife biologists often have to resort to these seemingly invasive methods due to the body shape and skin type of reptiles\/amphibians. These methods are usually used only when everything else has been ruled out as more damaging or a greater hinderance.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3334.0,"score_ratio":4.0}
{"post_id":"u4qbk5","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"Do genetic diseases that don't show up until later in life get passed on more frequently? It seems like they would. Because if a diseases that showed up earlier in life, say while you were still fertile, then there's more of a chance of you dying\/becoming incapacitated and not being able to reproduce and therefore not able to pass on the disease.","c_root_id_A":"i4xm6bz","c_root_id_B":"i4xsakl","created_at_utc_A":1650094672,"created_at_utc_B":1650099955,"score_A":5,"score_B":18,"human_ref_A":"Assuming no genetic testing has been done in a patient to identify this before having children, it would make sense that it would. If you don't know you have at reproductive age you probably would go have kids like everyone else. There can be hints that have it when it is familial disease. Meaning your relatives suffer from a known genetic disease. Some of those people will get tested to see if they have the genetic defects (in some cases you may not have it depending on which genes you get from which parent). But there is a lot of denial too where people don't want to know and just go about their lives and maybe passing it on. This is a common situation. Huntington's disease is but one example.","human_ref_B":"Yes. Huntington's ~~~chorea~~~ disease usually starts after 30, which is a major factor in its continuing existence. You've already reproduced by the time it starts. When it starts before 20 (juvenile HD), there's much more strictly limited reproduction.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5283.0,"score_ratio":3.6}
{"post_id":"5x58bw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"Can \"talking birds\" like parrots actually talk? My understanding is that they only repeat sounds and phrases. Though I occasionally hear people debate it, they generally cite personal experiences as their only evidence.","c_root_id_A":"defubp4","c_root_id_B":"defxf5c","created_at_utc_A":1488503539,"created_at_utc_B":1488507647,"score_A":4,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"I don't think their human sounding noises have any real meaning to them, unless we give it one. If we keep repeating words and that be it they will just make it as a sound.... I feel if you have them a cracker and said cracker everytime you gave them one they may understand that \"cracker\" means \"I get a cracker\".","human_ref_B":"Here's a video of Alex answering simple questions about objects. That said, that's an unusually smart parrot specifically trained to know those words. And I'm told they had to say \"matter\" instead of \"material\" because he couldn't understand anything longer than two syllables.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4108.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"uxg3zn","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Why can you see where a boats wake was long after the boat has left and the water has stilled? Seems like the wake can be seen for hours on evenly calm water.","c_root_id_A":"i9yqi29","c_root_id_B":"i9y2k5w","created_at_utc_A":1653501987,"created_at_utc_B":1653492648,"score_A":1303,"score_B":124,"human_ref_A":"The boats are leaving behind a thin film of oil (literally one molecule thick) that coats the surface and has a dampening effect on the waves. This is especially true behind boats with 2-stroke engines that just dump the oil-laden exhaust gases through the propeller to reduce noise.  It seem unbeleievable that such a tiny amout of oil can have such a drastic effect, but for a wile ships carried what was called Storm Oil to conduct rescues with.  Here's also a neat demonstration\/explaination video from NOVA: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=f2H418M3V6M","human_ref_B":"Not an expert, but this is how I understand it. The wake you\u2019re referring to would be a turbulent one, which creates eddies (swirling water) in the ocean. Even long after the ship is gone, the water at the edges of the wake would be swirling and moving ever so slightly faster than the water in the sea (can create a compressed wave look at the edge), although the water on the inside of the wake will look smooth and calm. The faster water at the edge will prevent waves from entering the wake so long as it is moving faster than the water\u2019s phase speed (speed at which the waves can propagate into the medium\/wake). Even so, once the water does slow down, the larger waves will propagate in first, which have a less visible effect over the smaller waves - letting it stay visible for even longer.  It\u2019s only once the water slows down to below the phase speed of the waves in the sea that it will return to looking normal.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9339.0,"score_ratio":10.5080645161}
{"post_id":"y8aqxo","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Is a solid just a liquid with really high viscosity? Title. If a liquid achieves a high enough viscosity, does it start being considered a solid?","c_root_id_A":"it0qgt8","c_root_id_B":"iszv6ri","created_at_utc_A":1666232143,"created_at_utc_B":1666218034,"score_A":1077,"score_B":493,"human_ref_A":"In general, no. A fluid with high viscosity will deform continuously under even an infinitesimally small amount of force over sufficient time. A solid won't.  There are composite materials, such as gels, which blur the lines, but only because they're more than one material linked together.  Lots of solids can be *fluidized*, like sand, but these are composite, as there are gaps, and therefore air, making them act as composite materials again.  The only way a solid can be a liquid with high viscosity is if you accept that at some point, that viscosity is permitted to effectively be infinite or permit the material to crack or deform.  But that's just it: the very definition of solid precludes that it cannot be a liquid or a gas. Period.","human_ref_B":"No; no matter how long you leave a solid alone, it will *never* flow like a liquid and deform its shape. Rocks do NOT flatten into pancakes over hundreds of millions of years. Not by themselves, anyway, they have to be crushed or melted or something.  Contrast with an actual highly viscous liquid, like pitch (a type of black tar). Pitch can look and act like super sticky Play-Doh, , but if you leave it for long enough it does actually flow and dribble.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":14109.0,"score_ratio":2.1845841785}
{"post_id":"y8aqxo","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Is a solid just a liquid with really high viscosity? Title. If a liquid achieves a high enough viscosity, does it start being considered a solid?","c_root_id_A":"it0qgt8","c_root_id_B":"it0awd4","created_at_utc_A":1666232143,"created_at_utc_B":1666225159,"score_A":1077,"score_B":57,"human_ref_A":"In general, no. A fluid with high viscosity will deform continuously under even an infinitesimally small amount of force over sufficient time. A solid won't.  There are composite materials, such as gels, which blur the lines, but only because they're more than one material linked together.  Lots of solids can be *fluidized*, like sand, but these are composite, as there are gaps, and therefore air, making them act as composite materials again.  The only way a solid can be a liquid with high viscosity is if you accept that at some point, that viscosity is permitted to effectively be infinite or permit the material to crack or deform.  But that's just it: the very definition of solid precludes that it cannot be a liquid or a gas. Period.","human_ref_B":"You could make an argument that amorphous solids are just like liquids.  But not crystalline solids.  They exhibit an ordered structure over large distances, which liquids don't.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6984.0,"score_ratio":18.8947368421}
{"post_id":"y8aqxo","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Is a solid just a liquid with really high viscosity? Title. If a liquid achieves a high enough viscosity, does it start being considered a solid?","c_root_id_A":"it0qgt8","c_root_id_B":"it0lnse","created_at_utc_A":1666232143,"created_at_utc_B":1666229993,"score_A":1077,"score_B":47,"human_ref_A":"In general, no. A fluid with high viscosity will deform continuously under even an infinitesimally small amount of force over sufficient time. A solid won't.  There are composite materials, such as gels, which blur the lines, but only because they're more than one material linked together.  Lots of solids can be *fluidized*, like sand, but these are composite, as there are gaps, and therefore air, making them act as composite materials again.  The only way a solid can be a liquid with high viscosity is if you accept that at some point, that viscosity is permitted to effectively be infinite or permit the material to crack or deform.  But that's just it: the very definition of solid precludes that it cannot be a liquid or a gas. Period.","human_ref_B":"The simplest way to increase a liquid's viscosity is to make it colder. If you cool a liquid and it doesn't crystallize into a solid but instead just gets incredibly viscous, it is still a liquid. It's just out of global equilibrium. We call that a supercooled liquid.  However, sometimes you cool a liquid so fast that it falls out of equilibrium because the molecules can't move fast enough to account for the change in temperature. That's called a glass, or an amorphous solid. A glass is not a liquid, because liquids are an equilibrium state, and glasses are out of equilibrium.  Both glasses and supercooled liquids can have incredibly high viscosities. And the molecular relaxation times can become incredibly long. So long that you can treat them like solid objects.  The distinction here is that we casually refer to the equilibrium states of matter as \"liquid\" and \"solid\" but those aren't correct. Liquids are liquids and have the properties of liquids. \"Solid\" is a description of physical properties, but the proper term for the equilibrium state of matter is \"crystal\" or perhaps \"crystalline solid.\"","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2150.0,"score_ratio":22.914893617}
{"post_id":"y8aqxo","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Is a solid just a liquid with really high viscosity? Title. If a liquid achieves a high enough viscosity, does it start being considered a solid?","c_root_id_A":"it04pjc","c_root_id_B":"it0qgt8","created_at_utc_A":1666222294,"created_at_utc_B":1666232143,"score_A":15,"score_B":1077,"human_ref_A":"We can split this discussion into *solids* and *fluids* (e.g. liquids, gases, other exotic states too).  * The definition is a fluid will deform if a *shear force* is applied (e.g. push it and it moves).  Another way of saying that is a solid can resist a deformation force while at rest (solids stay the same shape).  It's very rare to find a fluid that will turn into a solid without a lot of significant changes.  However, there are really fun complicated states of matter that can change from a fluid->solid (or some other phase change) under some conditions.    For instance, making sandcastles.  It's a bucket of water and you keep adding in more and more sand (free flowing bulk solid).  The result is a really strong, compression-resistant building material.  At rest, it is a solid.  However, when mixing (high shear force) it behaves like a fluid.  Another example is concentration effects such as water + sugar.  At low concentration you have sugar dissolved in water.  Increase the concentration (and viscosity) and it's still just a thick fluid.  But once you get above 2:1, it changes and you have water dissolved into solid sugar.    There are more examples of *shear thinning* or *shear thickening* (and other) fluids\/solids.","human_ref_B":"In general, no. A fluid with high viscosity will deform continuously under even an infinitesimally small amount of force over sufficient time. A solid won't.  There are composite materials, such as gels, which blur the lines, but only because they're more than one material linked together.  Lots of solids can be *fluidized*, like sand, but these are composite, as there are gaps, and therefore air, making them act as composite materials again.  The only way a solid can be a liquid with high viscosity is if you accept that at some point, that viscosity is permitted to effectively be infinite or permit the material to crack or deform.  But that's just it: the very definition of solid precludes that it cannot be a liquid or a gas. Period.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9849.0,"score_ratio":71.8}
{"post_id":"y8aqxo","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Is a solid just a liquid with really high viscosity? Title. If a liquid achieves a high enough viscosity, does it start being considered a solid?","c_root_id_A":"it04pjc","c_root_id_B":"it0awd4","created_at_utc_A":1666222294,"created_at_utc_B":1666225159,"score_A":15,"score_B":57,"human_ref_A":"We can split this discussion into *solids* and *fluids* (e.g. liquids, gases, other exotic states too).  * The definition is a fluid will deform if a *shear force* is applied (e.g. push it and it moves).  Another way of saying that is a solid can resist a deformation force while at rest (solids stay the same shape).  It's very rare to find a fluid that will turn into a solid without a lot of significant changes.  However, there are really fun complicated states of matter that can change from a fluid->solid (or some other phase change) under some conditions.    For instance, making sandcastles.  It's a bucket of water and you keep adding in more and more sand (free flowing bulk solid).  The result is a really strong, compression-resistant building material.  At rest, it is a solid.  However, when mixing (high shear force) it behaves like a fluid.  Another example is concentration effects such as water + sugar.  At low concentration you have sugar dissolved in water.  Increase the concentration (and viscosity) and it's still just a thick fluid.  But once you get above 2:1, it changes and you have water dissolved into solid sugar.    There are more examples of *shear thinning* or *shear thickening* (and other) fluids\/solids.","human_ref_B":"You could make an argument that amorphous solids are just like liquids.  But not crystalline solids.  They exhibit an ordered structure over large distances, which liquids don't.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2865.0,"score_ratio":3.8}
{"post_id":"y8aqxo","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Is a solid just a liquid with really high viscosity? Title. If a liquid achieves a high enough viscosity, does it start being considered a solid?","c_root_id_A":"it0lnse","c_root_id_B":"it04pjc","created_at_utc_A":1666229993,"created_at_utc_B":1666222294,"score_A":47,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"The simplest way to increase a liquid's viscosity is to make it colder. If you cool a liquid and it doesn't crystallize into a solid but instead just gets incredibly viscous, it is still a liquid. It's just out of global equilibrium. We call that a supercooled liquid.  However, sometimes you cool a liquid so fast that it falls out of equilibrium because the molecules can't move fast enough to account for the change in temperature. That's called a glass, or an amorphous solid. A glass is not a liquid, because liquids are an equilibrium state, and glasses are out of equilibrium.  Both glasses and supercooled liquids can have incredibly high viscosities. And the molecular relaxation times can become incredibly long. So long that you can treat them like solid objects.  The distinction here is that we casually refer to the equilibrium states of matter as \"liquid\" and \"solid\" but those aren't correct. Liquids are liquids and have the properties of liquids. \"Solid\" is a description of physical properties, but the proper term for the equilibrium state of matter is \"crystal\" or perhaps \"crystalline solid.\"","human_ref_B":"We can split this discussion into *solids* and *fluids* (e.g. liquids, gases, other exotic states too).  * The definition is a fluid will deform if a *shear force* is applied (e.g. push it and it moves).  Another way of saying that is a solid can resist a deformation force while at rest (solids stay the same shape).  It's very rare to find a fluid that will turn into a solid without a lot of significant changes.  However, there are really fun complicated states of matter that can change from a fluid->solid (or some other phase change) under some conditions.    For instance, making sandcastles.  It's a bucket of water and you keep adding in more and more sand (free flowing bulk solid).  The result is a really strong, compression-resistant building material.  At rest, it is a solid.  However, when mixing (high shear force) it behaves like a fluid.  Another example is concentration effects such as water + sugar.  At low concentration you have sugar dissolved in water.  Increase the concentration (and viscosity) and it's still just a thick fluid.  But once you get above 2:1, it changes and you have water dissolved into solid sugar.    There are more examples of *shear thinning* or *shear thickening* (and other) fluids\/solids.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7699.0,"score_ratio":3.1333333333}
{"post_id":"y8aqxo","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Is a solid just a liquid with really high viscosity? Title. If a liquid achieves a high enough viscosity, does it start being considered a solid?","c_root_id_A":"it04pjc","c_root_id_B":"it1esnn","created_at_utc_A":1666222294,"created_at_utc_B":1666246416,"score_A":15,"score_B":37,"human_ref_A":"We can split this discussion into *solids* and *fluids* (e.g. liquids, gases, other exotic states too).  * The definition is a fluid will deform if a *shear force* is applied (e.g. push it and it moves).  Another way of saying that is a solid can resist a deformation force while at rest (solids stay the same shape).  It's very rare to find a fluid that will turn into a solid without a lot of significant changes.  However, there are really fun complicated states of matter that can change from a fluid->solid (or some other phase change) under some conditions.    For instance, making sandcastles.  It's a bucket of water and you keep adding in more and more sand (free flowing bulk solid).  The result is a really strong, compression-resistant building material.  At rest, it is a solid.  However, when mixing (high shear force) it behaves like a fluid.  Another example is concentration effects such as water + sugar.  At low concentration you have sugar dissolved in water.  Increase the concentration (and viscosity) and it's still just a thick fluid.  But once you get above 2:1, it changes and you have water dissolved into solid sugar.    There are more examples of *shear thinning* or *shear thickening* (and other) fluids\/solids.","human_ref_B":"A lot of good answers but let me give my 5 cents:  A liquid has an amorphous microstructure that is able to move around (as slowly as you can: aka viscosity).  A solid typically has an organised microstructure: e.g. crystalline, carbon chain, but could also be amorphous (see glass and bulk metallic glasses). What makes a solid is the fact that whichever the structure, molecules are fixed in it and unable to travel within their matrix.  Crystals are the simplest example of this, they work mostly because they are organised in geometrical shapes, if you break that shape on a single crystal, then the whole crystal won't stand on its own. If you fold a crystalline solid, you break crystals and eventually force them to rearrange in smaller ones (this is a common hardening technique), but again, the mono-crystals must stay intact for the solid to remain solid.  So what if you heat it up and melt it? Well you are just giving the solid enough energy  to break the crystalline structure and navigate in a soup of atoms instead. When you pump energy, this turns into kinetic energy for the particles, and as they get agitated they vibrate too much for any structure to form. Hence they turn into a soup of floating particles at high energy: if you touch it, those particles hit so hard on your skin, that they break it. It burns.  Now for the final part, what if we freeze that soup of particles so fast they don't have time to organise in structures? Well then you get glass or bulk metallic glass (also needs a particular composition, cause some chemicals just won't freeze like that). The particles are again bonded to their surrounding but in whichever random location they were. Like imagine you just shot a photograph in the middle of a metal concert, that's pretty much their arrangement. Are they forming a liquid? No. Because they still cannot move relative to one another.   This also explain why glass breaks so weird (and dangerously) it is very difficult for something so unorganised to split in a nice way, instead the cracks need to find a path that is not obvious and sometimes shatter instead of propagating nicely.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":24122.0,"score_ratio":2.4666666667}
{"post_id":"s53bom","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Mitochondria have their own DNA; do all mitochondria in a person\u2019s body share the same DNA?","c_root_id_A":"hsv595w","c_root_id_B":"hsv6che","created_at_utc_A":1642309329,"created_at_utc_B":1642309939,"score_A":34,"score_B":2080,"human_ref_A":"Actually all mitochondria are passed to the new embryo from the mother. You are indeed a son or daughter of Eve as CSLewis wrote. This maternal origin is responsible for inherited mitochondrial diseases but also tells us about human origins.   actually mitochondria reproduce inside each cell, strong hint that they originated as intrazellularem bacteria.","human_ref_B":"You normally inherit your mitochondria from your mother. However, as they replicate, they tend to collect mutations. Eventually you will have subpopulations of mitochondria with slightly different genomes, what we call heteroplasmy. They typically aren't particularly common, maybe accounting for 10% of all mitochondria. But because they are randomly assorted between dividing cells, it is possible for a cell to inherit a significant proportion of mitochondria with a deleterious variant, impacting the viability of the cell, and potentially causing a localized mitochondrial disease.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":610.0,"score_ratio":61.1764705882}
{"post_id":"s53bom","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Mitochondria have their own DNA; do all mitochondria in a person\u2019s body share the same DNA?","c_root_id_A":"hsv595w","c_root_id_B":"hsvh1yt","created_at_utc_A":1642309329,"created_at_utc_B":1642316591,"score_A":34,"score_B":109,"human_ref_A":"Actually all mitochondria are passed to the new embryo from the mother. You are indeed a son or daughter of Eve as CSLewis wrote. This maternal origin is responsible for inherited mitochondrial diseases but also tells us about human origins.   actually mitochondria reproduce inside each cell, strong hint that they originated as intrazellularem bacteria.","human_ref_B":"So there are hundreds of copies of mtDNA in every cell. Mitochondria also dynamically fuse with each other and fragment. We didn\u2019t figure this out until about 20 years ago and we didn\u2019t figure out how it happens molecularly until about 12 years ago.  So no, not every mitochondria has exactly the same DNA sequence. But the vast majority are so incredibly similar and the. Mutations are usually so infrequent that variation across your body is hard to detect unless you are looking at a very specific cell type and cell location in your body.  Note: all the other replies talking about maternal origin of mitochondria dna are irrelevant to the question.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7262.0,"score_ratio":3.2058823529}
{"post_id":"s53bom","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Mitochondria have their own DNA; do all mitochondria in a person\u2019s body share the same DNA?","c_root_id_A":"hsv595w","c_root_id_B":"hsw20h9","created_at_utc_A":1642309329,"created_at_utc_B":1642332803,"score_A":34,"score_B":86,"human_ref_A":"Actually all mitochondria are passed to the new embryo from the mother. You are indeed a son or daughter of Eve as CSLewis wrote. This maternal origin is responsible for inherited mitochondrial diseases but also tells us about human origins.   actually mitochondria reproduce inside each cell, strong hint that they originated as intrazellularem bacteria.","human_ref_B":"The short answer is no.      The long answer is intuitively we would expect it to be the same, but due to a number of factors (many of which mentioned in this thread), the mitochondria differ across cell types in the body.      As a consequence, there was an article indicating that mitochondrial DNA from different cell should not be used to exonerate suspects because there would be false negatives.    WIRED article   Original journal paper","labels":0,"seconds_difference":23474.0,"score_ratio":2.5294117647}
{"post_id":"s53bom","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Mitochondria have their own DNA; do all mitochondria in a person\u2019s body share the same DNA?","c_root_id_A":"hsx33at","c_root_id_B":"hswk6un","created_at_utc_A":1642352041,"created_at_utc_B":1642344044,"score_A":18,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Yes except for mutations. There are seven standard mitochondrial heplogroups in humans; when you're conceived you get one of these seven types of mitochondria. The haplogroups are called Ursula, Xenia, Helena, Velda, Tara, Katrine, and Jasmine, the \"Seven Daughters of Eve\". All the mitochondria in your body are descended from just one of these standard haplotypes. Your mitochondrial genome will mutate a bit as you get older, because mitochondrial DNA often picks up errors during copying, and different cell lines from the original zygote become ascendant and others die off.  But if you have a kid, their mitochondria won't pick up most of these mutations, because ovaries and the ova inside them are already fully formed at birth.","human_ref_B":"Mitochondria are the most fascinating things ever.  They are basically a separate species that lives inside us.  We give them shelter and the materials they need, they poop out ATP that we use as fuel.  I don't suppose anybody knows for sure but I heard that our ancient ancient single celled ancestors consumed a Mitochondria, couldn't digest it and ended up with a parasite.  That ancient cell eventually teamed up with it's Mitochondria to make an oxygen burning super powerful cell.  That ancient infected cell basically took over the world.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7997.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"fa4te4","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Is there any correlation between the frequency of left-handedness in a population and the population's writing system being read right-to-left? I've always assumed most of the languages I encounter are read left-to-right and top-to-bottom due to the majority of the population being right-handed, therefore avoiding smudging when writing. However, when I take into account the fact that many languages are read right-to-left, this connection becomes more tenuous.   Are writing systems entirely a function of culture, or is there evidence for biological\/behavioural causes?","c_root_id_A":"fixlhdl","c_root_id_B":"fiwlxlq","created_at_utc_A":1582822483,"created_at_utc_B":1582791601,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"I've asked this before to an Iranian (writing persian). And most are right handed, though the way the letters are written (how they are slanted f.e.) seems easier to write from right to left. They tend to keep their hand entirely below the text (to not mess with their ink), so apparently they write more horizontal lines to facilitate that.","human_ref_B":"To answer part of your question, handedness does not have anything to do with writing systems, it's polygenic trait that also has some complex epigenetic variables, and some environmental factors that are all in utero. So handedness would be decided long before any kind of cultural or linguistic factors came into play.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":30882.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"fa4te4","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Is there any correlation between the frequency of left-handedness in a population and the population's writing system being read right-to-left? I've always assumed most of the languages I encounter are read left-to-right and top-to-bottom due to the majority of the population being right-handed, therefore avoiding smudging when writing. However, when I take into account the fact that many languages are read right-to-left, this connection becomes more tenuous.   Are writing systems entirely a function of culture, or is there evidence for biological\/behavioural causes?","c_root_id_A":"fiwlxlq","c_root_id_B":"fiy2dnl","created_at_utc_A":1582791601,"created_at_utc_B":1582831133,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"To answer part of your question, handedness does not have anything to do with writing systems, it's polygenic trait that also has some complex epigenetic variables, and some environmental factors that are all in utero. So handedness would be decided long before any kind of cultural or linguistic factors came into play.","human_ref_B":"Even the right-to-left writing systems are usually written with the right hand, but you might angle and handle the tool differently.   The Latin lowercase is very much restricted by a right hand holding the broad nib pen, resting the elbow on the table, writing on a horizontal or slightly angled surface. The capitals, on the other hand (pun intended) follows a flat brush and were initially painted (then carved) on a vertical surface in much larger scale, giving them a slightly different tension.   Some writing scripts also inherit stylistic traits from the writing surface, like the ones written on palm leafs where you get the loopy structure to avoid tearing the leaf.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":39532.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"vxps4v","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"How dense is a nebula such as the Carina nebula in the JWST photos? What would the sky be likely to look like from a planet in a cloudy nebula? I can't really get my head around the size of nebulas. They look like a cloud from far away but if we were inside one would it be huge distances between lights or particles or whatever is being photographed? Or would it look just like a cloud from inside, too?","c_root_id_A":"ifytf3v","c_root_id_B":"ifya56l","created_at_utc_A":1657700205,"created_at_utc_B":1657686328,"score_A":19,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"You wouldn't even notice you're in one. What you see in the photos is something that's many light years across which has been squashed into the size of a photo. That's going to make something which is almost completely transparent look opaque.","human_ref_B":"Well, you've seen our Milky Way at night - that's our own galaxy. Our galaxy is roughly 170k  light years across.   You'd probably see a similarly milky sky. The tallest towers seen in the new photograph are about 7 light years tall, for reference.   Also, keep in mind the colors in the photo have been shifted to frequencies we can see with our eyes. A lot of that would be invisible to you without the shift from infrared.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":13877.0,"score_ratio":2.7142857143}
{"post_id":"vxps4v","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"How dense is a nebula such as the Carina nebula in the JWST photos? What would the sky be likely to look like from a planet in a cloudy nebula? I can't really get my head around the size of nebulas. They look like a cloud from far away but if we were inside one would it be huge distances between lights or particles or whatever is being photographed? Or would it look just like a cloud from inside, too?","c_root_id_A":"ifya56l","c_root_id_B":"ifzo48h","created_at_utc_A":1657686328,"created_at_utc_B":1657719781,"score_A":7,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Well, you've seen our Milky Way at night - that's our own galaxy. Our galaxy is roughly 170k  light years across.   You'd probably see a similarly milky sky. The tallest towers seen in the new photograph are about 7 light years tall, for reference.   Also, keep in mind the colors in the photo have been shifted to frequencies we can see with our eyes. A lot of that would be invisible to you without the shift from infrared.","human_ref_B":"Quick googling shows that typical densities of nebulae are 100-10000 particles per cm^(3). The most dense nebulae that have star formation regions can be up to 1 million ppcm^(3). Our Moon has a tiny bit of atmosphere\\*, having density about 80000 ppcm^(3) on average and weighting about 10 metric tons in total. And this \"atmosphere\" is barely noticeable not only standing on the Moon, but also from the Earth's distance. Astronauts reported only slightly visible sunlight scattering during sunrises on the Moon's surface.  Industrial vacuum pumps can produce ultra-vacuum conditions having density of 3 billion ppcm3.  So, your average nebula is less dense than industrial ultra-vacuum and Moon's not-really-atmosphere.  But! Lots of nebulae emit their own light. Which I presume should be very well visible for an observer situated inside such nebula. Unfortunately, I don't know for sure, but if we take Earth's aurora borealis, which are very well visible to a naked eye, even though they are produced by a flow of plasma as dense as only 5 ppcm^(3). Here it is not about density, but about energy of the particles, which may vary greatly.  So my assumption is that if you're inside an emissive nebula then you'll see its glow from within. But if it is just some dust cloud or cold non-emissive gas cloud then probably you won't see anything.  *\\*it cannot be called an \"atmosphere\" really because it is unsustainable, it's just a bunch of gasses released from the surface and blown away by the solar wind.*","labels":0,"seconds_difference":33453.0,"score_ratio":1.1428571429}
{"post_id":"1zfzqg","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.79,"history":"Do any other species have specific postmortem rituals? (Such as when humans bury\/cremate the dead)","c_root_id_A":"cfte1me","c_root_id_B":"cftx2fk","created_at_utc_A":1393872543,"created_at_utc_B":1393913969,"score_A":5,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Does anyone have any documentation of crow funerals? I think I've seen one, and heard plenty of stories, but couldn't find any references to prove it.  For anyone not sure what I'm talking about, I'm referring to the practice of vast flocks of crows congregating around the place a crow died, sometimes for days at a time.","human_ref_B":"To say \"only elephants\" is simply untrue. Definitely the most well-known and well-documented example, but far from the only one. Many, many species grieve their fellows' deaths, but if you exclude the mourning process from \"postmortem ritual,\" then only a specific few have documented, consistent rituals.     Among these are many non-human apes, such as baboons and chimpanzees death vigils are quite common and well-recorded, as is their neurochemistry and altered behavior after a companion's death. 1 2 3  Corvids (particularly scrub jays and magpies) are also very well known for having rituals after finding one of their dead. 4 5](http:\/\/news.ucdavis.edu\/search\/news_detail.lasso?id=10325 )  Recent evidence even suggests that dolphins may sometimes perform postmortem rituals for their young. [6  Even ants bury their dead, though it's arguable whether that is a true \"ritual.\" 7","labels":0,"seconds_difference":41426.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"bmq43g","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Are we born with ideas of what smells good and what smells bad or do we learn that at a very young age? I know that smell is very subvective, however most of us can all agree that, for exemple, trash smells bad and fruits smell good. This is what I am speaking of, do we have any baseline for smells or do we learn from scratch when we are born?","c_root_id_A":"emzto7o","c_root_id_B":"enbchck","created_at_utc_A":1557469089,"created_at_utc_B":1557744000,"score_A":3,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"That\u2019s an interesting question. I would argue that the subjective value of pretty much most sensations (tastes, smells, sounds, sights, and tactile sensations) are generally developed over time with life experience, considering what smells \u201cgood\u201d or \u201cbad\u201d is entirely subjective in nature. Perhaps certain scents are instinctively aversive (such as the smell of rotten\/noxious food or animal cadavers) because we have evolved to avoid such things to enhance our survival. However, for the most part, whether something smells \u201cgood\u201d, for example, would depend on associative learning processes. An orange might smell \u201cgood\u201d because it tastes sweet, provides sustenance and nutrition, and would thus activate mesolimbic dopamine transmission upon eating it, leading to a positive association being made between the smell of the orange and the pleasurable experience of eating it. After even just a few pairings of the smell with the pleasure of eating it, the smell would take on rewarding value on its own, thereby becoming a \u201cgood\u201d smell. Things only smell \u201cgood\u201d or \u201cbad\u201d because we as organisms have assigned a particular \u201cmotivational value\u201d to that particular thing, which by and large depends on sensory experiences that are psychologically processed by the organism. But again, this doesn\u2019t rule out the possibility that certain smells are instinctively aversive (or pleasurable) because having an innate drive towards or away from such smells would enhance our survival over many thousands of years of evolution.  That\u2019s just my take on it though.","human_ref_B":"We have built-in instincts about this kind of thing from birth, but they slowly get overidden by adult life experience and cultural learning.  For example:  * kids generally hate 'mouldy' food (useful instinct, prevents food poisoning), most adults love blue cheese ; * kids generally hate raw tomato (useful instinct, brightly coloured berries are generally poisonous) despite liking the *taste* of tomato in sauces, pizza etc. Adults often like raw tomato","labels":0,"seconds_difference":274911.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"sv4td2","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Are There Any Invasive Species that Originate FROM Australia? We hear all about the invasive species in the land down under; from its toxic cane toads to its out of control rabbit populations, but is there any plants or animals from Australia that are invasive anywhere else in the world?","c_root_id_A":"hxevc8o","c_root_id_B":"hxevdzw","created_at_utc_A":1645162944,"created_at_utc_B":1645162974,"score_A":582,"score_B":634,"human_ref_A":"In South Africa the Black Wattle tree (Acacia Mearnsii) is a huge problem. Introduced to use the bark for tanning hides,  it is massively invasive, taking over river and stream beds. Seeds are carried downstream by water flow, and one trees seeds can foster a thousand plants. The trees drink a LOT of water and it grows so thick it prevents other plants from competing.  There is a program called Working for Water which works in areas removing the trees, especially in drought sensitive regions.  They are my pet hate.","human_ref_B":"In South Africa we have massive problems with eucalyptus and acacia from Australia, along with multipleother plant species that I can't list off the top of my head. In some coastal areas especially, the native flora gets almost completely replaced by very thick acacia saligna and acacia cyclops.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":30.0,"score_ratio":1.089347079}
{"post_id":"sv4td2","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Are There Any Invasive Species that Originate FROM Australia? We hear all about the invasive species in the land down under; from its toxic cane toads to its out of control rabbit populations, but is there any plants or animals from Australia that are invasive anywhere else in the world?","c_root_id_A":"hxeujh9","c_root_id_B":"hxevdzw","created_at_utc_A":1645162465,"created_at_utc_B":1645162974,"score_A":328,"score_B":634,"human_ref_A":"Again, New Zealand.  Parts of NZ have a wallaby problem (Kawau Island, out of Auckland, and on the mainland in Rotorua (North island) and around inland South Canterbury in the South Island.)  It's not a bad problem (they're a popular target for sport hunters) but an invasive species, none the less.  This is what comes when your only non-aquatic mammals are a couple of species of bat.","human_ref_B":"In South Africa we have massive problems with eucalyptus and acacia from Australia, along with multipleother plant species that I can't list off the top of my head. In some coastal areas especially, the native flora gets almost completely replaced by very thick acacia saligna and acacia cyclops.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":509.0,"score_ratio":1.9329268293}
{"post_id":"sv4td2","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Are There Any Invasive Species that Originate FROM Australia? We hear all about the invasive species in the land down under; from its toxic cane toads to its out of control rabbit populations, but is there any plants or animals from Australia that are invasive anywhere else in the world?","c_root_id_A":"hxeujh9","c_root_id_B":"hxevc8o","created_at_utc_A":1645162465,"created_at_utc_B":1645162944,"score_A":328,"score_B":582,"human_ref_A":"Again, New Zealand.  Parts of NZ have a wallaby problem (Kawau Island, out of Auckland, and on the mainland in Rotorua (North island) and around inland South Canterbury in the South Island.)  It's not a bad problem (they're a popular target for sport hunters) but an invasive species, none the less.  This is what comes when your only non-aquatic mammals are a couple of species of bat.","human_ref_B":"In South Africa the Black Wattle tree (Acacia Mearnsii) is a huge problem. Introduced to use the bark for tanning hides,  it is massively invasive, taking over river and stream beds. Seeds are carried downstream by water flow, and one trees seeds can foster a thousand plants. The trees drink a LOT of water and it grows so thick it prevents other plants from competing.  There is a program called Working for Water which works in areas removing the trees, especially in drought sensitive regions.  They are my pet hate.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":479.0,"score_ratio":1.7743902439}
{"post_id":"sv4td2","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Are There Any Invasive Species that Originate FROM Australia? We hear all about the invasive species in the land down under; from its toxic cane toads to its out of control rabbit populations, but is there any plants or animals from Australia that are invasive anywhere else in the world?","c_root_id_A":"hxevibh","c_root_id_B":"hxeujh9","created_at_utc_A":1645163048,"created_at_utc_B":1645162465,"score_A":363,"score_B":328,"human_ref_A":"Surprised melaleuca haven\u2019t been mentioned. Brought from Australia to drain the everglades, they\u2019re too prolific to cull and hold water in their trunks to prevent burning.  It\u2019s great wood for holding things over a campfire for the same reason.","human_ref_B":"Again, New Zealand.  Parts of NZ have a wallaby problem (Kawau Island, out of Auckland, and on the mainland in Rotorua (North island) and around inland South Canterbury in the South Island.)  It's not a bad problem (they're a popular target for sport hunters) but an invasive species, none the less.  This is what comes when your only non-aquatic mammals are a couple of species of bat.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":583.0,"score_ratio":1.1067073171}
{"post_id":"sv4td2","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Are There Any Invasive Species that Originate FROM Australia? We hear all about the invasive species in the land down under; from its toxic cane toads to its out of control rabbit populations, but is there any plants or animals from Australia that are invasive anywhere else in the world?","c_root_id_A":"hxfd32a","c_root_id_B":"hxf0aak","created_at_utc_A":1645175866,"created_at_utc_B":1645166114,"score_A":140,"score_B":92,"human_ref_A":"Australia has given invasive species to *other parts of Australia.* Tasmania is not supposed to have sugar gliders, but they were brought across from the mainland as pets. Through nest site competition and predation, this is probably going to send the Swift Parrot extinct fairly soon.","human_ref_B":"We had wallabies living in the hills near our small town in the English countryside for around 30 yrs. I think they escaped from a private collection. However they haven't been sighted recently. There is another island in the UK with wild wallabies however, i think Scotland somewhere?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9752.0,"score_ratio":1.5217391304}
{"post_id":"sv4td2","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Are There Any Invasive Species that Originate FROM Australia? We hear all about the invasive species in the land down under; from its toxic cane toads to its out of control rabbit populations, but is there any plants or animals from Australia that are invasive anywhere else in the world?","c_root_id_A":"hxf9tqj","c_root_id_B":"hxfd32a","created_at_utc_A":1645173215,"created_at_utc_B":1645175866,"score_A":62,"score_B":140,"human_ref_A":"Some others not mentioned yet are:  The umbrella tree - *Schefflera* (Heptapleurum) *actinophylla.*  Sweet Pittosporum - *Pittosporum undulatum*  Tea tree - *Leptospermum laevigatum*  Silky Hakea - *Hakea sericea*  Tuckeroo - *Cupaniopsis anacardioides*  She-Oak - *Casuarina glauca*  &#x200B;  There are many more besides these, but these are some particularly well known ones.  Some locations have been particularly badly hit by Aussie natives. These include California, Florida, Portugal, South Africa, & New Zealand.","human_ref_B":"Australia has given invasive species to *other parts of Australia.* Tasmania is not supposed to have sugar gliders, but they were brought across from the mainland as pets. Through nest site competition and predation, this is probably going to send the Swift Parrot extinct fairly soon.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2651.0,"score_ratio":2.2580645161}
{"post_id":"sv4td2","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Are There Any Invasive Species that Originate FROM Australia? We hear all about the invasive species in the land down under; from its toxic cane toads to its out of control rabbit populations, but is there any plants or animals from Australia that are invasive anywhere else in the world?","c_root_id_A":"hxf9tqj","c_root_id_B":"hxfi6nw","created_at_utc_A":1645173215,"created_at_utc_B":1645180021,"score_A":62,"score_B":70,"human_ref_A":"Some others not mentioned yet are:  The umbrella tree - *Schefflera* (Heptapleurum) *actinophylla.*  Sweet Pittosporum - *Pittosporum undulatum*  Tea tree - *Leptospermum laevigatum*  Silky Hakea - *Hakea sericea*  Tuckeroo - *Cupaniopsis anacardioides*  She-Oak - *Casuarina glauca*  &#x200B;  There are many more besides these, but these are some particularly well known ones.  Some locations have been particularly badly hit by Aussie natives. These include California, Florida, Portugal, South Africa, & New Zealand.","human_ref_B":"I haven\u2019t seen the Australian flatworm mentioned yet. Though there are other more vicious invasive flatworms from New Zealand, South America and Asia, they are all making their way across Europe and having an effect.  They eat earthworms like there\u2019s no tomorrow due to the large population of earthworms in Europe which hasn\u2019t had a predator like this in the past, this is leading to decreased soil fertility and aeration.  Combine this with the flatworms alien ability to be cut in to tiny pieces and each tiny piece regenerate in to a new flatworm. So it doesn\u2019t take long for a single flatworm to form an army!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6806.0,"score_ratio":1.1290322581}
{"post_id":"sv4td2","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Are There Any Invasive Species that Originate FROM Australia? We hear all about the invasive species in the land down under; from its toxic cane toads to its out of control rabbit populations, but is there any plants or animals from Australia that are invasive anywhere else in the world?","c_root_id_A":"hxfi6nw","c_root_id_B":"hxfi43l","created_at_utc_A":1645180021,"created_at_utc_B":1645179962,"score_A":70,"score_B":60,"human_ref_A":"I haven\u2019t seen the Australian flatworm mentioned yet. Though there are other more vicious invasive flatworms from New Zealand, South America and Asia, they are all making their way across Europe and having an effect.  They eat earthworms like there\u2019s no tomorrow due to the large population of earthworms in Europe which hasn\u2019t had a predator like this in the past, this is leading to decreased soil fertility and aeration.  Combine this with the flatworms alien ability to be cut in to tiny pieces and each tiny piece regenerate in to a new flatworm. So it doesn\u2019t take long for a single flatworm to form an army!","human_ref_B":"Did I read somewhere that budgies are taking over parts of the UK now ?, because of pets that escaped and ended up mating with other freed pets, that they are so common now, more so than other UK native species.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":59.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"sv4td2","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Are There Any Invasive Species that Originate FROM Australia? We hear all about the invasive species in the land down under; from its toxic cane toads to its out of control rabbit populations, but is there any plants or animals from Australia that are invasive anywhere else in the world?","c_root_id_A":"hxfdjum","c_root_id_B":"hxfi6nw","created_at_utc_A":1645176243,"created_at_utc_B":1645180021,"score_A":57,"score_B":70,"human_ref_A":"Let's see...In NZ invasive Australian animals, there are Whitetail spiders, brushtail possums, wallabies, rosellas, sulphur crested cockatoos,  Huntsman spiders, Australian Magpies.  That's just off the top of my head.","human_ref_B":"I haven\u2019t seen the Australian flatworm mentioned yet. Though there are other more vicious invasive flatworms from New Zealand, South America and Asia, they are all making their way across Europe and having an effect.  They eat earthworms like there\u2019s no tomorrow due to the large population of earthworms in Europe which hasn\u2019t had a predator like this in the past, this is leading to decreased soil fertility and aeration.  Combine this with the flatworms alien ability to be cut in to tiny pieces and each tiny piece regenerate in to a new flatworm. So it doesn\u2019t take long for a single flatworm to form an army!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3778.0,"score_ratio":1.2280701754}
{"post_id":"sv4td2","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Are There Any Invasive Species that Originate FROM Australia? We hear all about the invasive species in the land down under; from its toxic cane toads to its out of control rabbit populations, but is there any plants or animals from Australia that are invasive anywhere else in the world?","c_root_id_A":"hxfi43l","c_root_id_B":"hxfdjum","created_at_utc_A":1645179962,"created_at_utc_B":1645176243,"score_A":60,"score_B":57,"human_ref_A":"Did I read somewhere that budgies are taking over parts of the UK now ?, because of pets that escaped and ended up mating with other freed pets, that they are so common now, more so than other UK native species.","human_ref_B":"Let's see...In NZ invasive Australian animals, there are Whitetail spiders, brushtail possums, wallabies, rosellas, sulphur crested cockatoos,  Huntsman spiders, Australian Magpies.  That's just off the top of my head.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3719.0,"score_ratio":1.0526315789}
{"post_id":"vr8ff8","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Is there an animal that primarily subsists on eating members of its own species\/cannibalism?","c_root_id_A":"ietr2lm","c_root_id_B":"ietq7ck","created_at_utc_A":1656947497,"created_at_utc_B":1656947128,"score_A":1154,"score_B":577,"human_ref_A":"This isn't viable due to trophic levels\/06%3A_Ecology\/6.05%3A_Trophic_Levels). Each consumer needs a food source with roughly 10x the biomass of the consumer population to be sustainable, so a population of animals that subsisted on cannibalism would shrink rapidly.","human_ref_B":"No. If there was, it would run out of food and die. Different animals have varying degrees of willingness or ability to engage in cannibalism, but there's no species for which cannibalism is the *primary* source of food.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":369.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"vr8ff8","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Is there an animal that primarily subsists on eating members of its own species\/cannibalism?","c_root_id_A":"ieuy3w7","c_root_id_B":"ieuzcpi","created_at_utc_A":1656965761,"created_at_utc_B":1656966297,"score_A":8,"score_B":10,"human_ref_A":"King cobras mainly eat other snakes including, sometimes, other king cobras. That\u2019s the closest I can think of but technically king cobras do not primarily eat members of its own species as the snakes they mostly eat are a different species of snake.","human_ref_B":"There's a colony of ants in Chernobyl in an old nuclear bunker that primarily subsists on cannibalism. It's not a traditional colony because the population is replenished by other ants falling in, but I thought it was close enough to be interesting at least.  https:\/\/www.newsweek.com\/cannibal-ants-soviet-nuclear-bunker-1469573?amp=1","labels":0,"seconds_difference":536.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"vr8ff8","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Is there an animal that primarily subsists on eating members of its own species\/cannibalism?","c_root_id_A":"iev09pi","c_root_id_B":"iev63oi","created_at_utc_A":1656966693,"created_at_utc_B":1656969203,"score_A":6,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Yes, wel almost since you need more energy in the trofic level below you due to energy conversion (already explained by others).  Onto the species: largemouth bass. Young bass will eat\u00a0insects, small aquatic invertebrates, and larger fish\u00a0once they reach about 8 inches in length. There is one lake in which no other fish species occurs than the largemouth bass, which causes cannibalism of adult fish on the younger fish.","human_ref_B":"African Clawed Toads will eat hundreds of tadpoles, and may even primarily feed on tadpoles during certain times. The tadpoles are filter feeders and have access to different food sources compared to adults. While obviously they the tadpoles must eat other things the adults can get a large amount of their caloric needs by eating their own youth. Cane Toads in Australia are also starting to evolve this behavior.  Another fun fact is the African Clawed Toad was previously used as pregnancy tests.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2510.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"vr8ff8","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Is there an animal that primarily subsists on eating members of its own species\/cannibalism?","c_root_id_A":"iew5b6z","c_root_id_B":"iev09pi","created_at_utc_A":1656986341,"created_at_utc_B":1656966693,"score_A":8,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Not entirely, but Dracula ants (genus *Adetomyrma*) come pretty close. See, ants cannot eat solid food-- they can only ingest liquids. All those solid foods you see ants carrying are actually for their larvae. Dracula ants, however, have found a pretty gruesome way around this. They bite open the abdomens of their own larvae and suck out their innards-- including any pre-digested food that might be in their stomachs. Amazingly, the larvae survive this, and actually heal from it. Scientists call this phenomenon \"non-destructive cannibalism\", and it's how the adult ants get a large amount of their food.","human_ref_B":"Yes, wel almost since you need more energy in the trofic level below you due to energy conversion (already explained by others).  Onto the species: largemouth bass. Young bass will eat\u00a0insects, small aquatic invertebrates, and larger fish\u00a0once they reach about 8 inches in length. There is one lake in which no other fish species occurs than the largemouth bass, which causes cannibalism of adult fish on the younger fish.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":19648.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"vr8ff8","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Is there an animal that primarily subsists on eating members of its own species\/cannibalism?","c_root_id_A":"iew5b6z","c_root_id_B":"ievny1q","created_at_utc_A":1656986341,"created_at_utc_B":1656977329,"score_A":8,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Not entirely, but Dracula ants (genus *Adetomyrma*) come pretty close. See, ants cannot eat solid food-- they can only ingest liquids. All those solid foods you see ants carrying are actually for their larvae. Dracula ants, however, have found a pretty gruesome way around this. They bite open the abdomens of their own larvae and suck out their innards-- including any pre-digested food that might be in their stomachs. Amazingly, the larvae survive this, and actually heal from it. Scientists call this phenomenon \"non-destructive cannibalism\", and it's how the adult ants get a large amount of their food.","human_ref_B":"There is no species that has a diet consisting entirely of its own species throughout its entire lifecycle. However, there are species that are obligate cannibals during certain parts of their lifecycle.  If you have the time to read a book on the subject I recommend \u201cCannibalism\u201d by Bill Schutt. It is interesting, well-researched, and well-written.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9012.0,"score_ratio":1.6}
{"post_id":"2qqjj2","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"If a giant asteroid (large enough to destroy the earth) was heading straight for us, at what point in the impact timeline would we be able to see it with the naked eye? Once we could see it, how quickly would it grow larger until it blotted out the rest of the sky?","c_root_id_A":"cn8li7w","c_root_id_B":"cn8lqvl","created_at_utc_A":1419884519,"created_at_utc_B":1419884932,"score_A":3,"score_B":37,"human_ref_A":"If it was smaller than Earth, it would never block the entire sky even if you were standing under it.   The other question depends on too many things to be answered well. If the object is comet from the Oort cloud, we could see it from pretty far away because by the time it was near Earth, its tail would be huge and bright. If it was more like Rosetta's comet, I don't know, the object is so dark it's tough to say if you would be able to see it at all until it was falling through the atmosphere.   But this all depends on how big it is, and what it's made of, how long it has been near the sun, etc.","human_ref_B":"There is a lot that's not really given to us. The visibility of an object depends on several factors, a few of which are listed below:  1. Albedo - i.e. how reflective it is. Asteroids aren't very reflective because they're made of greyish rocks. Comets are pretty bright because they're made of ice that vents off as it nears the sun, creating a large reflective surface.  2. Size - as you asked, the bigger the reflector, the more likely it is to reflect enough light to see  3. Angle of Approach - We usually detect stuff because one day it looks like it's a star in one place, the next it's moved relative to the background stars. Example In the example you can see the asteroid moved WRT the background stars. There are geometries that would show no change in angle, which would make this sort of detection REALLY hard to see.  4. Distance from Sun - Closer to the sun more light hits the asteroid so more light can reflect off of it.   5. Where WE are looking - We have to have telescopes pointed in the right direction to see it. Telescopes have a pretty narrow field usually and are dedicated to other tasks than finding meteors\/asteroids\/comets.  So those 5 factors are huge when finding a meteor. Comets are typically easier because they produce a big gas cloud (the tail) that reflects lots of light from the sun. It's a big target for us to see in the night sky and relatively bright. Meteors\/asteroids don't do that. They are usually pretty tough to find.  A meteor the size of a US Aircraft carrier can't be seen with the naked eye when it even passes between the moon and Earth: NASA Gets pics of Aircraft Carrier Sized asteroid passing closer than the moon  So something a few miles across can't be seen.  The truth, we would probably see a comet a good ways off as it started to heat up and vent gasses from its surface. Haley's comet can be seen  a few million miles away. Large meteors\/asteroids can pass very close to earth and not be seen at all.   For it to completely block out the sky it would need to fill your entire field of view, which means it's either a few inches from your face (your hand can do this) or it's really really big. Imagine a bud above you. How far does it need to block your view of the sky? Now imagine a building, a city, a mountain, etc. The bigger the object, the further away it can be. The moon is really big (1\/6th the size of the Earth), but even at only 280,000miles, it barely filled a spot in the sky the size of your thumbnail at arms length. So a rock that's billions of times smaller than the moon (which is about the size of a mountain) would need to be REALLY close - and in fact it would be burning up in the atmosphere before it blocked out the sky.  Hope that helps. :D","labels":0,"seconds_difference":413.0,"score_ratio":12.3333333333}
{"post_id":"2qqjj2","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"If a giant asteroid (large enough to destroy the earth) was heading straight for us, at what point in the impact timeline would we be able to see it with the naked eye? Once we could see it, how quickly would it grow larger until it blotted out the rest of the sky?","c_root_id_A":"cn8li7w","c_root_id_B":"cn8nm60","created_at_utc_A":1419884519,"created_at_utc_B":1419888150,"score_A":3,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"If it was smaller than Earth, it would never block the entire sky even if you were standing under it.   The other question depends on too many things to be answered well. If the object is comet from the Oort cloud, we could see it from pretty far away because by the time it was near Earth, its tail would be huge and bright. If it was more like Rosetta's comet, I don't know, the object is so dark it's tough to say if you would be able to see it at all until it was falling through the atmosphere.   But this all depends on how big it is, and what it's made of, how long it has been near the sun, etc.","human_ref_B":"The naked eye has an angle of resolution of about .07 degrees. This means you could theoretically first see the asteroid with a diameter of D meters when it is D\\*820 meters away. So a giant asteroid with a diameter of about 500km could first be visible with the naked eye when it is 410,000km away. However the average asteroid travels at about 25km\/sec, which means for a giant asteroid traveling at a average speed it would take roughly 16,000 seconds, or 4.5 hours from the time you saw it until the time it crushed you(excluding air resistance). In general if D is the diameter and V is it's velocity, the time you have from when you see it to when it kills you is 820*\\(D\/V), assuming it has enough momentum to make air resistance negligible.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3631.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"9nh029","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"I\u2019ve been perusing Wikipedia pages on hurricanes after Michael and have found detailed accounts of hurricane development for storms back in the late 1800s. How were these accounts recorded and\/or constructed?","c_root_id_A":"e7mpq4n","c_root_id_B":"e7mdjwb","created_at_utc_A":1539344954,"created_at_utc_B":1539322022,"score_A":167,"score_B":51,"human_ref_A":"there's an amazing book called Isaac's Storm that is about the Galveston TX hurricane in the 1800s. It tells all about early weather forecasters  and how they plotted and tracked storms.  Great read, the book says that after that hurricane tore through the US and traveled back across the Atlantic, it still had enough force to knock a stone off of Stonehenge!! I've tried to verify the Stonehenge story on Google but have only found vague references but it still sounds cool.","human_ref_B":"If you don't get an answer here, you can try \/r\/askhistorians","labels":1,"seconds_difference":22932.0,"score_ratio":3.2745098039}
{"post_id":"9nh029","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"I\u2019ve been perusing Wikipedia pages on hurricanes after Michael and have found detailed accounts of hurricane development for storms back in the late 1800s. How were these accounts recorded and\/or constructed?","c_root_id_A":"e7mxd0o","c_root_id_B":"e7myj7c","created_at_utc_A":1539353554,"created_at_utc_B":1539354630,"score_A":14,"score_B":24,"human_ref_A":"Read Isaac\u2019s Storm, by Erik Larson (Devil in the White City). It\u2019s about the Galveston hurricane and all Isaac Cline did to predict the destruction, despite Weather Bureau not wanting to alarm anyone. Was also about the formation of NOAA and it\u2019s just a great read.","human_ref_B":"A lot of it came down to the theory and publications of Matthew Fontaine Maury.  By the mid-1850s, three-quarters of the world's shipping fleets were sending their bathymetric and weather records to Maury, who in turn was analyzing and sending out his results around the world.  Maury was like the data-server of 1800s weather.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1076.0,"score_ratio":1.7142857143}
{"post_id":"9nh029","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"I\u2019ve been perusing Wikipedia pages on hurricanes after Michael and have found detailed accounts of hurricane development for storms back in the late 1800s. How were these accounts recorded and\/or constructed?","c_root_id_A":"e7n0b6y","c_root_id_B":"e7n0tx6","created_at_utc_A":1539356200,"created_at_utc_B":1539356651,"score_A":7,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"You might want to try looking into the methodology for NHC's HURDAT and the reanalysis project to update it for HURDAT2. I believe the HURDAT catalog starts at 1851. In the last several years they re-visited the historical data to reassess\/verify NHC's official view of storm track and other parameters.","human_ref_B":"In the age before radio and weather balloons, Sailors lived or died on their ability to interpret the weather, so a good captain had decades of mastery at this. Spotting storms and identifying hurricanes from afar etc. The kind of deep mastery that is sometimes difficult to imagine or appreciate. I've read a hurricane described as identifiable by the clouds having a sort of visual \"bar\" above the horizon. I don't really know what that means; I would need a diagram :)  Once they saw it, they had to figure out where it was moving (so they could avoid it), by constant readings, observations, and navigation. It was the focus of everything.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":451.0,"score_ratio":1.7142857143}
{"post_id":"9nh029","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"I\u2019ve been perusing Wikipedia pages on hurricanes after Michael and have found detailed accounts of hurricane development for storms back in the late 1800s. How were these accounts recorded and\/or constructed?","c_root_id_A":"e7nc5di","c_root_id_B":"e7n0b6y","created_at_utc_A":1539366251,"created_at_utc_B":1539356200,"score_A":10,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"I can't answer your question directly,  others have done it better already, but many people severely underestimate the advancement of the scientific community at the times, and how many scholars were trying to collects and organize data through correspondance or other mean.  If you look at the timeline of important discovery in physics for example, they already had electromagnetism, thermodynamics, and mechanics figured it out better than you would understand in higschool or college classes, and those theories were also verified with accurate instruments and data collection.  Heck, somethings like the speed of light goes all the way back to 1675, and it's much more complicated to measure than atmospheric pressure or temperature  Meteorology isn't exactly the same as a fundamental field, but I would say  it was even more important at the time given the prevalence of ship on the oceans, and how bad weather could mess people's life.  Wind speed,  atmospheric pressure, temperature, and geo-localization  were already gathered in ship logs, and notable events like an hurricane wouldn't get ignored either.   All they needed was to gather that data in one place, and archives it.  Those archives started around 1880 for weather, but individual records goes back far beyond that.","human_ref_B":"You might want to try looking into the methodology for NHC's HURDAT and the reanalysis project to update it for HURDAT2. I believe the HURDAT catalog starts at 1851. In the last several years they re-visited the historical data to reassess\/verify NHC's official view of storm track and other parameters.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":10051.0,"score_ratio":1.4285714286}
{"post_id":"dkdny4","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"If the recipient of an organ donation dies before the donor, could the donated organ be returned to the donor? I've been re-watching the TV show Lost, and if you're not familiar with it, one character donates a kidney to another. Later in the show, the recipient of the kidney dies, and the SO of the donor jokes, \"Maybe he left you a kidney.\"  Could the donated kidney theoretically be returned to the donor's body? If so, what might be the medical implications? Would it transfer the recipient's illness to the donor? Would immunosuppressants need to be given to the donor?  Thanks in advance for any answers or suggestions where to learn more!","c_root_id_A":"f4geeiw","c_root_id_B":"f4favqq","created_at_utc_A":1571580239,"created_at_utc_B":1571568426,"score_A":24,"score_B":23,"human_ref_A":"There are lots of reasons not to, but the foremost is technical. It is 10 times easier to operate on virgin tissue and there is 10 time the risk of any given complication doing revision surgery. We as surgeons take complications and mortality very seriously and revision operations should only be done by exceptionally talented surgeons with extensive experience and only when the implications of not doing the surgery are particularly grave for the patient. There are types of suffering that are fates worse than death, and some of those can be induced by major complications of surgery. It would be unacceptable for everyone involved for those to happen when a procedure was not even necessary.","human_ref_B":"No. I asked my heart transplant team, if I were to die in a wreck or something on the way home, immediately after you've just verified my heart is in great condition, would they be able to transplant it into someone else? And they said no, that the transplant center that they're part of (and possibly all of them) won't re-transplant the same organ. My other organs though are useable.   Edit: only read the title at first, answered that instead of the question in the post. Whoops.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11813.0,"score_ratio":1.0434782609}
{"post_id":"kzspfp","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"With the rise of covid deaths, does that have any effect on the organ donor list?","c_root_id_A":"gjr3y3l","c_root_id_B":"gjr2jy5","created_at_utc_A":1611000285,"created_at_utc_B":1610999598,"score_A":1592,"score_B":133,"human_ref_A":"I'm a transplant coordinator and have worked in the field of organ donation since 2009.    I work for three transplant centers currently.  All have done record number of transplants this  year.  One center completely transplanted all of the people on its lung list twice.  A heart program transplanted everyone on its heart list except the sensitized patients and I've lost track of how many renal transplants the other center has done.  To put things in terms of numbers in September of 2019 I received an average of 10 organ offers a day when I worked.  In September of 2020 I received an average of 21 organ offers a day.    I would do a thoracic transplant (heart or lungs) once in every three to five shifts in 2019.  Since June of 2020 I do a thoracic transplant probably about 3 out of every 4 shifts.    Renal transplants happened about once in every three shifts before, we do a renal transplant almost every day now, sometimes we do two.   I've spoken to friends that work at 2 OPOs.  One I used to work for and they did about 200 donors a year and their goal for this year was 208.  By the first week in October they had already done 240 and were on track to do 300.   The other's goal was 190 and they did 294 donors this year.  We had a very big dip in donation in March.  For a couple of weeks there were almost no transplants that happened.  Things were slow in April too but got back to normal in May and then exploded in June and just kept going.  We had another two \"slow\" weeks around the end of October beginning of November when things were only a little increased over previous years, but other than that it has been non-stop.  I work about 280-310 hours a month now.  Last week I worked 96 hours.   I actually looked at the total number of offers for the whole of 2020, including the normal first couple of months and the severe drop for about a month and a half going to the end of September and we had an increase of 7% in the number of organ offers over 2019.  I'd imagine that increase was greater by the end of the year but I haven't had the time to actually do the math yet.","human_ref_B":"Yes. Living donations have declined significantly (primarily kidney transplants). Deceased donor organs carry a risk of transmitting COVID to the recipient, if they're even suitable for transplant, so they're excluded.  People with COVID add to the waiting list for lung transplants. That is a tough wait list to survive.  https:\/\/unos.org\/covid\/","labels":1,"seconds_difference":687.0,"score_ratio":11.969924812}
{"post_id":"toyobm","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Why does Hydrochloric Acid dissociates more than Sulfuric Acid, or more than most other acids for that matter? This question comes from one I asked my chemistry teacher: how can we tell apart strong acids and bases  from weaker acids and bases by JUST knowing their name (ie KOH, H3PO4, etc) and properties we can derive from the periodic table, atomic structure, so on. My teacher's answer kept coming down \"strong acids and bases dissociates more than weak acids and bases\" and I kept asking \"Why? Why does \\[random acid\\] dissociate more than \\[weaker random acid\\]? What properties do they differ that allows one acid to be stronger than the other?\" . . . and eventually my teacher just said \"I don't know.\" Needless to say I'm unsatisfied, any help please?","c_root_id_A":"i27wv4e","c_root_id_B":"i2890v8","created_at_utc_A":1648318391,"created_at_utc_B":1648323815,"score_A":28,"score_B":309,"human_ref_A":"Someone with a better answer than me might come through in a bit. But the thing about strong acids is more about water than the acid. Water pulls the hydrogens off of strong acids so strongly that all of the acid dissociates. Weak acids are ones that hold onto their hydrogens more strongly. At least that's true in the Arrhenius acid definition. If you put a strong acid into another solvent, they might no longer fully ionize. It would all come down to the Gibbs free energy of the proton exchange. Which in the simplest form is based only on the absolute temperature, change in entropy, and change in enthalpy. That form of the equation is all I ever got to as a Biochemist (i'm more into sequence analysis rather than the underlying chemical stuff). That's not the most satisfying answer. Since the change in enthalpy and entropy are just numbers you look up in a table. So I've kind of moved the problem w\/o completely answering it.","human_ref_B":"Several factors must be considered, here are the main ones:  Electronegativity - this is most commonly understood and talked about.  The more electronegative the atom bonded to the proton is, the more easily that bond will break heterolytically (both electrons go with one partner, aka the leaving group).  It makes sense because it is easy to imagine something that is much more electronegative than hydrogen taking both of the electrons in the bond which allows hydrogen to dissassociate.  Fluorine, chlorine, oxygen check this box.  Stabilization of the anion - The conjugate base of an acid usually has a negative charge, and that negative charge represents an instability for that molecule.  The more the negative charge can be spread throughout the molecule via a system of conjugation, the more stable it will be and, conversely, the more tightly focused that negative charge is on, say, a single atom for example, the less stable it is.  For example, bisulfate is able to spread its negative charge between three different oxygen atoms, contributing to its stability.  Conversely, fluoride is a tiny atom with its negative charge tightly focused, which is a significant contributing factor in fluoride not fully dissociating as you would expect based on electronegativity alone.  There are also many extreme examples of anion stability in large conjugated systems in organic acids, especially in cases where the freeing up of the electron pair enables a much larger conjugated system by joining two smaller ones  (or, better yet, an aromatic system!).  The stability of conjugate bases is a part of a larger topic in chemistry about the stability of leaving groups, the same principle applies.  People frequently use pKa as a good measure of the stability of a conjugate base or leaving group.  Solvent stabilizing effects - When we are talking about acids, we are always talking about water as the solvent, but the chemical structure of the acid and the solutes in the water can vary, which can significantly impact the stabilizing or destabilizing effects of the solvent on the proton and anion of a dissociated acid.  For example, organic acids usually get a boost in their dissociation in water because of their inherent instability in water - dissociating in to a pair of ions frequently increases their stability in water.  Also, solutes in water can increase or decrease the ability for water to stabilize ions created in the dissociation of acids.  Edit:  The answer to your sulfuric acid, chloride question requires an additional consideration.  Oxygen is more electronegative than chloride, sure, but due to the valency of oxygen, it is always bonded with something other than the proton and since oxygen is more electronegative than everything other than fluorine, whatever else oxygen is bonded to is always donating (relatively speaking) electric charge to the oxygen, making oxygen less able to pull electrons away from the proton.  Having said that, though, sulfuric acid is still one of the stronger oxyacids due to its ability to spread out that negative charge.  So based on this you would expect oxyacids which are bonded to carbon rather than sulfur to be less acidid because carbon is less electronegative than sulfur.  Hope that helps.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5424.0,"score_ratio":11.0357142857}
{"post_id":"toyobm","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Why does Hydrochloric Acid dissociates more than Sulfuric Acid, or more than most other acids for that matter? This question comes from one I asked my chemistry teacher: how can we tell apart strong acids and bases  from weaker acids and bases by JUST knowing their name (ie KOH, H3PO4, etc) and properties we can derive from the periodic table, atomic structure, so on. My teacher's answer kept coming down \"strong acids and bases dissociates more than weak acids and bases\" and I kept asking \"Why? Why does \\[random acid\\] dissociate more than \\[weaker random acid\\]? What properties do they differ that allows one acid to be stronger than the other?\" . . . and eventually my teacher just said \"I don't know.\" Needless to say I'm unsatisfied, any help please?","c_root_id_A":"i2890v8","c_root_id_B":"i287pni","created_at_utc_A":1648323815,"created_at_utc_B":1648323236,"score_A":309,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Several factors must be considered, here are the main ones:  Electronegativity - this is most commonly understood and talked about.  The more electronegative the atom bonded to the proton is, the more easily that bond will break heterolytically (both electrons go with one partner, aka the leaving group).  It makes sense because it is easy to imagine something that is much more electronegative than hydrogen taking both of the electrons in the bond which allows hydrogen to dissassociate.  Fluorine, chlorine, oxygen check this box.  Stabilization of the anion - The conjugate base of an acid usually has a negative charge, and that negative charge represents an instability for that molecule.  The more the negative charge can be spread throughout the molecule via a system of conjugation, the more stable it will be and, conversely, the more tightly focused that negative charge is on, say, a single atom for example, the less stable it is.  For example, bisulfate is able to spread its negative charge between three different oxygen atoms, contributing to its stability.  Conversely, fluoride is a tiny atom with its negative charge tightly focused, which is a significant contributing factor in fluoride not fully dissociating as you would expect based on electronegativity alone.  There are also many extreme examples of anion stability in large conjugated systems in organic acids, especially in cases where the freeing up of the electron pair enables a much larger conjugated system by joining two smaller ones  (or, better yet, an aromatic system!).  The stability of conjugate bases is a part of a larger topic in chemistry about the stability of leaving groups, the same principle applies.  People frequently use pKa as a good measure of the stability of a conjugate base or leaving group.  Solvent stabilizing effects - When we are talking about acids, we are always talking about water as the solvent, but the chemical structure of the acid and the solutes in the water can vary, which can significantly impact the stabilizing or destabilizing effects of the solvent on the proton and anion of a dissociated acid.  For example, organic acids usually get a boost in their dissociation in water because of their inherent instability in water - dissociating in to a pair of ions frequently increases their stability in water.  Also, solutes in water can increase or decrease the ability for water to stabilize ions created in the dissociation of acids.  Edit:  The answer to your sulfuric acid, chloride question requires an additional consideration.  Oxygen is more electronegative than chloride, sure, but due to the valency of oxygen, it is always bonded with something other than the proton and since oxygen is more electronegative than everything other than fluorine, whatever else oxygen is bonded to is always donating (relatively speaking) electric charge to the oxygen, making oxygen less able to pull electrons away from the proton.  Having said that, though, sulfuric acid is still one of the stronger oxyacids due to its ability to spread out that negative charge.  So based on this you would expect oxyacids which are bonded to carbon rather than sulfur to be less acidid because carbon is less electronegative than sulfur.  Hope that helps.","human_ref_B":"The lesser the protons, the lesser the electronegativity and the greater the atomic number, the strongest is the acid.  Lesser protons means quicker dissociation. Lesser electronegativity means electrons are less attached to the nucleus and freer to go bond with other molecules (I              \u2022H; Cl      \u2022H; F  \u2022H. Look how further away they are), and greater atomic number means the electron cloud is bigger and therefore, the outer electrons -wich are responsible of chemical reactions- are less attracted to the nucleus.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":579.0,"score_ratio":154.5}
{"post_id":"toyobm","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Why does Hydrochloric Acid dissociates more than Sulfuric Acid, or more than most other acids for that matter? This question comes from one I asked my chemistry teacher: how can we tell apart strong acids and bases  from weaker acids and bases by JUST knowing their name (ie KOH, H3PO4, etc) and properties we can derive from the periodic table, atomic structure, so on. My teacher's answer kept coming down \"strong acids and bases dissociates more than weak acids and bases\" and I kept asking \"Why? Why does \\[random acid\\] dissociate more than \\[weaker random acid\\]? What properties do they differ that allows one acid to be stronger than the other?\" . . . and eventually my teacher just said \"I don't know.\" Needless to say I'm unsatisfied, any help please?","c_root_id_A":"i287pni","c_root_id_B":"i28fq5f","created_at_utc_A":1648323236,"created_at_utc_B":1648326844,"score_A":2,"score_B":16,"human_ref_A":"The lesser the protons, the lesser the electronegativity and the greater the atomic number, the strongest is the acid.  Lesser protons means quicker dissociation. Lesser electronegativity means electrons are less attached to the nucleus and freer to go bond with other molecules (I              \u2022H; Cl      \u2022H; F  \u2022H. Look how further away they are), and greater atomic number means the electron cloud is bigger and therefore, the outer electrons -wich are responsible of chemical reactions- are less attracted to the nucleus.","human_ref_B":"It sounds like your chemistry teacher needs to learn some more chemistry. You're asking good questions that any decent teacher should be able to answer.  Very generally when looking at potential chemical reactions, we can predict which way a reaction will go based on how stable each potential product is. Let's say \"Chemical A\" is capable of reacting and forming \"Chemical B\". If Chemical B is more stable than Chemical A, then the chemical equilibrium will favor Chemical B. This means that if you left the system alone, eventually you would have more of Chemical B than Chemical A. However, you would almost never have entirely Chemical B.  When talking about acids we are usually talking about aqueous environments, meaning the acids are dissolved in water. As such, we need to consider both how stable the Acid is, and how stable the dissociated ion-water complex would be if the acid dissociated. You likely already know that water is good at dissolving salts but bad at dissolving nonpolar chemicals like fats. As such, as can already predict that organic acids like the Acetic Acid in vinegar will not be nearly as strong as most inorganic acids such as HCl and HBr.  However, water is not good at dissolving all ions. A common theme in inorganic chemistry is \"Hard Soft Acid Base\" Theory, also known as HSAB. It states that smaller and more highly charged ions are more stable with each other, and larger ions with weaker charge are more stable with each other. I won't get into exactly why here, but I'll leave a link in case you're curious. This can be used to explain why certain inorganic acids like HF are weak acids and do not completely dissociate in water. Water is considered a \"hard\" base and is normally very good at bonding with H+ ions, but it loses to F-. F- is the smallest negative ion readily present in nature, and is thus the \"Hardest\" base. Similarly, H+ ions are the smallest and \"hardest\" acid because they are simply free protons. As a result, the HF bond is more stable than the H2O - H+ or H2O - F- bonds would be. Therefore most HF does not dissociate when in water.  Some Links:  HSAB Theory_affects_affinity\/3.2.1%3A_Hard_and_Soft_Acid_and_Base_Theory) helps explain why water is better at dissolving some acids than others  Molecular Orbital Theory\/08%3A_Advanced_Theories_of_Covalent_Bonding\/8.4%3A_Molecular_Orbital_Theory) and Electron Shielding help explain on a fundamental level why chemicals are stable or reactive.  Let me know if you have any questions and I'll be happy to answer. I know this may not have been the most clear.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3608.0,"score_ratio":8.0}
{"post_id":"toyobm","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Why does Hydrochloric Acid dissociates more than Sulfuric Acid, or more than most other acids for that matter? This question comes from one I asked my chemistry teacher: how can we tell apart strong acids and bases  from weaker acids and bases by JUST knowing their name (ie KOH, H3PO4, etc) and properties we can derive from the periodic table, atomic structure, so on. My teacher's answer kept coming down \"strong acids and bases dissociates more than weak acids and bases\" and I kept asking \"Why? Why does \\[random acid\\] dissociate more than \\[weaker random acid\\]? What properties do they differ that allows one acid to be stronger than the other?\" . . . and eventually my teacher just said \"I don't know.\" Needless to say I'm unsatisfied, any help please?","c_root_id_A":"i2ai3y9","c_root_id_B":"i28m05y","created_at_utc_A":1648368672,"created_at_utc_B":1648329654,"score_A":5,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"I admire your excellent learning attitude.   > How can we tell apart strong acids and bases from weaker acids and bases by JUST knowing their name and properties we can derive from the periodic table, atomic structure, so on.  Strictly speaking, you really can't. You can have a vague approximations but there are multiple competing factors and there are tomes of Inorganic Chemistry discussing them. If you would like to study those in further, I would recommend Concise Inorganic Chemistry by JD Lee.  The way we can comment qualititatively is by comparing the stability of corresponding anions (Conjugate Bases). The more stable a Conjugate base is, the more acidic the corresponding acid is. For example, a nitrate ion is far more stable than acetate ion, so you can say that nitric acid is must stronger compared to acetic acid.  Note that this just translate the problem slightly. So, iodide ion is bigger and can hold extra charge more comfortably than the smallish Chloride ion. But Chlorine is more electronegative than Iodine, so it wants those extra electrons very strongly. So, which of thse two factors win? Turns out you have to remember them.   >eventually my teacher just said \"I don't know.\"   It isn't only your teacher who doesn't know, we, as in humanity collectively doesn't know. At some point of time, the scientist would love to be able to come up with the justification for pH numbers from atomic structure but we simply haven't cracked the code yet.","human_ref_B":"In the case of HCl, the electro negativity of the chlorine is higher than the sulfuric acid (actually the sulfuric acid\u2019s conjugate base). This electro negativity pulls electron density away from the bond with hydrogen, making the hydrogen in the HCl more labile (labile is fancy talk for \u201cfalls off easy\u201d).","labels":1,"seconds_difference":39018.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"toyobm","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Why does Hydrochloric Acid dissociates more than Sulfuric Acid, or more than most other acids for that matter? This question comes from one I asked my chemistry teacher: how can we tell apart strong acids and bases  from weaker acids and bases by JUST knowing their name (ie KOH, H3PO4, etc) and properties we can derive from the periodic table, atomic structure, so on. My teacher's answer kept coming down \"strong acids and bases dissociates more than weak acids and bases\" and I kept asking \"Why? Why does \\[random acid\\] dissociate more than \\[weaker random acid\\]? What properties do they differ that allows one acid to be stronger than the other?\" . . . and eventually my teacher just said \"I don't know.\" Needless to say I'm unsatisfied, any help please?","c_root_id_A":"i29sgjc","c_root_id_B":"i2ai3y9","created_at_utc_A":1648350453,"created_at_utc_B":1648368672,"score_A":3,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"As a rule of thumb, explained with non technical words, if an acid has more than one acid protons:   \\-The first one dissociates easily for strong acids. There is a chemical equilibrium with a very high constant of dissociation (K). For example, H in HCl.  \\-The second one dissociates easily for strong acids but not as easy as first one. For example: First proton of H2SO4 dissociates very easily and second easily. (K1>K2)     \\-The third one dissociation is difficult. The third proton of H3PO4 can barely be considered as an acid proton. (K1>>K2>>>>K3)     Giving random values, the strenght of HCl is 1, the strenght of H2SO4 is 1.90 (not 2), and the strenght of H3PO4 is 2.1 (not 3).","human_ref_B":"I admire your excellent learning attitude.   > How can we tell apart strong acids and bases from weaker acids and bases by JUST knowing their name and properties we can derive from the periodic table, atomic structure, so on.  Strictly speaking, you really can't. You can have a vague approximations but there are multiple competing factors and there are tomes of Inorganic Chemistry discussing them. If you would like to study those in further, I would recommend Concise Inorganic Chemistry by JD Lee.  The way we can comment qualititatively is by comparing the stability of corresponding anions (Conjugate Bases). The more stable a Conjugate base is, the more acidic the corresponding acid is. For example, a nitrate ion is far more stable than acetate ion, so you can say that nitric acid is must stronger compared to acetic acid.  Note that this just translate the problem slightly. So, iodide ion is bigger and can hold extra charge more comfortably than the smallish Chloride ion. But Chlorine is more electronegative than Iodine, so it wants those extra electrons very strongly. So, which of thse two factors win? Turns out you have to remember them.   >eventually my teacher just said \"I don't know.\"   It isn't only your teacher who doesn't know, we, as in humanity collectively doesn't know. At some point of time, the scientist would love to be able to come up with the justification for pH numbers from atomic structure but we simply haven't cracked the code yet.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":18219.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"toyobm","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Why does Hydrochloric Acid dissociates more than Sulfuric Acid, or more than most other acids for that matter? This question comes from one I asked my chemistry teacher: how can we tell apart strong acids and bases  from weaker acids and bases by JUST knowing their name (ie KOH, H3PO4, etc) and properties we can derive from the periodic table, atomic structure, so on. My teacher's answer kept coming down \"strong acids and bases dissociates more than weak acids and bases\" and I kept asking \"Why? Why does \\[random acid\\] dissociate more than \\[weaker random acid\\]? What properties do they differ that allows one acid to be stronger than the other?\" . . . and eventually my teacher just said \"I don't know.\" Needless to say I'm unsatisfied, any help please?","c_root_id_A":"i287pni","c_root_id_B":"i2ai3y9","created_at_utc_A":1648323236,"created_at_utc_B":1648368672,"score_A":2,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"The lesser the protons, the lesser the electronegativity and the greater the atomic number, the strongest is the acid.  Lesser protons means quicker dissociation. Lesser electronegativity means electrons are less attached to the nucleus and freer to go bond with other molecules (I              \u2022H; Cl      \u2022H; F  \u2022H. Look how further away they are), and greater atomic number means the electron cloud is bigger and therefore, the outer electrons -wich are responsible of chemical reactions- are less attracted to the nucleus.","human_ref_B":"I admire your excellent learning attitude.   > How can we tell apart strong acids and bases from weaker acids and bases by JUST knowing their name and properties we can derive from the periodic table, atomic structure, so on.  Strictly speaking, you really can't. You can have a vague approximations but there are multiple competing factors and there are tomes of Inorganic Chemistry discussing them. If you would like to study those in further, I would recommend Concise Inorganic Chemistry by JD Lee.  The way we can comment qualititatively is by comparing the stability of corresponding anions (Conjugate Bases). The more stable a Conjugate base is, the more acidic the corresponding acid is. For example, a nitrate ion is far more stable than acetate ion, so you can say that nitric acid is must stronger compared to acetic acid.  Note that this just translate the problem slightly. So, iodide ion is bigger and can hold extra charge more comfortably than the smallish Chloride ion. But Chlorine is more electronegative than Iodine, so it wants those extra electrons very strongly. So, which of thse two factors win? Turns out you have to remember them.   >eventually my teacher just said \"I don't know.\"   It isn't only your teacher who doesn't know, we, as in humanity collectively doesn't know. At some point of time, the scientist would love to be able to come up with the justification for pH numbers from atomic structure but we simply haven't cracked the code yet.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":45436.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"toyobm","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Why does Hydrochloric Acid dissociates more than Sulfuric Acid, or more than most other acids for that matter? This question comes from one I asked my chemistry teacher: how can we tell apart strong acids and bases  from weaker acids and bases by JUST knowing their name (ie KOH, H3PO4, etc) and properties we can derive from the periodic table, atomic structure, so on. My teacher's answer kept coming down \"strong acids and bases dissociates more than weak acids and bases\" and I kept asking \"Why? Why does \\[random acid\\] dissociate more than \\[weaker random acid\\]? What properties do they differ that allows one acid to be stronger than the other?\" . . . and eventually my teacher just said \"I don't know.\" Needless to say I'm unsatisfied, any help please?","c_root_id_A":"i28m05y","c_root_id_B":"i287pni","created_at_utc_A":1648329654,"created_at_utc_B":1648323236,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"In the case of HCl, the electro negativity of the chlorine is higher than the sulfuric acid (actually the sulfuric acid\u2019s conjugate base). This electro negativity pulls electron density away from the bond with hydrogen, making the hydrogen in the HCl more labile (labile is fancy talk for \u201cfalls off easy\u201d).","human_ref_B":"The lesser the protons, the lesser the electronegativity and the greater the atomic number, the strongest is the acid.  Lesser protons means quicker dissociation. Lesser electronegativity means electrons are less attached to the nucleus and freer to go bond with other molecules (I              \u2022H; Cl      \u2022H; F  \u2022H. Look how further away they are), and greater atomic number means the electron cloud is bigger and therefore, the outer electrons -wich are responsible of chemical reactions- are less attracted to the nucleus.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6418.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"toyobm","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Why does Hydrochloric Acid dissociates more than Sulfuric Acid, or more than most other acids for that matter? This question comes from one I asked my chemistry teacher: how can we tell apart strong acids and bases  from weaker acids and bases by JUST knowing their name (ie KOH, H3PO4, etc) and properties we can derive from the periodic table, atomic structure, so on. My teacher's answer kept coming down \"strong acids and bases dissociates more than weak acids and bases\" and I kept asking \"Why? Why does \\[random acid\\] dissociate more than \\[weaker random acid\\]? What properties do they differ that allows one acid to be stronger than the other?\" . . . and eventually my teacher just said \"I don't know.\" Needless to say I'm unsatisfied, any help please?","c_root_id_A":"i29sgjc","c_root_id_B":"i287pni","created_at_utc_A":1648350453,"created_at_utc_B":1648323236,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"As a rule of thumb, explained with non technical words, if an acid has more than one acid protons:   \\-The first one dissociates easily for strong acids. There is a chemical equilibrium with a very high constant of dissociation (K). For example, H in HCl.  \\-The second one dissociates easily for strong acids but not as easy as first one. For example: First proton of H2SO4 dissociates very easily and second easily. (K1>K2)     \\-The third one dissociation is difficult. The third proton of H3PO4 can barely be considered as an acid proton. (K1>>K2>>>>K3)     Giving random values, the strenght of HCl is 1, the strenght of H2SO4 is 1.90 (not 2), and the strenght of H3PO4 is 2.1 (not 3).","human_ref_B":"The lesser the protons, the lesser the electronegativity and the greater the atomic number, the strongest is the acid.  Lesser protons means quicker dissociation. Lesser electronegativity means electrons are less attached to the nucleus and freer to go bond with other molecules (I              \u2022H; Cl      \u2022H; F  \u2022H. Look how further away they are), and greater atomic number means the electron cloud is bigger and therefore, the outer electrons -wich are responsible of chemical reactions- are less attracted to the nucleus.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":27217.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"y1rmzh","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Are the mouths of humans more resistant to thermal burns than other animals? I thought of this while telling my dog she wouldn\u2019t even know what to do with a piece of molten hot potato that she was begging for.  I remember reading before that the advent of cooking was an inflection point in our evolution, and that we had evolved some traits (e.g. smaller teeth and jaws) likely in response to the change in diet once our food started to come cooked. It got me thinking: if cooked food placed enough evolutionary pressure for \u201ccost-saving\u201d traits like our less beefy chewing muscles, could it have been enough to push something like better responses to thermal burns in order to minimize losing access to food. Surely the risk of being unable to eat is enough of a driver for some change, and the burning risk that comes from a piece of meat fresh out of the fire would be a new environmental aspect that we hadn\u2019t had to deal with before. If enough time has passed that we\u2019ve since been able to evolve other known traits, it seems possible that an improved healing mechanism could also be present compared to other species.","c_root_id_A":"irzw7nx","c_root_id_B":"is0b4mn","created_at_utc_A":1665561983,"created_at_utc_B":1665574127,"score_A":235,"score_B":332,"human_ref_A":"The problem with your theory that I see is that there isn't any reason for us to eat the food when it's nuclear hot. Our environment is fairly cool compared to the limit we experience burns, and normal thermal transfer will bring food to an edible temperature relatively quickly. As others have said it's worthwhile for mouths in general to be able to take some punishment so that cuts and similar injuries heal quick, but I don't see that as an adaptation to heat specifically so much as something necessary for predatory\/omnivorous creatures who will occasionally put sharp things in our mouth like bone and nuts.","human_ref_B":"We are, to a certain degree, adapted to scorched food and a smokey fire. Antrhopologist Richard Wrangham describes in his *Catching Fire* how humans seem to be able to handle a lot of smoke, and also how burned compounds like acrylamide don't cause cancer in humans in the same way as it does in rats. We have been burning our food for hundreds of thousands of years, and are well adapted to that.      It wouldn't shock me to find that our mouths are better suited for handling burns, but I haven't seen any data on this.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12144.0,"score_ratio":1.4127659574}
{"post_id":"rnq432","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why does heterochromia seem to be so common in house cats, when compared to other kinds of pet animals?","c_root_id_A":"hptupqh","c_root_id_B":"hptr971","created_at_utc_A":1640367384,"created_at_utc_B":1640365789,"score_A":392,"score_B":21,"human_ref_A":"Animals are more likely to be born with heterochromia if they have the gene for white fur. Cats just happen to be more likely to possess that gene.    Heterochromia in cats starts when they are kittens. Kittens are born with blue eyes and their true eye colour only begins to show at around 7 to 12 weeks old when the amount of melanin in their eyes begins to change. When an adult\u00a0cat has blue eyes\u00a0it means there's an absence of melanin.  The gene that creates white fur stops the melanin from being able to reach one of the eyes during the kitten\u2019s development. In cats who have heterochromia, the melanin doesn\u2019t spread fully through one eye which leaves it partially blue.  As someone else pointed out, Huskies and Australian Shepherds also commonly have heterochromia. Why? Because those are two dog breeds that often have the gene for white fur.","human_ref_B":"It\u2019s very common in huskies and Australian shepherds","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1595.0,"score_ratio":18.6666666667}
{"post_id":"rq13v","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Can you really adapt to a poison by gradually taking more (see The Princess Bride), also, can your body develop a use for the poison, like as an immune response? Even cooler, has anyone ever tried this... IRL, of course?","c_root_id_A":"c47rk5m","c_root_id_B":"c47qj6y","created_at_utc_A":1333408582,"created_at_utc_B":1333403420,"score_A":357,"score_B":94,"human_ref_A":"Some folks have already pointed this out, but I want to reiterate this is only true of *some* poisons. A variety of dangerous substances (notably heavy metals)) do chronic, rather than acute, damage. The efficacy is entirely dependent on the poison's mechanism of action.","human_ref_B":"This is a known practice, and is even named after Mithridates VI of Pontus. I think the greatest danger would be that there are some poisons that build up in your system over time, so taking gradual doses would have the opposite effect.  mithridatism  Mithridates VI","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5162.0,"score_ratio":3.7978723404}
{"post_id":"rq13v","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Can you really adapt to a poison by gradually taking more (see The Princess Bride), also, can your body develop a use for the poison, like as an immune response? Even cooler, has anyone ever tried this... IRL, of course?","c_root_id_A":"c47rk5m","c_root_id_B":"c47q9bz","created_at_utc_A":1333408582,"created_at_utc_B":1333402127,"score_A":357,"score_B":31,"human_ref_A":"Some folks have already pointed this out, but I want to reiterate this is only true of *some* poisons. A variety of dangerous substances (notably heavy metals)) do chronic, rather than acute, damage. The efficacy is entirely dependent on the poison's mechanism of action.","human_ref_B":"Taking ever increasing doses of a poison to become immune from it is as incredibly old, Alexander the Great did it and yes, it does work for some poisons, but DO NOT TRY AT HOME since the line between 'training the immune system' and 'fatal' is often a very thin one.   As to uses - some animals have adapted to convert poisons found in their diet to venom for hunting etc.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6455.0,"score_ratio":11.5161290323}
{"post_id":"rq13v","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Can you really adapt to a poison by gradually taking more (see The Princess Bride), also, can your body develop a use for the poison, like as an immune response? Even cooler, has anyone ever tried this... IRL, of course?","c_root_id_A":"c47qj6y","c_root_id_B":"c47q9bz","created_at_utc_A":1333403420,"created_at_utc_B":1333402127,"score_A":94,"score_B":31,"human_ref_A":"This is a known practice, and is even named after Mithridates VI of Pontus. I think the greatest danger would be that there are some poisons that build up in your system over time, so taking gradual doses would have the opposite effect.  mithridatism  Mithridates VI","human_ref_B":"Taking ever increasing doses of a poison to become immune from it is as incredibly old, Alexander the Great did it and yes, it does work for some poisons, but DO NOT TRY AT HOME since the line between 'training the immune system' and 'fatal' is often a very thin one.   As to uses - some animals have adapted to convert poisons found in their diet to venom for hunting etc.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1293.0,"score_ratio":3.0322580645}
{"post_id":"rq13v","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Can you really adapt to a poison by gradually taking more (see The Princess Bride), also, can your body develop a use for the poison, like as an immune response? Even cooler, has anyone ever tried this... IRL, of course?","c_root_id_A":"c47x297","c_root_id_B":"c47u5nm","created_at_utc_A":1333440397,"created_at_utc_B":1333421109,"score_A":20,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Medical Laboratory Scientist here,  Awesome question!  Yes you can adapt to some poisons (alcohol is the perfect example), but I can't think of any poison or venom that would work like the one in the Princess Bride. There simply isn't a perfect combination of properties where a compound could be so lethal in such a short period of time *and* for someone to be able to grow a tolerance to it. A few things did come to mind though.  First of all, the poison was added to wine and it is highly likely that the acidity and ethanol would denature protein based poisons. This renders stuff like snake venom benign, but for arguments sake, let's ignore that.  The speed at which the villain dies would suggest that it was a neurotoxin. Many neurotoxins still take a few minutes\/hours to kill but for a full sized man to drop like that would take something special. Something like batrachotoxin that's found in the poison dart frogs. Unfortunately, there is no antidote to the toxin, and no known instances where someone\/something has attained a tolerance to it through an immune response. The compound is deadly even in tiny amounts and according to wikipedia it only takes 100 micrograms (the weight of two grains of salt) to kill a 150lb person. It binds to sodium ion channels, keeping them open permanently, which inhibits your ability to generate a nerve impulse. It's doubtful the victim will be conscious for long as everything just shuts down like someone turned the light off. The high affinity of the toxin to sodium channels means that it is unlikely that one will ever be able to develop an immunity to it.   As far as ingesting poisons go, you can pretty much rule out most snake venoms because they're only effective when in direct contact with the blood stream. Snake venoms are proteins that, for the most part, are not readily absorbed through the skin or mucosa and are denatured by stomach acids.  Now if I had to choose a poison we both had to take in which I would come out unscathed, I would go with radioactive Iodine or deadly doses of morphine.   The antidote to radioactive iodine is to take plenty of normal iodine but there is a slight chance you'll suffer from the radiation too. (slightly increased chance of thyroid cancer?) The poisoned individual would probably succumb to acute radiation poisoning  within a few days to a few weeks. If not, it's very likely they'll get thyroid cancer. So yes, it does take some time but it the victim will not be able to taste, smell, or see it at lethal doses.  With high doses of morphine the victim would get high, drift into a coma, then die within a few hours as their respiration becomes critically depressed. It's possible to grow a tolerance to morphine but the best course of action would be to take an injection of naloxone  right before the poisoning which would render you immune to the effects of morphine. The half life of naloxone is about one to one and a half hours so a booster shot after morphine ingestion might be necessary. Morphine is a pretty bitter substance so the victim might notice the poison. Alcohol is also a depressant and there is a synergistic effect.   Your body can only develop antibodies to relatively large structures like proteins, viruses and bacteria. When it comes to things like venom whether it's from a snake\/insect\/fish\/jellyfish, it is theoretically possible to develop a tolerance to some of them, but you'll have to constantly dose yourself with injections to keep the antibody titers up. Considering the venoms can be painful and cause tissue necrosis at the site of injection, it's just not a very good idea to try to create the antibodies with your own body. You might not even create enough antibodies to render yourself tolerant.","human_ref_B":"Here is what I was thinking you were initially talking about.  http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bill_Haast This guy injects himself with snake venom and claims to be immune to their bites.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":19288.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"rq13v","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Can you really adapt to a poison by gradually taking more (see The Princess Bride), also, can your body develop a use for the poison, like as an immune response? Even cooler, has anyone ever tried this... IRL, of course?","c_root_id_A":"c47x297","c_root_id_B":"c47sikp","created_at_utc_A":1333440397,"created_at_utc_B":1333413317,"score_A":20,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Medical Laboratory Scientist here,  Awesome question!  Yes you can adapt to some poisons (alcohol is the perfect example), but I can't think of any poison or venom that would work like the one in the Princess Bride. There simply isn't a perfect combination of properties where a compound could be so lethal in such a short period of time *and* for someone to be able to grow a tolerance to it. A few things did come to mind though.  First of all, the poison was added to wine and it is highly likely that the acidity and ethanol would denature protein based poisons. This renders stuff like snake venom benign, but for arguments sake, let's ignore that.  The speed at which the villain dies would suggest that it was a neurotoxin. Many neurotoxins still take a few minutes\/hours to kill but for a full sized man to drop like that would take something special. Something like batrachotoxin that's found in the poison dart frogs. Unfortunately, there is no antidote to the toxin, and no known instances where someone\/something has attained a tolerance to it through an immune response. The compound is deadly even in tiny amounts and according to wikipedia it only takes 100 micrograms (the weight of two grains of salt) to kill a 150lb person. It binds to sodium ion channels, keeping them open permanently, which inhibits your ability to generate a nerve impulse. It's doubtful the victim will be conscious for long as everything just shuts down like someone turned the light off. The high affinity of the toxin to sodium channels means that it is unlikely that one will ever be able to develop an immunity to it.   As far as ingesting poisons go, you can pretty much rule out most snake venoms because they're only effective when in direct contact with the blood stream. Snake venoms are proteins that, for the most part, are not readily absorbed through the skin or mucosa and are denatured by stomach acids.  Now if I had to choose a poison we both had to take in which I would come out unscathed, I would go with radioactive Iodine or deadly doses of morphine.   The antidote to radioactive iodine is to take plenty of normal iodine but there is a slight chance you'll suffer from the radiation too. (slightly increased chance of thyroid cancer?) The poisoned individual would probably succumb to acute radiation poisoning  within a few days to a few weeks. If not, it's very likely they'll get thyroid cancer. So yes, it does take some time but it the victim will not be able to taste, smell, or see it at lethal doses.  With high doses of morphine the victim would get high, drift into a coma, then die within a few hours as their respiration becomes critically depressed. It's possible to grow a tolerance to morphine but the best course of action would be to take an injection of naloxone  right before the poisoning which would render you immune to the effects of morphine. The half life of naloxone is about one to one and a half hours so a booster shot after morphine ingestion might be necessary. Morphine is a pretty bitter substance so the victim might notice the poison. Alcohol is also a depressant and there is a synergistic effect.   Your body can only develop antibodies to relatively large structures like proteins, viruses and bacteria. When it comes to things like venom whether it's from a snake\/insect\/fish\/jellyfish, it is theoretically possible to develop a tolerance to some of them, but you'll have to constantly dose yourself with injections to keep the antibody titers up. Considering the venoms can be painful and cause tissue necrosis at the site of injection, it's just not a very good idea to try to create the antibodies with your own body. You might not even create enough antibodies to render yourself tolerant.","human_ref_B":"Related question: There is a Sherlock Holmes story about a woman that was killing orphaned babies by feeding them very low doses of I think arsenic and then when they wanted to kill the baby, stop the dosage abruptly - I assume sending the baby into withdrawals.  In the story this was to avoid physical symptoms of a large dose of poison.  Is that kind of thing actually possible?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":27080.0,"score_ratio":4.0}
{"post_id":"rq13v","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Can you really adapt to a poison by gradually taking more (see The Princess Bride), also, can your body develop a use for the poison, like as an immune response? Even cooler, has anyone ever tried this... IRL, of course?","c_root_id_A":"c47sikp","c_root_id_B":"c47u5nm","created_at_utc_A":1333413317,"created_at_utc_B":1333421109,"score_A":5,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Related question: There is a Sherlock Holmes story about a woman that was killing orphaned babies by feeding them very low doses of I think arsenic and then when they wanted to kill the baby, stop the dosage abruptly - I assume sending the baby into withdrawals.  In the story this was to avoid physical symptoms of a large dose of poison.  Is that kind of thing actually possible?","human_ref_B":"Here is what I was thinking you were initially talking about.  http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bill_Haast This guy injects himself with snake venom and claims to be immune to their bites.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7792.0,"score_ratio":1.6}
{"post_id":"blnc7w","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Is the steam emitted from a nuclear power plant radioactive?","c_root_id_A":"empx4mh","c_root_id_B":"empy11c","created_at_utc_A":1557214977,"created_at_utc_B":1557215904,"score_A":2,"score_B":19,"human_ref_A":"No it's different water cycles. You have the radioactive water inside the plant, that needs to be cooled, it's in a water to water cooling aggregate that is separated from the radioactive part, so there's no radioactive water in the outside cooling and the steam","human_ref_B":"It's actually isolated from the reactor.      primary loop xfers heat via water from reactor to Steam Generators and back to the reactor. This water is around 450 - 500f , but doesn't flash to steam as it's at a very high pressure. In the steam generator it passes through small tubes where it transfers this heat to the secondary loop..    secondary loop is where a completely separate system where water pass through the steam generator converting to steam,to the turbines where it spins the turbines to create electricity (or other mechanical energy), out of the turbines into a condenser (basically a steam generator in reverse) and back to steam generator.   3rd loops is the cooling loop to the condenser, water from cooling towers to the condenser and back to the cooling towers and back to the condenser.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":927.0,"score_ratio":9.5}
{"post_id":"blnc7w","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Is the steam emitted from a nuclear power plant radioactive?","c_root_id_A":"emqcwjd","c_root_id_B":"empx4mh","created_at_utc_A":1557230804,"created_at_utc_B":1557214977,"score_A":8,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"To reiterate what others have written \u2014 the cooling loop is isolated from the parts of the reactor that have radioactive particles in them. So it isn't radioactive. In this diagram of a Pressurized Water Reactor, the cooling loop is at the lower right. You can see that in a PWR the radioactive water is kept entirely inside the containment dome. In a Boiling Water Reactor, the radioactive water leaves the dome and moves through the turbines, but again the cooling loop is isolated from it. It is perhaps worth emphasizing (because people often are confused about this), the issue with the radioactivity in the water is not that it is exposed to radioactivity so much as it contains radioactive particles (fission products), which is to say, little bits of used reactor fuel that are themselves undergoing radioactive decay. So these \"loops\" exchange heat without exchanging the actual water itself, so the radioactive fuel bits stay only in the closed loops and don't leave the system.","human_ref_B":"No it's different water cycles. You have the radioactive water inside the plant, that needs to be cooled, it's in a water to water cooling aggregate that is separated from the radioactive part, so there's no radioactive water in the outside cooling and the steam","labels":1,"seconds_difference":15827.0,"score_ratio":4.0}
{"post_id":"1gdo2b","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"I just learned about foreign accent syndrome, when brain damage makes it sound like you have a foreign accent. Do those who suffer from it actually speak with an accent from one they know or is it just the new speech patterns that come with the syndrome making it sound similar to an existing accent?","c_root_id_A":"caje300","c_root_id_B":"caje599","created_at_utc_A":1371303220,"created_at_utc_B":1371303560,"score_A":5,"score_B":25,"human_ref_A":"No, it's a change in the way they produce speech which just seems to sound (to some speakers) like another specific accent. The man who gained an Irish accent after a stroke would not have sounded Irish to an Irish person.","human_ref_B":"I'll answer this with the caveat that this is a very rare condition (<20 cases worldwide to date) and with an etiology that is not perfectly understood.    The basic idea is that after a stroke regions of the brain are damaged that result in a changed prosody.  Most of the time, the change in speech pattern becomes close to but does not perfectly correspond with another accent (not necessarily one known to the patient).  The current thinking is that observers hear this atypical speech and attribute it to an accent that they are familiar with, even if there are inconsistencies.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":340.0,"score_ratio":5.0}
{"post_id":"uenpo7","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If the JWST tried to take a picture of Earth and had been properly calibrated\/designed to do so, how magnified would the picture be? Could it take a picture of my house? Of the ants on the ground?  This is probably a stupid question.","c_root_id_A":"i6qmb2f","c_root_id_B":"i6q2t4s","created_at_utc_A":1651281753,"created_at_utc_B":1651272448,"score_A":28,"score_B":24,"human_ref_A":"Telescopes have *nothing* to do with magnification. They mostly gather more *light*. If I were to \u201cmagnify\u201d something one billion light years away, it would be pointless without gathering *more light*. Magnification is essentially the same as if you took an image and stretched it out in photoshop. Without enough light then the object you are imaging will not be visible, no matter how large it is.  As a side note, one can gather more light by basically making the telescope have a larger radius.  Disclaimer: telescopes do some magnification but that\u2019s not their primary focus pun intended","human_ref_B":"Its mirror is 6.5 meters, and it has an angular resolution of 0.1 arcseconds. With just a very quick-n-dirty calculation (which might be wrong), I make that a resolution of around 726 meters at the distance it is from Earth (1.5 million km).","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9305.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"uenpo7","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If the JWST tried to take a picture of Earth and had been properly calibrated\/designed to do so, how magnified would the picture be? Could it take a picture of my house? Of the ants on the ground?  This is probably a stupid question.","c_root_id_A":"i6pa1ed","c_root_id_B":"i6qmb2f","created_at_utc_A":1651259561,"created_at_utc_B":1651281753,"score_A":14,"score_B":28,"human_ref_A":"Maybe? It could probably make out a house sized splotch if it was a cold cloudless night after a hot day.  You'd of course have to use the earth as reference for size to make an estimation on of it's the right sized splotch in the right location in the sea of splotches... This is a very specialized piece of equipment here designed to make some very specialized observations.  Ants are almost certainly a no, at least not ones living for long.  They would probably have to be a few hundred \u00b0c warmer than their surrounding environment.   It's sort of like asking how big a hole a fighter jet could dig with just it's engine exhaust.  Like, it can do it with its crazy raw power, but it won't be terribly impressive since that's not the job it's made for.","human_ref_B":"Telescopes have *nothing* to do with magnification. They mostly gather more *light*. If I were to \u201cmagnify\u201d something one billion light years away, it would be pointless without gathering *more light*. Magnification is essentially the same as if you took an image and stretched it out in photoshop. Without enough light then the object you are imaging will not be visible, no matter how large it is.  As a side note, one can gather more light by basically making the telescope have a larger radius.  Disclaimer: telescopes do some magnification but that\u2019s not their primary focus pun intended","labels":0,"seconds_difference":22192.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"uenpo7","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If the JWST tried to take a picture of Earth and had been properly calibrated\/designed to do so, how magnified would the picture be? Could it take a picture of my house? Of the ants on the ground?  This is probably a stupid question.","c_root_id_A":"i6q2t4s","c_root_id_B":"i6pa1ed","created_at_utc_A":1651272448,"created_at_utc_B":1651259561,"score_A":24,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"Its mirror is 6.5 meters, and it has an angular resolution of 0.1 arcseconds. With just a very quick-n-dirty calculation (which might be wrong), I make that a resolution of around 726 meters at the distance it is from Earth (1.5 million km).","human_ref_B":"Maybe? It could probably make out a house sized splotch if it was a cold cloudless night after a hot day.  You'd of course have to use the earth as reference for size to make an estimation on of it's the right sized splotch in the right location in the sea of splotches... This is a very specialized piece of equipment here designed to make some very specialized observations.  Ants are almost certainly a no, at least not ones living for long.  They would probably have to be a few hundred \u00b0c warmer than their surrounding environment.   It's sort of like asking how big a hole a fighter jet could dig with just it's engine exhaust.  Like, it can do it with its crazy raw power, but it won't be terribly impressive since that's not the job it's made for.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":12887.0,"score_ratio":1.7142857143}
{"post_id":"uenpo7","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If the JWST tried to take a picture of Earth and had been properly calibrated\/designed to do so, how magnified would the picture be? Could it take a picture of my house? Of the ants on the ground?  This is probably a stupid question.","c_root_id_A":"i6rfvtw","c_root_id_B":"i6pa1ed","created_at_utc_A":1651299016,"created_at_utc_B":1651259561,"score_A":20,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"I can't really answer this question, but I want to say it is a very common misconception that telescopes need a lot of magnification. The power of a telescope is mostly in making faint objects visible, not just magnifying them.  Just because objects in the sky are far away it doesn't mean that they necessarily are small. For example the Andromeda galaxy is millions of light years away and yet it appears three times bigger than the full moon in the sky. You don't need more than 10x binoculars to get a good view of it. With a magnification of 30x you will fill your whole field of view with the galaxy. And it's not just Andromeda, many nebulae and galaxies are not hard to see because they are small, but because they are faint.   JWST has a huge mirror for light gathering. It collects and detects photons of very faint objects.   Having said that, of course even the closest exoplanets would be too tiny to resolve at even the highest magnification any telescope can provide. What we hope JWST can do is see photons coming from stars that passed through an exoplanet's atmosphere and tell us something about the atmosphere's composition.","human_ref_B":"Maybe? It could probably make out a house sized splotch if it was a cold cloudless night after a hot day.  You'd of course have to use the earth as reference for size to make an estimation on of it's the right sized splotch in the right location in the sea of splotches... This is a very specialized piece of equipment here designed to make some very specialized observations.  Ants are almost certainly a no, at least not ones living for long.  They would probably have to be a few hundred \u00b0c warmer than their surrounding environment.   It's sort of like asking how big a hole a fighter jet could dig with just it's engine exhaust.  Like, it can do it with its crazy raw power, but it won't be terribly impressive since that's not the job it's made for.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":39455.0,"score_ratio":1.4285714286}
{"post_id":"oxouav","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why are the largest black holes we know of so far away from us? The YouTube channel Kurzgesagt recently uploaded a video on some of the largest known black holes, and I noticed that most of the larger ones they discuss seem to also be the furthest away. OJ 287 and TON 618 are both in the billions of light-years away from us.   As we look into the distant universe, we are also looking back in time, due to the time it takes the light to travel to us from there. Therefore, we are seeing these ultramassive black holes as they were billions of years ago. But black holes, as far as we understand them, tend to only grow over time. Shouldn't we therefore expect to see smaller black holes when we look back in time, and larger black holes closer to the present, nearer to us?","c_root_id_A":"h7nz7h8","c_root_id_B":"h7o5ely","created_at_utc_A":1628076725,"created_at_utc_B":1628080608,"score_A":77,"score_B":243,"human_ref_A":"\u201cBut black holes, as far as we understand them, tend to only grow over time.\u201d  I\u2019m kind of splitting hairs here due to how slow it is, but in case you didn\u2019t know, if no mass is introduced to a black hole, the black hole actually shrinks. Due to Hawking radiation, black holes evaporate very slowly.","human_ref_B":"don't forget that volume goes up with the cube of the distance.  In a universe with statistically uniformly distributed black holes there are 270 times the blackholes in the 9-10bn light year range as there are in the 0-1bn light year range","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3883.0,"score_ratio":3.1558441558}
{"post_id":"oxouav","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why are the largest black holes we know of so far away from us? The YouTube channel Kurzgesagt recently uploaded a video on some of the largest known black holes, and I noticed that most of the larger ones they discuss seem to also be the furthest away. OJ 287 and TON 618 are both in the billions of light-years away from us.   As we look into the distant universe, we are also looking back in time, due to the time it takes the light to travel to us from there. Therefore, we are seeing these ultramassive black holes as they were billions of years ago. But black holes, as far as we understand them, tend to only grow over time. Shouldn't we therefore expect to see smaller black holes when we look back in time, and larger black holes closer to the present, nearer to us?","c_root_id_A":"h7ozojg","c_root_id_B":"h7ok6gx","created_at_utc_A":1628094249,"created_at_utc_B":1628087763,"score_A":52,"score_B":21,"human_ref_A":"This is a bias in perception. Nothing in the universe is really placed in relation to us. We are about as insignificant as it gets when you think about it. So what you are witnessing is 2 effects of observation.  1) it is harder to find small things when they are further away. So in the 'observable universe' it would make sense that the items we have observed further from us are likely to be the larger objects, while we remain blind to smaller ones.  2) the volume of space extends as a sphere the further we look out, so if you look 1 light year out, and then 2 light years out, the volume has not increased linearly but at a rate of x^3. So yeah, you are going to start finding a lot more anything when there is more space to find it in.  I'm sure you're likely to find a similar pattern in not just black holes, but any potentially large bodies, Stars for example.  We are constantly having to reassess the question of how matter\/not matter is distributed in the universe, largely in part to how difficult it is to do so from a single point looking outward.","human_ref_B":"It's survivorship-bias in action.  Galaxies with incredibly large black holes are more \"turbulent\", and therefore less likely to allow the long-term stability needed for life to emerge and evolve.  We exist in a region of the universe without enormous black holes because that's the sort of region where advanced life was most likely to have  a chance to come about.    It's probably not *impossible* for life to emerge and evolve near an ultramassive black hole, it's just far less likely.  Statistically, a \"boring\" galaxy like the milky way is the most likely place for us to be.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6486.0,"score_ratio":2.4761904762}
{"post_id":"oxouav","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why are the largest black holes we know of so far away from us? The YouTube channel Kurzgesagt recently uploaded a video on some of the largest known black holes, and I noticed that most of the larger ones they discuss seem to also be the furthest away. OJ 287 and TON 618 are both in the billions of light-years away from us.   As we look into the distant universe, we are also looking back in time, due to the time it takes the light to travel to us from there. Therefore, we are seeing these ultramassive black holes as they were billions of years ago. But black holes, as far as we understand them, tend to only grow over time. Shouldn't we therefore expect to see smaller black holes when we look back in time, and larger black holes closer to the present, nearer to us?","c_root_id_A":"h7omfos","c_root_id_B":"h7ozojg","created_at_utc_A":1628088751,"created_at_utc_B":1628094249,"score_A":19,"score_B":52,"human_ref_A":"Something I haven't seen in any of the other replies is that there are at least two different populations of black holes. There are the normal \"stellar mass\" black holes that are formed at the end of a massive star's lifetime. The other group arr \"supermassive black holes\" that are millions to billions of times more massive than stellar mass black holes. We don't quite understand how these form, but theories range from black holes mergers, to direct collapse black holes. What further adds to the puzzle is that we have observed some supermassive black holes very soon after the Big Bang, when there hasn't really been enough time to allow for the repeated mergers of smaller back holes. So to answer your question, we don't yet know how we have such supermassive black holes in the early days of the universe. Source Physics PhD.","human_ref_B":"This is a bias in perception. Nothing in the universe is really placed in relation to us. We are about as insignificant as it gets when you think about it. So what you are witnessing is 2 effects of observation.  1) it is harder to find small things when they are further away. So in the 'observable universe' it would make sense that the items we have observed further from us are likely to be the larger objects, while we remain blind to smaller ones.  2) the volume of space extends as a sphere the further we look out, so if you look 1 light year out, and then 2 light years out, the volume has not increased linearly but at a rate of x^3. So yeah, you are going to start finding a lot more anything when there is more space to find it in.  I'm sure you're likely to find a similar pattern in not just black holes, but any potentially large bodies, Stars for example.  We are constantly having to reassess the question of how matter\/not matter is distributed in the universe, largely in part to how difficult it is to do so from a single point looking outward.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5498.0,"score_ratio":2.7368421053}
{"post_id":"oxouav","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why are the largest black holes we know of so far away from us? The YouTube channel Kurzgesagt recently uploaded a video on some of the largest known black holes, and I noticed that most of the larger ones they discuss seem to also be the furthest away. OJ 287 and TON 618 are both in the billions of light-years away from us.   As we look into the distant universe, we are also looking back in time, due to the time it takes the light to travel to us from there. Therefore, we are seeing these ultramassive black holes as they were billions of years ago. But black holes, as far as we understand them, tend to only grow over time. Shouldn't we therefore expect to see smaller black holes when we look back in time, and larger black holes closer to the present, nearer to us?","c_root_id_A":"h7pnb2b","c_root_id_B":"h7pru54","created_at_utc_A":1628103963,"created_at_utc_B":1628105882,"score_A":8,"score_B":17,"human_ref_A":"This is explained in the video. In the early universe, the density of matter was higher, so it was possible for more mass to accumulate in one place, which is what is required for extremely large black holes. The super and ultra massive black holes can't be created anymore.","human_ref_B":"Rephrasing the other correct answers more simply:  Most of the universe is far away from us.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1919.0,"score_ratio":2.125}
{"post_id":"oxouav","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why are the largest black holes we know of so far away from us? The YouTube channel Kurzgesagt recently uploaded a video on some of the largest known black holes, and I noticed that most of the larger ones they discuss seem to also be the furthest away. OJ 287 and TON 618 are both in the billions of light-years away from us.   As we look into the distant universe, we are also looking back in time, due to the time it takes the light to travel to us from there. Therefore, we are seeing these ultramassive black holes as they were billions of years ago. But black holes, as far as we understand them, tend to only grow over time. Shouldn't we therefore expect to see smaller black holes when we look back in time, and larger black holes closer to the present, nearer to us?","c_root_id_A":"h7pru54","c_root_id_B":"h7p3rqk","created_at_utc_A":1628105882,"created_at_utc_B":1628095910,"score_A":17,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Rephrasing the other correct answers more simply:  Most of the universe is far away from us.","human_ref_B":"I believe in the video it mentions all three types of black holes (Stellar, Super Massive, and Ultra Massive).  Pretty sure I recall speculation regarding the Ultra Massive black holes being formed at the beginning of the big bang (hence why they would likely be so far away as well).","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9972.0,"score_ratio":3.4}
{"post_id":"oxouav","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why are the largest black holes we know of so far away from us? The YouTube channel Kurzgesagt recently uploaded a video on some of the largest known black holes, and I noticed that most of the larger ones they discuss seem to also be the furthest away. OJ 287 and TON 618 are both in the billions of light-years away from us.   As we look into the distant universe, we are also looking back in time, due to the time it takes the light to travel to us from there. Therefore, we are seeing these ultramassive black holes as they were billions of years ago. But black holes, as far as we understand them, tend to only grow over time. Shouldn't we therefore expect to see smaller black holes when we look back in time, and larger black holes closer to the present, nearer to us?","c_root_id_A":"h7pnb2b","c_root_id_B":"h7p3rqk","created_at_utc_A":1628103963,"created_at_utc_B":1628095910,"score_A":8,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"This is explained in the video. In the early universe, the density of matter was higher, so it was possible for more mass to accumulate in one place, which is what is required for extremely large black holes. The super and ultra massive black holes can't be created anymore.","human_ref_B":"I believe in the video it mentions all three types of black holes (Stellar, Super Massive, and Ultra Massive).  Pretty sure I recall speculation regarding the Ultra Massive black holes being formed at the beginning of the big bang (hence why they would likely be so far away as well).","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8053.0,"score_ratio":1.6}
{"post_id":"w4t5h","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Do ants feel fear or understand danger? For instance, if I put a delicious piece of cupcake on the floor, and surrounded it with dead ants, would they still go for it?","c_root_id_A":"c5abvg0","c_root_id_B":"c5aarhy","created_at_utc_A":1341604694,"created_at_utc_B":1341600505,"score_A":7,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Here's a great TED talk on ants, lots about their communication and organization. You can skip to 9:30 if you're just interested in communication.","human_ref_B":"Here is a NOVA documentary on Ants. It's quite interesting.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4189.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"s7ny5j","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"Are there any studies suggesting whether long-COVID is more likely to be a life-long condition or a transient one?","c_root_id_A":"htbq227","c_root_id_B":"htb2mbl","created_at_utc_A":1642604901,"created_at_utc_B":1642593195,"score_A":2350,"score_B":448,"human_ref_A":"If confirmed, recent findings from Pretorius et Al (2021) seem promising (last December, just Google Long covid microclots).  In short: they've found microclots in the blood of every long covid affected patients. These microclots go unnoticed by standard blood tests. They are probably the cause of lack of oxygen to some tissue and general inflammation. Body can't dissolve them since they seem resistant to fibrinolisis.  They treated these people with antiplatlets and anticoagulants for 1-2 months and all of them declared they feel better. The only symptom left in some of them was a little fatigue.   Having said this I'm afraid Long Covid diagnosis comprehend several different things poorly understood, comprising cases with organ damage. Some people could have developed persisting issues, especially if having had a severe acute covid phase of having been hospitalised.   Edit: long but interesting interview https:\/\/youtu.be\/C8tzTmVwEpM  And the paper I'm talking about: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/357428572_Combined_triple_treatment_of_fibrin_amyloid_microclots_and_platelet_pathology_in_individuals_with_Long_COVID_Post-Acute_Sequelae_of_COVID-19_PASC_can_resolve_their_persistent_symptoms  The previous one went more into the specific of blood analysis comparison between control, covid acute, long covid and diabetes patients (and in truth I lack the serious medical background to understand its full implications and details): https:\/\/cardiab.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s12933-021-01359-7","human_ref_B":"Well there can\u2019t be any lifelong studies because Covid just started.   Some people seem to be experiencing potentially lifelong medical conditions from it (eg organ damage, heart issues), for others it seems to be transient. It\u2019s going to be a while before it the lifelong effects are fully researched.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11706.0,"score_ratio":5.2455357143}
{"post_id":"s7ny5j","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"Are there any studies suggesting whether long-COVID is more likely to be a life-long condition or a transient one?","c_root_id_A":"htckp70","c_root_id_B":"htcuvtw","created_at_utc_A":1642616598,"created_at_utc_B":1642620346,"score_A":34,"score_B":61,"human_ref_A":"The bothersome part of the search for an answer to this question is that it has barely been investigated for the past few decades.  We've known that a tiny but palpable cohort of people recovering from disease (with particular characteristics seen in post-infection by respiratory viruses) have presented with similar symptoms before.  But they have, at least in my opinion, been given far, far too little attention.  So it goes also with \"long-lyme\".  The notable thing about long-covid, hopefully, isn't that it's a new phenomenon, but that it has finally awakened us to pay attention to the people who have been suffering from it all these years.","human_ref_B":"The science behind long Covid is unclear after two years and it\u2019s because most of the papers reflect the worst of science in that they   -\thave varying or extremely broad definitions of the disease -\tcannot determine if the symptoms are due to Covid or another factor  -\tdo not have control groups of confirmed uninfected individuals via serology testing -\tdo not have active groups with confirmed PCR\/antigen\/serology testing -\tonly look at biomarkers that have not shown to be clinically relevant -\tcannot account for psychosomatic confounders (like if you think a disease causes x, you\u2019re more likely to think you have x if you get the disease even though you don\u2019t have x) -\trely on internet surveys from respondents who are more likely to respond if they think they experience symptoms -\tdo not verify the existence of symptoms from respondents -\tdo not differentiate among severity of symptoms  Overall there is weak evidence to suggest that Covid causes issue for most people past something like 3-6 months out of the disease.  This is different from the disease *correlating* with some issues. As the study quality for long Covid increases, the prevalence of symptoms go down (https:\/\/www.journalofinfection.com\/article\/S0163-4453(21)00555-7\/fulltext#seccesectitle0011 ). It\u2019s still important to try not to get sick though because getting Covid sucks, but given that 1 in 4 infections are unreported (per CDC), there are something like 300 million Americans right now that have been infected so anything substantial should be evident.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3748.0,"score_ratio":1.7941176471}
{"post_id":"s7ny5j","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"Are there any studies suggesting whether long-COVID is more likely to be a life-long condition or a transient one?","c_root_id_A":"htcuvtw","c_root_id_B":"htcievf","created_at_utc_A":1642620346,"created_at_utc_B":1642615749,"score_A":61,"score_B":34,"human_ref_A":"The science behind long Covid is unclear after two years and it\u2019s because most of the papers reflect the worst of science in that they   -\thave varying or extremely broad definitions of the disease -\tcannot determine if the symptoms are due to Covid or another factor  -\tdo not have control groups of confirmed uninfected individuals via serology testing -\tdo not have active groups with confirmed PCR\/antigen\/serology testing -\tonly look at biomarkers that have not shown to be clinically relevant -\tcannot account for psychosomatic confounders (like if you think a disease causes x, you\u2019re more likely to think you have x if you get the disease even though you don\u2019t have x) -\trely on internet surveys from respondents who are more likely to respond if they think they experience symptoms -\tdo not verify the existence of symptoms from respondents -\tdo not differentiate among severity of symptoms  Overall there is weak evidence to suggest that Covid causes issue for most people past something like 3-6 months out of the disease.  This is different from the disease *correlating* with some issues. As the study quality for long Covid increases, the prevalence of symptoms go down (https:\/\/www.journalofinfection.com\/article\/S0163-4453(21)00555-7\/fulltext#seccesectitle0011 ). It\u2019s still important to try not to get sick though because getting Covid sucks, but given that 1 in 4 infections are unreported (per CDC), there are something like 300 million Americans right now that have been infected so anything substantial should be evident.","human_ref_B":"Short term outcome isn't positive, 12 month study found severe covid more than doubled chances of dying. It's counterintuitive that the increased risk of dying was greater for patients under 65, and only 20% of the severe Covid-19 patients who died did so because of typical Covid complications, such as respiratory failure, implying the impacts could be much broader than the initial medical issues.  https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmed.2021.778434\/full","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4597.0,"score_ratio":1.7941176471}
{"post_id":"9wtlfd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If there is an infinite amount of natural numbers, and one is chosen at random, mathematically the probability of choosing that number should be 0. Why can the number still be chosen? It seems fairly reasonable that the probability cannot be 0, as if you were to sum up all the probabilities, you have to get one as a result, while the sum 0 + 0 + 0 + ... + 0 + 0 (with an infinite amount of zeros) can never have any other value than 0.  But, the probability of choosing a specific number should be 1\/(amount of natural numbers), which is 0, since the amount of natural numbers is infinite. Is it something about how the limit of 1\/x for x -> infinity works, or am I missing something else entirely?","c_root_id_A":"e9nz4zf","c_root_id_B":"e9o00yw","created_at_utc_A":1542174177,"created_at_utc_B":1542175376,"score_A":14,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Your logic is flawed from the beginning, and it's relatively easy to see where you've contradicted yourself.    You said \"If the probability is always zero, why can a number still be chosen?\". But from merely making the statement \"choose a random natural number\", the probability that we've *chosen* a value is always 1.     The issue here is that you can't treat uniform distributions like this. uniform distributions have a finite area, equal to 1. You're taking a finite area, and trying to stretch it to be infinitely wide. It just can't be done. Uniform distributions, by definition, must be finitely bounded.","human_ref_B":"The answer is actually simpler than you might expect. It truly is not possible to select a random number from an infinite set. Whenever a person \"randomly\" thinks of a number, they actually follow a deterministic process which necessarily must involve reducing the infinite set down to a finite set. Even a computer is restricted in the \"random\" numbers it generates based on hardware constraints. Furthermore, most instances of what people perceive to be \"random\" are actually \"psuedo-random\". You can psuedo-randomly select numbers from a finite set easily. That's what people are actually doing when they \"pick a random number\".","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1199.0,"score_ratio":1.0714285714}
{"post_id":"9wtlfd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If there is an infinite amount of natural numbers, and one is chosen at random, mathematically the probability of choosing that number should be 0. Why can the number still be chosen? It seems fairly reasonable that the probability cannot be 0, as if you were to sum up all the probabilities, you have to get one as a result, while the sum 0 + 0 + 0 + ... + 0 + 0 (with an infinite amount of zeros) can never have any other value than 0.  But, the probability of choosing a specific number should be 1\/(amount of natural numbers), which is 0, since the amount of natural numbers is infinite. Is it something about how the limit of 1\/x for x -> infinity works, or am I missing something else entirely?","c_root_id_A":"e9o00yw","c_root_id_B":"e9nh9jl","created_at_utc_A":1542175376,"created_at_utc_B":1542155976,"score_A":15,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"The answer is actually simpler than you might expect. It truly is not possible to select a random number from an infinite set. Whenever a person \"randomly\" thinks of a number, they actually follow a deterministic process which necessarily must involve reducing the infinite set down to a finite set. Even a computer is restricted in the \"random\" numbers it generates based on hardware constraints. Furthermore, most instances of what people perceive to be \"random\" are actually \"psuedo-random\". You can psuedo-randomly select numbers from a finite set easily. That's what people are actually doing when they \"pick a random number\".","human_ref_B":">  am I missing something else entirely?  Your premise (that you can randomly choose from the natural numbers with equal probability) is false.   You can't.   If you construct some sequence of distributions that in some sense converges toward what you seek, this seeming dilemma will be absent from each element of the sequence.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":19400.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"9wtlfd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If there is an infinite amount of natural numbers, and one is chosen at random, mathematically the probability of choosing that number should be 0. Why can the number still be chosen? It seems fairly reasonable that the probability cannot be 0, as if you were to sum up all the probabilities, you have to get one as a result, while the sum 0 + 0 + 0 + ... + 0 + 0 (with an infinite amount of zeros) can never have any other value than 0.  But, the probability of choosing a specific number should be 1\/(amount of natural numbers), which is 0, since the amount of natural numbers is infinite. Is it something about how the limit of 1\/x for x -> infinity works, or am I missing something else entirely?","c_root_id_A":"e9nz4zf","c_root_id_B":"e9nh9jl","created_at_utc_A":1542174177,"created_at_utc_B":1542155976,"score_A":14,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Your logic is flawed from the beginning, and it's relatively easy to see where you've contradicted yourself.    You said \"If the probability is always zero, why can a number still be chosen?\". But from merely making the statement \"choose a random natural number\", the probability that we've *chosen* a value is always 1.     The issue here is that you can't treat uniform distributions like this. uniform distributions have a finite area, equal to 1. You're taking a finite area, and trying to stretch it to be infinitely wide. It just can't be done. Uniform distributions, by definition, must be finitely bounded.","human_ref_B":">  am I missing something else entirely?  Your premise (that you can randomly choose from the natural numbers with equal probability) is false.   You can't.   If you construct some sequence of distributions that in some sense converges toward what you seek, this seeming dilemma will be absent from each element of the sequence.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":18201.0,"score_ratio":2.8}
{"post_id":"9wtlfd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If there is an infinite amount of natural numbers, and one is chosen at random, mathematically the probability of choosing that number should be 0. Why can the number still be chosen? It seems fairly reasonable that the probability cannot be 0, as if you were to sum up all the probabilities, you have to get one as a result, while the sum 0 + 0 + 0 + ... + 0 + 0 (with an infinite amount of zeros) can never have any other value than 0.  But, the probability of choosing a specific number should be 1\/(amount of natural numbers), which is 0, since the amount of natural numbers is infinite. Is it something about how the limit of 1\/x for x -> infinity works, or am I missing something else entirely?","c_root_id_A":"e9obc6f","c_root_id_B":"e9o5vbd","created_at_utc_A":1542196325,"created_at_utc_B":1542185206,"score_A":14,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"As others have mentioned, you cannot assign a uniform probability distribution to the natural numbers, but I didn't see any explanations involving the probability axioms, so I'm giving another quick explanation in case it's more clear to some people.  https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probability_axioms  The first axiom states that all probabilities must be non-negative real numbers.  Another axiom states that the probability of the entire sample space is equal to 1, i.e. that one of the events will actually happen. In our case, for example, we are assuming that a natural number will indeed be picked (as opposed to picking something outside the natural numbers, or picking no number at all).  The final axiom states that for any countable set of mutually exclusive events, the total probability of any one of those events happening is equal to the sum of their individual probabilities.  We can see that this prohibits a uniform (all the same value) probability distribution on the natural numbers. If the probability for picking each number is equal to 0, then the probability of our entire sample space is 0 - nothing can occur, contradicting our axiom that the probability of our entire sample space is equal to 1.   On the other hand, if the probability of picking each number has any positive value at all, then the sum of the individual probabilities for all numbers will be infinite. However, the probability of the union of all events can't be higher than 1, since the union of all the numbers is our entire sample space. Since the probability of the union of the events is 1, but the sum of the individual probabilities of the events is infinite, we are violating the third axiom I mentioned.  So to find a uniform distribution that satisfies the axioms, we'd need to find a non-negative real number that is not zero and not positive, which is not possible.","human_ref_B":"Except the probability that that number is chosen ISN\u2019T zero, it merely approaches it.  It\u2019s infinitesimally small, but still larger than zero, so there\u2019s still a chance that it can be chosen at all.  Just a very remote chance.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11119.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"9wtlfd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If there is an infinite amount of natural numbers, and one is chosen at random, mathematically the probability of choosing that number should be 0. Why can the number still be chosen? It seems fairly reasonable that the probability cannot be 0, as if you were to sum up all the probabilities, you have to get one as a result, while the sum 0 + 0 + 0 + ... + 0 + 0 (with an infinite amount of zeros) can never have any other value than 0.  But, the probability of choosing a specific number should be 1\/(amount of natural numbers), which is 0, since the amount of natural numbers is infinite. Is it something about how the limit of 1\/x for x -> infinity works, or am I missing something else entirely?","c_root_id_A":"e9nh9jl","c_root_id_B":"e9obc6f","created_at_utc_A":1542155976,"created_at_utc_B":1542196325,"score_A":5,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":">  am I missing something else entirely?  Your premise (that you can randomly choose from the natural numbers with equal probability) is false.   You can't.   If you construct some sequence of distributions that in some sense converges toward what you seek, this seeming dilemma will be absent from each element of the sequence.","human_ref_B":"As others have mentioned, you cannot assign a uniform probability distribution to the natural numbers, but I didn't see any explanations involving the probability axioms, so I'm giving another quick explanation in case it's more clear to some people.  https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probability_axioms  The first axiom states that all probabilities must be non-negative real numbers.  Another axiom states that the probability of the entire sample space is equal to 1, i.e. that one of the events will actually happen. In our case, for example, we are assuming that a natural number will indeed be picked (as opposed to picking something outside the natural numbers, or picking no number at all).  The final axiom states that for any countable set of mutually exclusive events, the total probability of any one of those events happening is equal to the sum of their individual probabilities.  We can see that this prohibits a uniform (all the same value) probability distribution on the natural numbers. If the probability for picking each number is equal to 0, then the probability of our entire sample space is 0 - nothing can occur, contradicting our axiom that the probability of our entire sample space is equal to 1.   On the other hand, if the probability of picking each number has any positive value at all, then the sum of the individual probabilities for all numbers will be infinite. However, the probability of the union of all events can't be higher than 1, since the union of all the numbers is our entire sample space. Since the probability of the union of the events is 1, but the sum of the individual probabilities of the events is infinite, we are violating the third axiom I mentioned.  So to find a uniform distribution that satisfies the axioms, we'd need to find a non-negative real number that is not zero and not positive, which is not possible.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":40349.0,"score_ratio":2.8}
{"post_id":"9wtlfd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If there is an infinite amount of natural numbers, and one is chosen at random, mathematically the probability of choosing that number should be 0. Why can the number still be chosen? It seems fairly reasonable that the probability cannot be 0, as if you were to sum up all the probabilities, you have to get one as a result, while the sum 0 + 0 + 0 + ... + 0 + 0 (with an infinite amount of zeros) can never have any other value than 0.  But, the probability of choosing a specific number should be 1\/(amount of natural numbers), which is 0, since the amount of natural numbers is infinite. Is it something about how the limit of 1\/x for x -> infinity works, or am I missing something else entirely?","c_root_id_A":"e9obc6f","c_root_id_B":"e9oahwu","created_at_utc_A":1542196325,"created_at_utc_B":1542194809,"score_A":14,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"As others have mentioned, you cannot assign a uniform probability distribution to the natural numbers, but I didn't see any explanations involving the probability axioms, so I'm giving another quick explanation in case it's more clear to some people.  https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probability_axioms  The first axiom states that all probabilities must be non-negative real numbers.  Another axiom states that the probability of the entire sample space is equal to 1, i.e. that one of the events will actually happen. In our case, for example, we are assuming that a natural number will indeed be picked (as opposed to picking something outside the natural numbers, or picking no number at all).  The final axiom states that for any countable set of mutually exclusive events, the total probability of any one of those events happening is equal to the sum of their individual probabilities.  We can see that this prohibits a uniform (all the same value) probability distribution on the natural numbers. If the probability for picking each number is equal to 0, then the probability of our entire sample space is 0 - nothing can occur, contradicting our axiom that the probability of our entire sample space is equal to 1.   On the other hand, if the probability of picking each number has any positive value at all, then the sum of the individual probabilities for all numbers will be infinite. However, the probability of the union of all events can't be higher than 1, since the union of all the numbers is our entire sample space. Since the probability of the union of the events is 1, but the sum of the individual probabilities of the events is infinite, we are violating the third axiom I mentioned.  So to find a uniform distribution that satisfies the axioms, we'd need to find a non-negative real number that is not zero and not positive, which is not possible.","human_ref_B":"The issue here is that standard probability is not \"weakly Laplacian\", which is technical for \"you can't build uniform distributions on every subset of your space\". This means we can't have fair lotteries on the natural numbers (sometimes called \"DeFinetti lotteries\"), unless we change the axioms and allow for infinitesimal values, which turns out to be a fruitful approach both epistemologically and mathematically. For more information, check the work of Wenmackers, Benci et al.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1516.0,"score_ratio":4.6666666667}
{"post_id":"9wtlfd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If there is an infinite amount of natural numbers, and one is chosen at random, mathematically the probability of choosing that number should be 0. Why can the number still be chosen? It seems fairly reasonable that the probability cannot be 0, as if you were to sum up all the probabilities, you have to get one as a result, while the sum 0 + 0 + 0 + ... + 0 + 0 (with an infinite amount of zeros) can never have any other value than 0.  But, the probability of choosing a specific number should be 1\/(amount of natural numbers), which is 0, since the amount of natural numbers is infinite. Is it something about how the limit of 1\/x for x -> infinity works, or am I missing something else entirely?","c_root_id_A":"e9obc6f","c_root_id_B":"e9o9udb","created_at_utc_A":1542196325,"created_at_utc_B":1542193532,"score_A":14,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"As others have mentioned, you cannot assign a uniform probability distribution to the natural numbers, but I didn't see any explanations involving the probability axioms, so I'm giving another quick explanation in case it's more clear to some people.  https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probability_axioms  The first axiom states that all probabilities must be non-negative real numbers.  Another axiom states that the probability of the entire sample space is equal to 1, i.e. that one of the events will actually happen. In our case, for example, we are assuming that a natural number will indeed be picked (as opposed to picking something outside the natural numbers, or picking no number at all).  The final axiom states that for any countable set of mutually exclusive events, the total probability of any one of those events happening is equal to the sum of their individual probabilities.  We can see that this prohibits a uniform (all the same value) probability distribution on the natural numbers. If the probability for picking each number is equal to 0, then the probability of our entire sample space is 0 - nothing can occur, contradicting our axiom that the probability of our entire sample space is equal to 1.   On the other hand, if the probability of picking each number has any positive value at all, then the sum of the individual probabilities for all numbers will be infinite. However, the probability of the union of all events can't be higher than 1, since the union of all the numbers is our entire sample space. Since the probability of the union of the events is 1, but the sum of the individual probabilities of the events is infinite, we are violating the third axiom I mentioned.  So to find a uniform distribution that satisfies the axioms, we'd need to find a non-negative real number that is not zero and not positive, which is not possible.","human_ref_B":"Just adding a thought on the \"picking process\".  You can choose a random natural number because you're truly picking it not *uniformly at random*, but using another procedure which might appear to you to be uniform, but it isn't (since such a distribution does not exist, as you just proved).  If a number is large enough, you cannot even *state* which number you chose since writing all the digits would take you too much time. Maybe longer than the residual lifetime of the universe. And still, there would be so many numbers greater than it!  So, it's natural to limit our choice process to manageable numbers, which constitute however a finite set.    And on finite sets, a probability can be defined.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2793.0,"score_ratio":7.0}
{"post_id":"9wtlfd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If there is an infinite amount of natural numbers, and one is chosen at random, mathematically the probability of choosing that number should be 0. Why can the number still be chosen? It seems fairly reasonable that the probability cannot be 0, as if you were to sum up all the probabilities, you have to get one as a result, while the sum 0 + 0 + 0 + ... + 0 + 0 (with an infinite amount of zeros) can never have any other value than 0.  But, the probability of choosing a specific number should be 1\/(amount of natural numbers), which is 0, since the amount of natural numbers is infinite. Is it something about how the limit of 1\/x for x -> infinity works, or am I missing something else entirely?","c_root_id_A":"e9o9ukd","c_root_id_B":"e9obc6f","created_at_utc_A":1542193544,"created_at_utc_B":1542196325,"score_A":2,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"It comes from the misconception that the probability of something being 0 necessarily means it is impossible. It is true that something impossible to happen has a 0 probability of happening, but not the inverse.  Think of it this way: when you try to figure out the probability of an event you first define the set of all possible outcomes, then define the subset of outcomes that are satisfactory for the statement \"the event has happened\", and then divide the power of the latter set by the power of the former set. It's all pretty evident, when the sets are finite, but stuff gets  unintuitive when one or both of them are infinite, where you have to compare different kinds of infinities.  Picture this: there are two dots in a square, and you randomly place a third one inside that square. What is the probability that those three resulting points form a triangle with a 90 degree corner? Although there are an infinite number of point placements (any point inside the square on the circumference with the line of those two first points being the diameter) that would match the requirement, the probability is still zero (because the power of a set represented by a line is infinitely smaller than the power of a set represented by the area of a surface).","human_ref_B":"As others have mentioned, you cannot assign a uniform probability distribution to the natural numbers, but I didn't see any explanations involving the probability axioms, so I'm giving another quick explanation in case it's more clear to some people.  https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probability_axioms  The first axiom states that all probabilities must be non-negative real numbers.  Another axiom states that the probability of the entire sample space is equal to 1, i.e. that one of the events will actually happen. In our case, for example, we are assuming that a natural number will indeed be picked (as opposed to picking something outside the natural numbers, or picking no number at all).  The final axiom states that for any countable set of mutually exclusive events, the total probability of any one of those events happening is equal to the sum of their individual probabilities.  We can see that this prohibits a uniform (all the same value) probability distribution on the natural numbers. If the probability for picking each number is equal to 0, then the probability of our entire sample space is 0 - nothing can occur, contradicting our axiom that the probability of our entire sample space is equal to 1.   On the other hand, if the probability of picking each number has any positive value at all, then the sum of the individual probabilities for all numbers will be infinite. However, the probability of the union of all events can't be higher than 1, since the union of all the numbers is our entire sample space. Since the probability of the union of the events is 1, but the sum of the individual probabilities of the events is infinite, we are violating the third axiom I mentioned.  So to find a uniform distribution that satisfies the axioms, we'd need to find a non-negative real number that is not zero and not positive, which is not possible.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2781.0,"score_ratio":7.0}
{"post_id":"9wtlfd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If there is an infinite amount of natural numbers, and one is chosen at random, mathematically the probability of choosing that number should be 0. Why can the number still be chosen? It seems fairly reasonable that the probability cannot be 0, as if you were to sum up all the probabilities, you have to get one as a result, while the sum 0 + 0 + 0 + ... + 0 + 0 (with an infinite amount of zeros) can never have any other value than 0.  But, the probability of choosing a specific number should be 1\/(amount of natural numbers), which is 0, since the amount of natural numbers is infinite. Is it something about how the limit of 1\/x for x -> infinity works, or am I missing something else entirely?","c_root_id_A":"e9nh9jl","c_root_id_B":"e9o5vbd","created_at_utc_A":1542155976,"created_at_utc_B":1542185206,"score_A":5,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":">  am I missing something else entirely?  Your premise (that you can randomly choose from the natural numbers with equal probability) is false.   You can't.   If you construct some sequence of distributions that in some sense converges toward what you seek, this seeming dilemma will be absent from each element of the sequence.","human_ref_B":"Except the probability that that number is chosen ISN\u2019T zero, it merely approaches it.  It\u2019s infinitesimally small, but still larger than zero, so there\u2019s still a chance that it can be chosen at all.  Just a very remote chance.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":29230.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"9wtlfd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If there is an infinite amount of natural numbers, and one is chosen at random, mathematically the probability of choosing that number should be 0. Why can the number still be chosen? It seems fairly reasonable that the probability cannot be 0, as if you were to sum up all the probabilities, you have to get one as a result, while the sum 0 + 0 + 0 + ... + 0 + 0 (with an infinite amount of zeros) can never have any other value than 0.  But, the probability of choosing a specific number should be 1\/(amount of natural numbers), which is 0, since the amount of natural numbers is infinite. Is it something about how the limit of 1\/x for x -> infinity works, or am I missing something else entirely?","c_root_id_A":"e9oahwu","c_root_id_B":"e9obpyn","created_at_utc_A":1542194809,"created_at_utc_B":1542196968,"score_A":3,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"The issue here is that standard probability is not \"weakly Laplacian\", which is technical for \"you can't build uniform distributions on every subset of your space\". This means we can't have fair lotteries on the natural numbers (sometimes called \"DeFinetti lotteries\"), unless we change the axioms and allow for infinitesimal values, which turns out to be a fruitful approach both epistemologically and mathematically. For more information, check the work of Wenmackers, Benci et al.","human_ref_B":"Your errors:  1) By \"at random\", you assume that every number should have the same probability, which is quite restrictive.  2) You can't chose at random a natural number with the same probability. That's impossible. What you can do is chose \"0\" at probability \"1\/2\", \"1\" at probability \"1\/4\", \"2\" at probability \"1\/8\", ... And the infinite sum of \"1\/(2^n)\" is equal to \"1\", so it is a random choice between all the natural numbers.  3) \"0+0+0+...\" is equal to \"0\" only if you sum them a \"small infinity\" amount of time. Take all the real numbers between 0 and 1. Contrary to natural numbers, it IS possible to randomly choose a real number between 0 and 1 with the same probability everywhere. This probability will be 0 for every real number, however \"0+0+0+...\" as many time as there is numbers between 0 and 1 (so a BIG infinity) can be equal to 1. (Assuming you define correctly your sum with a big infinity of terms. See integral calculus for doing that correctly).  4) Probability 0 does not mean \"never\". Probability 1 does not mean \"always\". In fact, in math, we use the terms \"almost always \/ almost everywhere\" when talking of probability 1. Sure, in everyday life, probability 0 does mean \"never\", but in everyday life, you are not taking random natural numbers since some of them would take more than a billion year to even manage to think about them.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2159.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"9wtlfd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If there is an infinite amount of natural numbers, and one is chosen at random, mathematically the probability of choosing that number should be 0. Why can the number still be chosen? It seems fairly reasonable that the probability cannot be 0, as if you were to sum up all the probabilities, you have to get one as a result, while the sum 0 + 0 + 0 + ... + 0 + 0 (with an infinite amount of zeros) can never have any other value than 0.  But, the probability of choosing a specific number should be 1\/(amount of natural numbers), which is 0, since the amount of natural numbers is infinite. Is it something about how the limit of 1\/x for x -> infinity works, or am I missing something else entirely?","c_root_id_A":"e9o9udb","c_root_id_B":"e9oahwu","created_at_utc_A":1542193532,"created_at_utc_B":1542194809,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Just adding a thought on the \"picking process\".  You can choose a random natural number because you're truly picking it not *uniformly at random*, but using another procedure which might appear to you to be uniform, but it isn't (since such a distribution does not exist, as you just proved).  If a number is large enough, you cannot even *state* which number you chose since writing all the digits would take you too much time. Maybe longer than the residual lifetime of the universe. And still, there would be so many numbers greater than it!  So, it's natural to limit our choice process to manageable numbers, which constitute however a finite set.    And on finite sets, a probability can be defined.","human_ref_B":"The issue here is that standard probability is not \"weakly Laplacian\", which is technical for \"you can't build uniform distributions on every subset of your space\". This means we can't have fair lotteries on the natural numbers (sometimes called \"DeFinetti lotteries\"), unless we change the axioms and allow for infinitesimal values, which turns out to be a fruitful approach both epistemologically and mathematically. For more information, check the work of Wenmackers, Benci et al.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1277.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"9wtlfd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If there is an infinite amount of natural numbers, and one is chosen at random, mathematically the probability of choosing that number should be 0. Why can the number still be chosen? It seems fairly reasonable that the probability cannot be 0, as if you were to sum up all the probabilities, you have to get one as a result, while the sum 0 + 0 + 0 + ... + 0 + 0 (with an infinite amount of zeros) can never have any other value than 0.  But, the probability of choosing a specific number should be 1\/(amount of natural numbers), which is 0, since the amount of natural numbers is infinite. Is it something about how the limit of 1\/x for x -> infinity works, or am I missing something else entirely?","c_root_id_A":"e9o9ukd","c_root_id_B":"e9oahwu","created_at_utc_A":1542193544,"created_at_utc_B":1542194809,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"It comes from the misconception that the probability of something being 0 necessarily means it is impossible. It is true that something impossible to happen has a 0 probability of happening, but not the inverse.  Think of it this way: when you try to figure out the probability of an event you first define the set of all possible outcomes, then define the subset of outcomes that are satisfactory for the statement \"the event has happened\", and then divide the power of the latter set by the power of the former set. It's all pretty evident, when the sets are finite, but stuff gets  unintuitive when one or both of them are infinite, where you have to compare different kinds of infinities.  Picture this: there are two dots in a square, and you randomly place a third one inside that square. What is the probability that those three resulting points form a triangle with a 90 degree corner? Although there are an infinite number of point placements (any point inside the square on the circumference with the line of those two first points being the diameter) that would match the requirement, the probability is still zero (because the power of a set represented by a line is infinitely smaller than the power of a set represented by the area of a surface).","human_ref_B":"The issue here is that standard probability is not \"weakly Laplacian\", which is technical for \"you can't build uniform distributions on every subset of your space\". This means we can't have fair lotteries on the natural numbers (sometimes called \"DeFinetti lotteries\"), unless we change the axioms and allow for infinitesimal values, which turns out to be a fruitful approach both epistemologically and mathematically. For more information, check the work of Wenmackers, Benci et al.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1265.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"9wtlfd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If there is an infinite amount of natural numbers, and one is chosen at random, mathematically the probability of choosing that number should be 0. Why can the number still be chosen? It seems fairly reasonable that the probability cannot be 0, as if you were to sum up all the probabilities, you have to get one as a result, while the sum 0 + 0 + 0 + ... + 0 + 0 (with an infinite amount of zeros) can never have any other value than 0.  But, the probability of choosing a specific number should be 1\/(amount of natural numbers), which is 0, since the amount of natural numbers is infinite. Is it something about how the limit of 1\/x for x -> infinity works, or am I missing something else entirely?","c_root_id_A":"e9obpyn","c_root_id_B":"e9o9udb","created_at_utc_A":1542196968,"created_at_utc_B":1542193532,"score_A":4,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Your errors:  1) By \"at random\", you assume that every number should have the same probability, which is quite restrictive.  2) You can't chose at random a natural number with the same probability. That's impossible. What you can do is chose \"0\" at probability \"1\/2\", \"1\" at probability \"1\/4\", \"2\" at probability \"1\/8\", ... And the infinite sum of \"1\/(2^n)\" is equal to \"1\", so it is a random choice between all the natural numbers.  3) \"0+0+0+...\" is equal to \"0\" only if you sum them a \"small infinity\" amount of time. Take all the real numbers between 0 and 1. Contrary to natural numbers, it IS possible to randomly choose a real number between 0 and 1 with the same probability everywhere. This probability will be 0 for every real number, however \"0+0+0+...\" as many time as there is numbers between 0 and 1 (so a BIG infinity) can be equal to 1. (Assuming you define correctly your sum with a big infinity of terms. See integral calculus for doing that correctly).  4) Probability 0 does not mean \"never\". Probability 1 does not mean \"always\". In fact, in math, we use the terms \"almost always \/ almost everywhere\" when talking of probability 1. Sure, in everyday life, probability 0 does mean \"never\", but in everyday life, you are not taking random natural numbers since some of them would take more than a billion year to even manage to think about them.","human_ref_B":"Just adding a thought on the \"picking process\".  You can choose a random natural number because you're truly picking it not *uniformly at random*, but using another procedure which might appear to you to be uniform, but it isn't (since such a distribution does not exist, as you just proved).  If a number is large enough, you cannot even *state* which number you chose since writing all the digits would take you too much time. Maybe longer than the residual lifetime of the universe. And still, there would be so many numbers greater than it!  So, it's natural to limit our choice process to manageable numbers, which constitute however a finite set.    And on finite sets, a probability can be defined.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3436.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"9wtlfd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If there is an infinite amount of natural numbers, and one is chosen at random, mathematically the probability of choosing that number should be 0. Why can the number still be chosen? It seems fairly reasonable that the probability cannot be 0, as if you were to sum up all the probabilities, you have to get one as a result, while the sum 0 + 0 + 0 + ... + 0 + 0 (with an infinite amount of zeros) can never have any other value than 0.  But, the probability of choosing a specific number should be 1\/(amount of natural numbers), which is 0, since the amount of natural numbers is infinite. Is it something about how the limit of 1\/x for x -> infinity works, or am I missing something else entirely?","c_root_id_A":"e9o9ukd","c_root_id_B":"e9obpyn","created_at_utc_A":1542193544,"created_at_utc_B":1542196968,"score_A":2,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"It comes from the misconception that the probability of something being 0 necessarily means it is impossible. It is true that something impossible to happen has a 0 probability of happening, but not the inverse.  Think of it this way: when you try to figure out the probability of an event you first define the set of all possible outcomes, then define the subset of outcomes that are satisfactory for the statement \"the event has happened\", and then divide the power of the latter set by the power of the former set. It's all pretty evident, when the sets are finite, but stuff gets  unintuitive when one or both of them are infinite, where you have to compare different kinds of infinities.  Picture this: there are two dots in a square, and you randomly place a third one inside that square. What is the probability that those three resulting points form a triangle with a 90 degree corner? Although there are an infinite number of point placements (any point inside the square on the circumference with the line of those two first points being the diameter) that would match the requirement, the probability is still zero (because the power of a set represented by a line is infinitely smaller than the power of a set represented by the area of a surface).","human_ref_B":"Your errors:  1) By \"at random\", you assume that every number should have the same probability, which is quite restrictive.  2) You can't chose at random a natural number with the same probability. That's impossible. What you can do is chose \"0\" at probability \"1\/2\", \"1\" at probability \"1\/4\", \"2\" at probability \"1\/8\", ... And the infinite sum of \"1\/(2^n)\" is equal to \"1\", so it is a random choice between all the natural numbers.  3) \"0+0+0+...\" is equal to \"0\" only if you sum them a \"small infinity\" amount of time. Take all the real numbers between 0 and 1. Contrary to natural numbers, it IS possible to randomly choose a real number between 0 and 1 with the same probability everywhere. This probability will be 0 for every real number, however \"0+0+0+...\" as many time as there is numbers between 0 and 1 (so a BIG infinity) can be equal to 1. (Assuming you define correctly your sum with a big infinity of terms. See integral calculus for doing that correctly).  4) Probability 0 does not mean \"never\". Probability 1 does not mean \"always\". In fact, in math, we use the terms \"almost always \/ almost everywhere\" when talking of probability 1. Sure, in everyday life, probability 0 does mean \"never\", but in everyday life, you are not taking random natural numbers since some of them would take more than a billion year to even manage to think about them.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3424.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"i6v6tq","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.75,"history":"There are scientific freezers on the market that can reach temperatures of -86\u00b0 Celsius. If I put a water bottle in it, how long would it take to freeze?","c_root_id_A":"g10we05","c_root_id_B":"g0z0d4w","created_at_utc_A":1597087911,"created_at_utc_B":1597043195,"score_A":15,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Let's make some simplifying assumptions and try some proportional reasoning to compare it to a normal freezer (-20 \u00b0C).  Assumptions: We use the same water bottle in both freezers, we ignore convection, the water bottle contains pure water at 21 \u00b0C, the freezers are made of the same material and are able to maintain their temperatures perfectly, we have a nucleation site for the crystals, and \"frozen\" just means all the water has turned solid. This is a lot of assumptions, but it could give us a rough estimate.  **Conduction:** Conductive heat transfer is directly proportional to the absolute difference in temperature between the objects. In the normal freezer, we have a 41 Kelvin difference, while in the scientific one, we have a 107 Kelvin difference. This means that the scientific fridge will **initially conduct heat at a rate 2.6 times faster**, and, at **0\u00b0C, will conduct heat 4.3 times faster** than the normal fridge. We'll see why that's important in a second.  **Radiation:** Radiative heat transfer is proportional to the 4th power of absolute temperature, but it works both ways, so net radiative heat transfer is proportional to the difference in the 4th powers of the absolute temperatures. 21\u00b0C = 294 K, 0\u00b0C = 273 K, -20 \u00b0C = 253 K, and -86\u00b0C = 187 K.   The math here is a little funky but (294\\^4 - 187\\^4)\/(294\\^4 - 253\\^4) = 1.85, **so the initial rate of heat transfer will be 1.85 times faster** for the science freezer. A similar calculation with 273 K as the starting temperature means that the rate of heat transfer is going to be **2.94 times faster at 0\u00b0C.**  So why is 0\u00b0C so important? The latent heat of fusion of water is about 80 times greater than the specific heat of liquid water, so freezing one gram of water takes the same amount of energy as reducing the temperature of a gram of liquid water by 80\u00b0C. Since we assumed a 21\u00b0C starting temperature, about 4\/5 of the energy will be released by the state change of the water, which will occur at a temperature of 0\u00b0C.   So in this extremely simplified scenario, **the water bottle will probably freeze about 3 times faster in the scientific freezer, but it could freeze 4 times faster if conduction is the dominant form of energy transfer.** Again, I ignored all convection and other effects such as the insulating effect of the air bubbles that would form in the ice and the gradient of temperature across the bottle.","human_ref_B":"Most people here are thinking about how long it would take to cool water to 0 degrees, but the answer is even more complicated than that. If the water is very clean and stored in a clean, smooth vessel, it can supercool well below 0 degrees while remaining liquid. Then, it can freeze as soon as you touch (or anything disturbs) the vessel.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":44716.0,"score_ratio":5.0}
{"post_id":"104bj1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"what lies beneath the sand of a desert?","c_root_id_A":"c6aad6g","c_root_id_B":"c6acm0j","created_at_utc_A":1348029667,"created_at_utc_B":1348043074,"score_A":5,"score_B":17,"human_ref_A":"If you're looking for a generic answer for a generic question: geologically speaking, \"sand\" is simply a loose mixture of minerals within a certain size range. These are typically largely silica based minerals, like quartz, but this will vary depending on geographic location. source1, source2  Now, at greater depths you have greater pressures and temperatures. The increased pressure causes the minerals to compact together, while increased temperatures cause minerals to fuse together physically, or \"change\" chemically, depending on the minerals. Going back to our generic example, since quartz has a very high melting point (bonus point, it's common to use in moulds for pouring molten metals), they tend to compact instead, leading to what we commonly refer to as sandstones and mudstones. Of course, as you go deeper it depends on the environment millions of years earlier, but I think you were only after the immediate base.  tl;dr - sandstone","human_ref_B":"The canonical desert landscape is generally thought to be a sand dune, but this is a misconception. Even in the great Sahara desert only a fairly small portion is made up of sand dune expanses (ergs), most of it is hamada (bare stone and rock).  Generally speaking, just about any rock can underlie a sand dune field, more so since sand dunes are slightly mobile.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":13407.0,"score_ratio":3.4}
{"post_id":"104bj1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"what lies beneath the sand of a desert?","c_root_id_A":"c6ab8ba","c_root_id_B":"c6acm0j","created_at_utc_A":1348033430,"created_at_utc_B":1348043074,"score_A":2,"score_B":17,"human_ref_A":"A desert can not only be a sand desert, any landscape void of vegetation also can be labeled deset, including high rocky mountains and ice covered areas.  Sand desserts are just very arid, they are very hot and there are no mountains nearby that cause cool down the air\/wind enough to cause rainfall. Sand deserts are just very dry, but the ground can be made out of anything. Because barely anything grows in an arid area anyways. Desert areas tend to be richer in minerals. Rainforests are vewry low on minerals because they are all used up in the trees.  Many deserts also have a lot of water very deep underground, but barely any plant can grow deep enough roots toi reach the water deeper in the ground and transport it up quicker than it evaporates on the surface.  If you find chalc below a desert or not depends on if the area was below the ocean ground long ago or not.   If you find coal or diamonds below a desert or not depends on if there was a swamp in that area long ago for a long time or not.","human_ref_B":"The canonical desert landscape is generally thought to be a sand dune, but this is a misconception. Even in the great Sahara desert only a fairly small portion is made up of sand dune expanses (ergs), most of it is hamada (bare stone and rock).  Generally speaking, just about any rock can underlie a sand dune field, more so since sand dunes are slightly mobile.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9644.0,"score_ratio":8.5}
{"post_id":"imseoz","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":1.0,"history":"Why does temperature affect the solubility of compounds differently? For example, CO2 is more soluble in water a lower temperatures, and sucrose is more soluble in water at higher temperatures?","c_root_id_A":"g4bth9c","c_root_id_B":"g4brp3e","created_at_utc_A":1599485190,"created_at_utc_B":1599483975,"score_A":8,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"There's quite a few factors at play. As i'm sure you're aware, different solutes will have vastly different solubility in different solvents. Salts dissolve very well into polar solvents (such as water) but barely into apolar solvents. However, the most important difference with respect to temperature dependence is whether the solute is a gas or a solid. Generally speaking : solid solutes prefer higher temperatures and gaseous solutes prefer lower temperatures.   For a substance (solute) to dissolve in a solvent, first the bonds between the solute are broken. Breaking these bonds requires energy. For solids, this means overcoming the lattice energy. For an ideal gas, there are no bonds between the solute. (In reality, there are some weak forces but these are generally negligible compared to solids.)    Some bonds between solvent also need to be broken, for example hydrogen bonds in water. This also requires some energy.   Upon dissolution, new bonds are also made. Solvent - solute bonds. The strength of these bonds heavily depends on the solute and the solvent. For example, certain very polar solutes in water may be able to form strong hydrogen bonds. Apolar solvents and solutes have van der waals interactions which are generally 100 times weaker.   As a result of these solvent - solute bonds, dissolving an ideal gas is an exotherm process. The opposite is true for a solid : breaking the lattice generally requires more energy than forming solvent-solute bonds. Consequently dissolution of a solid is often an endotherm process.   Apply Le Chetalier's principle to endotherm and exotherm reactions and you'll see that high temperatures benefit solid solutes, but not gaseous solutes.   So far we've mostly talked about the energy released or required for dissolution; which is the enthalpy. Another consideration is the entropy. (I assume you know about gibbs free energy). Generally speaking, a gas has more degrees of freedom than a liquid, and a liquid has more degrees of freedom than a solid. The dissolution entropy for a solid is generally positive. The dissolution entropy for gas is generally negative.   The dissolution of solids is thus driven by the entropy term, and generally opposed by the enthalpy term. These reactions thus favor high temperatures.  The dissolution of gas species is driven by the enthalpy term, and opposed by the entropy term. These reactions favor low temperatures.","human_ref_B":"In case of gas-polar liquid pair (CO2 \/ H2O), the solvation energy is greater than the enthalpy in solvent-solvent interactions in water, therefore the reaction is  exothermic%2FEquilibria%2FSolubilty%2FTemperature_Effects_on_the_Solubility_of_Gases%23%3A~%3Atext%3DThe%2520solubility%2520of%2520gases%2520in%2CEquation%25204%2520to%2520the%2520left.&usg=AOvVaw0Ot2N0u8r2bm7hNbo_bF56). Furthermore, addition of heat to the system will increase the kinetic energy (higher temp, higher KE) , which consequently breaks the intermolecular bonds and escape in the solution.   Before we get to the 2nd pair, recall that there are 2 cases of solubility in solid\/liquid systems.   (I) Decrease in solubility w.r.t. temperature - if the heat given off in dissolving process > heat required to break the intermolecular bonds, the net energy would be exothermic. (Similar to the gas\/liquid solubility principle)   (II) Increase in solubility w.r.t. temperature - if the heat given off in dissolving process < heat required to break intermolecular bonds, the net energy would be endothermic. Adding heat would increase the kinetic energy that would break the bonds in the solute.   Now, consider the nature of sucrose. It contains covalent (-C-H) bonds and hydrogen bonds (-O-H) in its structure.  Sugar dissolves in water because energy is given off when the slightly polar sucrose molecules form intermolecular bonds with the polar water molecules. The weak bonds that form between the solute and the solvent compensate for the energy needed to disrupt the structure of both the pure solute and the solvent.   Source of sucrose case here  Hope this helps.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1215.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"1m2hv2","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"I read that in the America's Cup (sailing) the boats could go up to twice as fast as the wind. How is this possible when the wind is their source of speed?","c_root_id_A":"cc55loe","c_root_id_B":"cc56amx","created_at_utc_A":1378773150,"created_at_utc_B":1378774936,"score_A":5,"score_B":27,"human_ref_A":"You are correct in thinking that boats cannot travel faster than the wind when they are moving in the exact same direction as the wind.   However if they travel at an angle to the wind, the boat can have a velocity component up to the true windspeed in the direction of the wind *in addition* to a velocity component normal to the wind, resulting in a net velocity greater than the actual windspeed.","human_ref_B":"Because the sail itself can generate lift. What makes it even more interesting is that you do this while moving toward the direction of wind, not away from it ( at an angle up to 15 degrees to the wind, but usually around 45 degrees ).  http:\/\/www.phys.unsw.edu.au\/~jw\/graphics\/velocites.GIF  This drawing explains it quite nicely. The shape of the sail redirects the air from the wind which creates a force acted on the sail normal ( 90 degrees ) to the angle of the sail.  Also important to consider is apparent wind. Apparent wind is actual wind + wind you feel because you are moving. If you are moving with the wind, the faster you move, the less apparent wind you ( and the sails ) feel and when you reach windspeed ( if you could ) there is no force on the sails ( you move 10mph forward, wind blows 10mph from behind, you feel 0 wind ). But if you are moving toward the wind, the faster you get the more apparent wind you feel, giving you even more force on the sail, until the drag on the water and air is higher than the speed you are gaining which is then the max velocity you can travel at.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1786.0,"score_ratio":5.4}
{"post_id":"a8iki1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Are there any differences between they way earlier species of humans experienced pregnancy and birth and the way we experience it now? Things like gestation periods, how the body reacts to pregnancies, the way the pregnancy itself progresses - is there anything that has changed over time, even perhaps between now and a couple centuries ago?","c_root_id_A":"ecb7e0o","c_root_id_B":"ecb8i5b","created_at_utc_A":1545472963,"created_at_utc_B":1545474319,"score_A":48,"score_B":2410,"human_ref_A":"In terms of the actual birthing process, nothing really has changed. Scientists think our hips have gotten narrower over time making it harder to give birth, but with the event of modern medicine and c-sections that point became moot.  Overall, having a baby has largely become much, much easier for most first of the world. We have access to better post birth treatments and knowledge so mortality rates have dropped massively. Granted there can still be complications, but most complications are fixed. As far back as 100 years ago birth was considered much more life threatening than it is today.","human_ref_B":"Chimps and gorillas have a gestational period just under humans which implies that ~9 months was a commonality likely shared with early hominids.  As has been mentioned in order to stand upright our pelvis has rotated and shortened to accommodate the range of motion needed in our legs as well as narrowing which better supports our weight. This is the reason childbirth is such a problem for us, female pelvises being unfused so that they can flex in labour and baby's skull plates unfused so that they can move and squish a bit. When compared even to our closest great ape cousins we are born spectacularly immature and under developed, some say that's an advantage because we have more time to learn which is uncertain. But for sure we would be unable to walk upright without it or major changes in reproduction.  So it's probably fair to assume that with the trend from quadraped to biped follows difficulty in labour and premature young.  More recently we know that several other subspecies of homosapiens interbred, including Neanderthal and Denisovan man as we can still find remnants of Thier DNA in the current Human population. So it's reasonable to assume that they had nearly identical reproductive habits to us although we don't KNOW.  One of the big issues with studying this field is a real lack of data, we can study our own genetics and discover our familial links with sub species of homo but this was still relatively recently. Fossilisation being a rare process anyway we do not have complete fossil records of all hominids and homo though all stages of development. Enough to comfortably decuce common ancestry but lacking the detail to easily study subtle changes in how young develop and are born.  Even after the consolidation of homosapiens sapiens from earlier sub species our earliest written languages are only a few thousand years old and aren't detailed records of pregnancy and childbirth. This how much ideas about it have changed since then and vary even now around the globe. We can be fairly sure that pregnancy had a higher mortality rate and infant deaths were higher but how high they were we don't know.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1356.0,"score_ratio":50.2083333333}
{"post_id":"a8iki1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Are there any differences between they way earlier species of humans experienced pregnancy and birth and the way we experience it now? Things like gestation periods, how the body reacts to pregnancies, the way the pregnancy itself progresses - is there anything that has changed over time, even perhaps between now and a couple centuries ago?","c_root_id_A":"ecbe4jc","c_root_id_B":"ecb7e0o","created_at_utc_A":1545481419,"created_at_utc_B":1545472963,"score_A":76,"score_B":48,"human_ref_A":"Gestation periods are something we have in common with our living ape relatives, and haven't changed (that we know of). The shift to bipedal motion changed alignment of many elements in the body, and as a result our birthing process is now more difficult, and in order to facilitate this our babies are born very immature and underdeveloped compared to apes.  Advances in medical technology have greatly decreased the number of complications encountered during pregnancy and childbirth, however, depending on the era, medical practices of the time may have caused said complications to begin with. Generally now things are a lot safer, with mother and child both expected to survive, and many heartbreaking deliveries (still born, deformities) detected early enough on that they can be safely terminated.  Really, nothing has changed to human bodies themselves, just in our understanding of how, and when, to treat the body during pregnancy. In the past 100 years we've come from pregnant women and young children in soot-filled homes breathing all kinds of noxious air without a thought, to a time when handling kitty litter\/scat is known to be particularly harmful and should be avoided at all costs. As our understanding grows, we find new ways (like c-sections) to assist the process, but the process is now as it always was.","human_ref_B":"In terms of the actual birthing process, nothing really has changed. Scientists think our hips have gotten narrower over time making it harder to give birth, but with the event of modern medicine and c-sections that point became moot.  Overall, having a baby has largely become much, much easier for most first of the world. We have access to better post birth treatments and knowledge so mortality rates have dropped massively. Granted there can still be complications, but most complications are fixed. As far back as 100 years ago birth was considered much more life threatening than it is today.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8456.0,"score_ratio":1.5833333333}
{"post_id":"x3orq8","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.69,"history":"Why is peak hurricane season in September? If energy from the sun is a critical ingredient for hurricanes, why don\u2019t they peak in july?","c_root_id_A":"imreqfb","c_root_id_B":"imrgfhb","created_at_utc_A":1662096074,"created_at_utc_B":1662097229,"score_A":9,"score_B":31,"human_ref_A":"Peak hurricane\/cyclone season is just when all the requirements are at their strongest. Warm water temp, low wind sheer in upper troposphere, maximum cyclonic circulation in lower troposphere, high humidity and availability of moisture in all levels of atmosphere. Edit, it\u2019s not heat from the sun that\u2019s required, if that were the case you\u2019d have cyclones\/hurricanes over the desert.","human_ref_B":"Ocean heating lags behind the seasons because the water takes time to absorb heat.  It's the reason why ocean water is warmer in the fall and cooler in the spring. And it's the ocean temperature which drives storm formation over water.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1155.0,"score_ratio":3.4444444444}
{"post_id":"tz564t","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Is there an electronic component that can change its resistance based on the current that flowed trough it? A bit like air ionization just more permanently. Basically satisfying the following equation: R(q) = C \\* sum(q) where R is the resistance, C is an arbitrary constant and q is the charge that traveled trough the device with a negative and a positive direction.","c_root_id_A":"i3x36nt","c_root_id_B":"i3x8j0m","created_at_utc_A":1649435143,"created_at_utc_B":1649437155,"score_A":8,"score_B":24,"human_ref_A":"If you have two MOSFET transistors orientated properly one of them acts like a variable resistor.   This is an image of a test I got back today: MOSFET  The top transistor acts like a resistor that changes based on the output of the bottom one.","human_ref_B":"That\u2019s basically the asymptotic trend for a capacitor, isn\u2019t it? Uncharged it acts like a short circuit (0 resistance), fully charged it acts like an open circuit (infinite resistance).  As current flows in it moves from one regime to the other.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2012.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"tz564t","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Is there an electronic component that can change its resistance based on the current that flowed trough it? A bit like air ionization just more permanently. Basically satisfying the following equation: R(q) = C \\* sum(q) where R is the resistance, C is an arbitrary constant and q is the charge that traveled trough the device with a negative and a positive direction.","c_root_id_A":"i3xhbrj","c_root_id_B":"i3xbstg","created_at_utc_A":1649440456,"created_at_utc_B":1649438378,"score_A":5,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Trivially, a fuse, of course. A thermistor will display i^(2)r heating like any other resistor, but also change resistance with temperature, which will change in interesting ways based on thermal mass, heat conduction, airflow, and other factors, which will change its resistance. Probably unpleasant to try to model accurately.","human_ref_B":"In the real world a wire would do it indirectly. This is a bit of a cop out though since it\u2019s the change in temperate as a result of current flow that actually changes the resistance of the wire, not the current itself.  An ideal wire wouldn\u2019t have this property of course. But then you have the hypothetical component that the top comment mentions.   So you\u2019ve got an answer that would satisfy both situations. I doubt either is the answer you\u2019re looking for though.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2078.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"tz564t","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Is there an electronic component that can change its resistance based on the current that flowed trough it? A bit like air ionization just more permanently. Basically satisfying the following equation: R(q) = C \\* sum(q) where R is the resistance, C is an arbitrary constant and q is the charge that traveled trough the device with a negative and a positive direction.","c_root_id_A":"i3xwghs","c_root_id_B":"i3ymv0n","created_at_utc_A":1649446323,"created_at_utc_B":1649457026,"score_A":3,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Also doesn\u2019t satisfy the equation, but transistors are known to change resistance(drain to source) over time if the drain current is near the device\u2019s limit. This is more common in thin film transistors as the semiconductor isn\u2019t crystalline. This can be both a temporary effect from the temperature increase or permanent from damage. This quality is almost impossible to use in design intent as the variation is highly dependent on the fabrication process and transistor model tuning takes skill and time. This is more important when it comes to testing as it can be the reason for unforeseen results.","human_ref_B":"Well... It would be counter-intuitive won't it?   It would be a current regulator.   Because if the current increases and then risistance increases in response to that.. Then for the same voltage, the current will then decrease and then the resistance of that device will decrease too, and the cycle repeats.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":10703.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"tz564t","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Is there an electronic component that can change its resistance based on the current that flowed trough it? A bit like air ionization just more permanently. Basically satisfying the following equation: R(q) = C \\* sum(q) where R is the resistance, C is an arbitrary constant and q is the charge that traveled trough the device with a negative and a positive direction.","c_root_id_A":"i3xbstg","c_root_id_B":"i3xwghs","created_at_utc_A":1649438378,"created_at_utc_B":1649446323,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"In the real world a wire would do it indirectly. This is a bit of a cop out though since it\u2019s the change in temperate as a result of current flow that actually changes the resistance of the wire, not the current itself.  An ideal wire wouldn\u2019t have this property of course. But then you have the hypothetical component that the top comment mentions.   So you\u2019ve got an answer that would satisfy both situations. I doubt either is the answer you\u2019re looking for though.","human_ref_B":"Also doesn\u2019t satisfy the equation, but transistors are known to change resistance(drain to source) over time if the drain current is near the device\u2019s limit. This is more common in thin film transistors as the semiconductor isn\u2019t crystalline. This can be both a temporary effect from the temperature increase or permanent from damage. This quality is almost impossible to use in design intent as the variation is highly dependent on the fabrication process and transistor model tuning takes skill and time. This is more important when it comes to testing as it can be the reason for unforeseen results.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7945.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"tz564t","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Is there an electronic component that can change its resistance based on the current that flowed trough it? A bit like air ionization just more permanently. Basically satisfying the following equation: R(q) = C \\* sum(q) where R is the resistance, C is an arbitrary constant and q is the charge that traveled trough the device with a negative and a positive direction.","c_root_id_A":"i3xrju1","c_root_id_B":"i3xwghs","created_at_utc_A":1649444385,"created_at_utc_B":1649446323,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Not sure about how the cumulative charge thing is at all like air ionization, because there are lots of non-linear materials like silicon carbide or zinc-oxide whose impedance is current dependent (varistors). A zinc-oxide surge arrester conducts very little current until there is enough voltage to break down the inter-domain boundaries, at which point the voltage will change very little over several orders of current magnitude. This is not quite as extreme but similar behaviour to ionization of air - no current at all, and then  arc channel resistance (with drastically reduced voltage) beyond breakdown.","human_ref_B":"Also doesn\u2019t satisfy the equation, but transistors are known to change resistance(drain to source) over time if the drain current is near the device\u2019s limit. This is more common in thin film transistors as the semiconductor isn\u2019t crystalline. This can be both a temporary effect from the temperature increase or permanent from damage. This quality is almost impossible to use in design intent as the variation is highly dependent on the fabrication process and transistor model tuning takes skill and time. This is more important when it comes to testing as it can be the reason for unforeseen results.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1938.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"tz564t","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Is there an electronic component that can change its resistance based on the current that flowed trough it? A bit like air ionization just more permanently. Basically satisfying the following equation: R(q) = C \\* sum(q) where R is the resistance, C is an arbitrary constant and q is the charge that traveled trough the device with a negative and a positive direction.","c_root_id_A":"i3ymv0n","c_root_id_B":"i3xbstg","created_at_utc_A":1649457026,"created_at_utc_B":1649438378,"score_A":5,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Well... It would be counter-intuitive won't it?   It would be a current regulator.   Because if the current increases and then risistance increases in response to that.. Then for the same voltage, the current will then decrease and then the resistance of that device will decrease too, and the cycle repeats.","human_ref_B":"In the real world a wire would do it indirectly. This is a bit of a cop out though since it\u2019s the change in temperate as a result of current flow that actually changes the resistance of the wire, not the current itself.  An ideal wire wouldn\u2019t have this property of course. But then you have the hypothetical component that the top comment mentions.   So you\u2019ve got an answer that would satisfy both situations. I doubt either is the answer you\u2019re looking for though.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":18648.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"tz564t","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Is there an electronic component that can change its resistance based on the current that flowed trough it? A bit like air ionization just more permanently. Basically satisfying the following equation: R(q) = C \\* sum(q) where R is the resistance, C is an arbitrary constant and q is the charge that traveled trough the device with a negative and a positive direction.","c_root_id_A":"i3xrju1","c_root_id_B":"i3ymv0n","created_at_utc_A":1649444385,"created_at_utc_B":1649457026,"score_A":2,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Not sure about how the cumulative charge thing is at all like air ionization, because there are lots of non-linear materials like silicon carbide or zinc-oxide whose impedance is current dependent (varistors). A zinc-oxide surge arrester conducts very little current until there is enough voltage to break down the inter-domain boundaries, at which point the voltage will change very little over several orders of current magnitude. This is not quite as extreme but similar behaviour to ionization of air - no current at all, and then  arc channel resistance (with drastically reduced voltage) beyond breakdown.","human_ref_B":"Well... It would be counter-intuitive won't it?   It would be a current regulator.   Because if the current increases and then risistance increases in response to that.. Then for the same voltage, the current will then decrease and then the resistance of that device will decrease too, and the cycle repeats.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12641.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"tz564t","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Is there an electronic component that can change its resistance based on the current that flowed trough it? A bit like air ionization just more permanently. Basically satisfying the following equation: R(q) = C \\* sum(q) where R is the resistance, C is an arbitrary constant and q is the charge that traveled trough the device with a negative and a positive direction.","c_root_id_A":"i3xbstg","c_root_id_B":"i3yrnir","created_at_utc_A":1649438378,"created_at_utc_B":1649459098,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"In the real world a wire would do it indirectly. This is a bit of a cop out though since it\u2019s the change in temperate as a result of current flow that actually changes the resistance of the wire, not the current itself.  An ideal wire wouldn\u2019t have this property of course. But then you have the hypothetical component that the top comment mentions.   So you\u2019ve got an answer that would satisfy both situations. I doubt either is the answer you\u2019re looking for though.","human_ref_B":"When you say \"charge that flowed through it\" ... that's much easier that \"charge currently (pun!) flowing through it.\"  For example: picture a simple RC filter. When the capacitor is discharged to zero volts, a 1v input will source 1\/R.amps of current into the circuit. But the charge accumulates onto the capacitor, creating a voltage that's linearly proportional. After enough charge to accumulate 0.2v is there on the cap, that same 1V input will now only source 0.8\/R into the circuit. That is, it will *appear* to that 1v source that the impedance into the circuit has increased.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":20720.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"tz564t","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Is there an electronic component that can change its resistance based on the current that flowed trough it? A bit like air ionization just more permanently. Basically satisfying the following equation: R(q) = C \\* sum(q) where R is the resistance, C is an arbitrary constant and q is the charge that traveled trough the device with a negative and a positive direction.","c_root_id_A":"i3xrju1","c_root_id_B":"i3yrnir","created_at_utc_A":1649444385,"created_at_utc_B":1649459098,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Not sure about how the cumulative charge thing is at all like air ionization, because there are lots of non-linear materials like silicon carbide or zinc-oxide whose impedance is current dependent (varistors). A zinc-oxide surge arrester conducts very little current until there is enough voltage to break down the inter-domain boundaries, at which point the voltage will change very little over several orders of current magnitude. This is not quite as extreme but similar behaviour to ionization of air - no current at all, and then  arc channel resistance (with drastically reduced voltage) beyond breakdown.","human_ref_B":"When you say \"charge that flowed through it\" ... that's much easier that \"charge currently (pun!) flowing through it.\"  For example: picture a simple RC filter. When the capacitor is discharged to zero volts, a 1v input will source 1\/R.amps of current into the circuit. But the charge accumulates onto the capacitor, creating a voltage that's linearly proportional. After enough charge to accumulate 0.2v is there on the cap, that same 1V input will now only source 0.8\/R into the circuit. That is, it will *appear* to that 1v source that the impedance into the circuit has increased.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":14713.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"6h196y","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"In a documentary about the Manhattan Project I recently viewed (I don't recall the name of it, I apologize), some of the scientists expressed their concern about the \"atmosphere exploding\" and destroying the Earth during the Trinity test. What scientific basis did they have for this speculation?","c_root_id_A":"div6zl0","c_root_id_B":"diuwzq7","created_at_utc_A":1497393345,"created_at_utc_B":1497382737,"score_A":81,"score_B":63,"human_ref_A":"Supposedly there's a quote (although I can't find it) about one of the scientists who was asked to check the calculations to verify that the nuclear bomb wouldn't ignite the atmosphere.  He expressed his concern to another scientist as to the dreadful burden of his task, and the terrible consequences if he were wrong.  The other scientist (Maybe Richard Feynman, it sounds clever enough for him) said something to the effect of  \"Don't worry about it, if it does ignite the atmosphere, no one will blame you.\"","human_ref_B":"The idea was that it might ignite Nitrogen-Nitrogen fusion, which (obviously) was incorrect.  Here's a good account of the story: https:\/\/blogs.scientificamerican.com\/cross-check\/bethe-teller-trinity-and-the-end-of-earth\/","labels":1,"seconds_difference":10608.0,"score_ratio":1.2857142857}
{"post_id":"pm9jpe","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How effective is the vaccine against each of the different covid variants? i'm specifically talking about comparing the OG virus against the South African variant, the British variant and the Delta variant. is there any (noticeable) difference in how effective the vaccine is?","c_root_id_A":"hcgufnv","c_root_id_B":"hcgcjmj","created_at_utc_A":1631387102,"created_at_utc_B":1631379417,"score_A":868,"score_B":48,"human_ref_A":"This is a much more complicated question than you might think. Which vaccine? Protection against infection, transmission, hospitalization, death? How long after vaccination? Actual protection, or surrogate measures like antibody titers?  What age group?  \u2014and of course these all overlap, so asking about protection against hospitalization in elderly people 8 months after vaccination in the UK might not tell you much about protection against infection in 30-year-olds in the US.  The ballpark answer is that alpha and delta have minor to moderate reductions in vaccine efficacy, and beta has a larger reduction, relative to the original strain. Putting together a bunch of studies, and simplifying wildly, if you\u2019re starting with an mRNA vaccine and you received it fairly recently you might have 95% protection against symptomatic disease from the original strain, maybe 80-90% protection against symptomatic disease from alpha and delta, and maybe 60-75% against beta. Scale all those numbers down some if you\u2019re further out from your vaccine, if you\u2019re asking about protection against asymptomatic infection, if you\u2019re elderly or immune compromised.   Another way to look at it is to ask how much difference in antibody concentration you need to neutralize the same numbers of each virus. If you need 1x amount of antibody to neutralize your little vial of original strain, you might need 5x that amount for alpha and delta, and 8-12x as much for beta. Antibody titers don\u2019t correlate linearly with protection, and a ballpark estimate might be that mRNA vaccines give you 10-50x as many antibodies as you need for protection, against original strain, on day 1.  So if antibodies wane by half over a year, you might still be protected against original strain, but mildly susceptible to delta.   Bottom line is that alpha and delta (as well as the D614G mutation that appeared early in 2020 and that everyone has already forgotten about) are mainly transmission-enhancing variants, with immune evasion as a mostly accidental side effect. The beta variant seemed to be more of an immune evasion variant without much transmission enhancement, and so it\u2019s not surprising it was outcompeted and seems to be fading away.   There\u2019s very little published on some other variants of concern. \u201cMu\u201d never really was a cause for concern, just media hysteria. Lambda is more of a concern, but I don\u2019t know of any good comparative immunity studies on it. It\u2019s behaving more like a moderate transmission variant that\u2019s outcompeted by delta, but who knows.  This tweet, from a well respected virologist, has the beginnings of a table comparing delta immunity to previous strains, and gives a sense of how complicated the question is and how much variation in the answers there is depending on the study - a reminder that scientists almost never rely on a single paper for conclusions and really want to see many different groups ask the question in many different ways before having any trust in the conclus8on.","human_ref_B":"\u201cShould an individual who is vaccinated be concerned about being infected by something like P.1 in the short term and getting sick from it?\u201d Andersen said. \u201cThe answer to that is no. The vaccines remain highly effective when it comes to these variants.\u00a0   https:\/\/www.statnews.com\/2021\/05\/13\/vaccines-work-variants-complicated\/","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7685.0,"score_ratio":18.0833333333}
{"post_id":"vuj4x","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"If childbirth is one of the most painful experiences one can go through, how come it does not render the person unconscious as when having other forms of pain inflicted?","c_root_id_A":"c57spcs","c_root_id_B":"c57spl1","created_at_utc_A":1341088512,"created_at_utc_B":1341088548,"score_A":410,"score_B":829,"human_ref_A":"This is r\/askscience. Anecdotes, speculation, and off-topic posts are removed. Please mind the guidelines, and remember to include citations\/sources when possible. Thanks!","human_ref_B":"Apart from folklore and cultural bias, what evidence is there to suggest that childbirth is actually 'one of the most painful experiences one can go through'?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":36.0,"score_ratio":2.0219512195}
{"post_id":"vuj4x","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"If childbirth is one of the most painful experiences one can go through, how come it does not render the person unconscious as when having other forms of pain inflicted?","c_root_id_A":"c57spcs","c_root_id_B":"c57talf","created_at_utc_A":1341088512,"created_at_utc_B":1341091600,"score_A":410,"score_B":705,"human_ref_A":"This is r\/askscience. Anecdotes, speculation, and off-topic posts are removed. Please mind the guidelines, and remember to include citations\/sources when possible. Thanks!","human_ref_B":"Most doctors and physiologists consider pain to be an activating stimulus rather than something that causes you to lose consciousness.  For example, when patients are undergoing an operation it is often necessary to increase the amount of anesthetic they are receiving once the surgeon begins to cut the patient.  Even though the patient was fully anesthetized before the cutting began, the pain of being cut activates their sympathetic and central nervous system and causes vital sign changes and occasionally limb movement. This OR observation is consistent with the fact that the intense pain of childbirth does not cause depressed consciousness, but actually the opposite. Thinking from an evolutionary point of view, increased sympathetic tone (i.e. increased awareness, heart rate, blood pressure, and pupillary dilatation) would be a very advantageous response to pain in many situations (such as when an animal is attempting to eat you). You can also verify this at home by providing painful stimulus to someone who is asleep and noting how their level of alertness changes afterwards.  The perception that pain causes people to go unconscious is probably based on two separate physiologic processes. The more severe of the two is called shock. Shock is a pathologic state where the cardiovascular system can no longer provide adequate perfusion to vital organs, particularly the brain. Shock has multiple causes but the one most pertinent to this question is hypovolemic shock secondary to trauma and blood loss. This occurs when there is simply not enough blood in the body. Once enough blood is lost, the brain becomes hypoxic, conciousness becomes depressed, and the patient will shortly thereafter die. Someone witnessing this process might incorrectly assume that the pain associated with this person's injuries is causing them to go unconscious. Another more benign explanation for the perception that pain causes unconsciousness is something called vasovagal syncope. This is stimulation of the vagus nerve, which activates the parasympathetic nervous system resulting in hypotension, bradycardia (slow heart rate), and possibly temporary hypoperfusion of the brain. The vagal nerve can be stimulated in many ways. Common causes are the sight of blood or other disturbing sights, extreme emotional duress, and straining during a bowel movement. It is common for someone who is hurt to look at their injury and have a resulting episode of vasovagal syncope, which to an observer might be attributed to pain.  http:\/\/www.dana.org\/news\/brainhealth\/detail.aspx?id=10072 http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmedhealth\/PMH0001220\/ http:\/\/www.mayoclinic.com\/health\/vasovagal-syncope\/DS00806","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3088.0,"score_ratio":1.7195121951}
{"post_id":"vuj4x","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"If childbirth is one of the most painful experiences one can go through, how come it does not render the person unconscious as when having other forms of pain inflicted?","c_root_id_A":"c57svek","c_root_id_B":"c57talf","created_at_utc_A":1341089394,"created_at_utc_B":1341091600,"score_A":124,"score_B":705,"human_ref_A":"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/7414330  Apparently there are changes in a pregnant woman's biochemestry-blah-blub shortly before the actual childbirth, making the pain more bearable. I'm sure someone with real qualification can tell you more about this, but you really only need to google something  like \"pregnancy pain threshold\" or similar stuff and you'll find basic information relatively quickly.","human_ref_B":"Most doctors and physiologists consider pain to be an activating stimulus rather than something that causes you to lose consciousness.  For example, when patients are undergoing an operation it is often necessary to increase the amount of anesthetic they are receiving once the surgeon begins to cut the patient.  Even though the patient was fully anesthetized before the cutting began, the pain of being cut activates their sympathetic and central nervous system and causes vital sign changes and occasionally limb movement. This OR observation is consistent with the fact that the intense pain of childbirth does not cause depressed consciousness, but actually the opposite. Thinking from an evolutionary point of view, increased sympathetic tone (i.e. increased awareness, heart rate, blood pressure, and pupillary dilatation) would be a very advantageous response to pain in many situations (such as when an animal is attempting to eat you). You can also verify this at home by providing painful stimulus to someone who is asleep and noting how their level of alertness changes afterwards.  The perception that pain causes people to go unconscious is probably based on two separate physiologic processes. The more severe of the two is called shock. Shock is a pathologic state where the cardiovascular system can no longer provide adequate perfusion to vital organs, particularly the brain. Shock has multiple causes but the one most pertinent to this question is hypovolemic shock secondary to trauma and blood loss. This occurs when there is simply not enough blood in the body. Once enough blood is lost, the brain becomes hypoxic, conciousness becomes depressed, and the patient will shortly thereafter die. Someone witnessing this process might incorrectly assume that the pain associated with this person's injuries is causing them to go unconscious. Another more benign explanation for the perception that pain causes unconsciousness is something called vasovagal syncope. This is stimulation of the vagus nerve, which activates the parasympathetic nervous system resulting in hypotension, bradycardia (slow heart rate), and possibly temporary hypoperfusion of the brain. The vagal nerve can be stimulated in many ways. Common causes are the sight of blood or other disturbing sights, extreme emotional duress, and straining during a bowel movement. It is common for someone who is hurt to look at their injury and have a resulting episode of vasovagal syncope, which to an observer might be attributed to pain.  http:\/\/www.dana.org\/news\/brainhealth\/detail.aspx?id=10072 http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmedhealth\/PMH0001220\/ http:\/\/www.mayoclinic.com\/health\/vasovagal-syncope\/DS00806","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2206.0,"score_ratio":5.685483871}
{"post_id":"vuj4x","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"If childbirth is one of the most painful experiences one can go through, how come it does not render the person unconscious as when having other forms of pain inflicted?","c_root_id_A":"c57talf","c_root_id_B":"c57sytw","created_at_utc_A":1341091600,"created_at_utc_B":1341089896,"score_A":705,"score_B":27,"human_ref_A":"Most doctors and physiologists consider pain to be an activating stimulus rather than something that causes you to lose consciousness.  For example, when patients are undergoing an operation it is often necessary to increase the amount of anesthetic they are receiving once the surgeon begins to cut the patient.  Even though the patient was fully anesthetized before the cutting began, the pain of being cut activates their sympathetic and central nervous system and causes vital sign changes and occasionally limb movement. This OR observation is consistent with the fact that the intense pain of childbirth does not cause depressed consciousness, but actually the opposite. Thinking from an evolutionary point of view, increased sympathetic tone (i.e. increased awareness, heart rate, blood pressure, and pupillary dilatation) would be a very advantageous response to pain in many situations (such as when an animal is attempting to eat you). You can also verify this at home by providing painful stimulus to someone who is asleep and noting how their level of alertness changes afterwards.  The perception that pain causes people to go unconscious is probably based on two separate physiologic processes. The more severe of the two is called shock. Shock is a pathologic state where the cardiovascular system can no longer provide adequate perfusion to vital organs, particularly the brain. Shock has multiple causes but the one most pertinent to this question is hypovolemic shock secondary to trauma and blood loss. This occurs when there is simply not enough blood in the body. Once enough blood is lost, the brain becomes hypoxic, conciousness becomes depressed, and the patient will shortly thereafter die. Someone witnessing this process might incorrectly assume that the pain associated with this person's injuries is causing them to go unconscious. Another more benign explanation for the perception that pain causes unconsciousness is something called vasovagal syncope. This is stimulation of the vagus nerve, which activates the parasympathetic nervous system resulting in hypotension, bradycardia (slow heart rate), and possibly temporary hypoperfusion of the brain. The vagal nerve can be stimulated in many ways. Common causes are the sight of blood or other disturbing sights, extreme emotional duress, and straining during a bowel movement. It is common for someone who is hurt to look at their injury and have a resulting episode of vasovagal syncope, which to an observer might be attributed to pain.  http:\/\/www.dana.org\/news\/brainhealth\/detail.aspx?id=10072 http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmedhealth\/PMH0001220\/ http:\/\/www.mayoclinic.com\/health\/vasovagal-syncope\/DS00806","human_ref_B":"The pain from labor is mostly the visceral pain of a hollow viscus (the utureus) contracting against it's contents that are not moving out (the fetus).  This pain is carried by different nerve fibers to different parts of your brain, than the somatic pain of, say, your finger being hit by a hammer.  It's more akin to a small bowel obstruction or an impacted gallstone.  At least until the delivery when the perineum and vagina can tear.  Also I'm no expert but I'm not sure how real \"passing out from pain\" really is, or what might cause it.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1704.0,"score_ratio":26.1111111111}
{"post_id":"5bsbsk","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"If two power plants feed AC voltage\/current into the same electricity grid, how do we make sure they are in the same phase to not cancel out each other? If two power generators feed a sinusoidal voltage into the grid, but one has a phase difference of 180\u00b0 to the other, wouldn't the voltages cancel each other out?    So after the voltage of the power plant is transformed into the appropriate voltage, how do we make sure the voltages have appropriate phase differences? Or does it not make any difference what phase the feeded voltage of each power plant is?","c_root_id_A":"d9r5gj6","c_root_id_B":"d9r0bej","created_at_utc_A":1478619037,"created_at_utc_B":1478611582,"score_A":587,"score_B":421,"human_ref_A":"Senior reactor operator here.   Prior to connecting any generator to a bus, you need to match phase, frequency, and voltage.   Most nuclear plants still do this manually, newer plants use automatic synchronization circuits.   What we will do is turn on the synch scope. The scope is connected to the bus and the generator, and the resulting out of phase voltages cause the scope to move forward or backward. The scope is round with a needle, like a clock. When the arrow is facing straight up, that means both sources are in phase.   So how we will synchronize the generator, is after the synch scope is on, we check the voltage difference on a meter, and adjust generator voltage to match grid voltage.   Once voltage is matched, we adjust the turbine\/generator governor to adjust frequency. We aim to have the synch scope rotating slowly in the clockwise direction. 1 rpm on the scope or less for a large generator. When the scope rotates clockwise, it means we are slightly ahead of grid frequency, and at less than 1 rpm, we are very close to grid frequency. Then we wait until the needle is about straight up (at the 12 o'clock position) where phase is matched. At this point we will close the generator output breaker.   Once the breaker closes, for the power grid, phase voltage and frequency of the generator will all lock onto grid voltage. The fact that we were slightly faster than the grid means that once we synchronize, we will be putting real power out onto the grid. (If we were slower, the grid would be reverse powering the generator and it would trip).   At this point we will raise governor settings up to put load on the grid and close our steam dumps, while also gaining margin to our reverse power trip. Finally we adjust the voltage regulator to set reactive power and bus voltage where the transmission operators want it.   If you have any questions let me know. I'll see if I can get a video of this in the next day or two from our simulator.","human_ref_B":"Power generators have to be synchronised) before connecting them to the grid.  If you imagine a single phase 240 volt generator being connected to the grid via a suitably thick cable, if it was 180 degrees out of phase you would effective have 480 volts shorted across a conductor. This would generally vaporise the connection with a significant, and possibly fatal to the operator, explosion.  Once connected the synchronisation is partly self regulating, as if the generator attempts to run faster than the grid frequency it will face higher load, and vice versa.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7455.0,"score_ratio":1.3942992874}
{"post_id":"5bsbsk","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"If two power plants feed AC voltage\/current into the same electricity grid, how do we make sure they are in the same phase to not cancel out each other? If two power generators feed a sinusoidal voltage into the grid, but one has a phase difference of 180\u00b0 to the other, wouldn't the voltages cancel each other out?    So after the voltage of the power plant is transformed into the appropriate voltage, how do we make sure the voltages have appropriate phase differences? Or does it not make any difference what phase the feeded voltage of each power plant is?","c_root_id_A":"d9r2355","c_root_id_B":"d9r5gj6","created_at_utc_A":1478614501,"created_at_utc_B":1478619037,"score_A":53,"score_B":587,"human_ref_A":"Electrical engineer here and one of my labs was hooking up a generator to the live power grid. we actually did it by hand I'm sure that an automated control system could get it nearly perfect.  To answer your first question yes, if you connect out of phase things will go badly. think smoke and fire.  A 3-phase generator has a Y frame in the inside each spoke 120 degrees apart with a winding on each. Each spoke generates one of the phases.  The generator spins exactly 60 times a second to give use the 60Hz AC signal.    So now you are ready to hook to the grid but you are out of phase. All you need to do is briefly changes the speed of your generators. Something is driving the spinning of the generator mostly in power plants its a steam engine with the steam coming from burning a fossil fuel or a nuclear pile.  So you adjust the steam engine to say 59.99 hz and now your phase difference relative to the grid that is at 60 Hz will start to move. Once it gets in phase you step up your engine back to 60HZ and connect.  Over time you and the power grid won't both be exactly at 60 hz so you need to monitor the grid phase and have a feedback system to your generator to speed up or slow down in order to stay in phase.","human_ref_B":"Senior reactor operator here.   Prior to connecting any generator to a bus, you need to match phase, frequency, and voltage.   Most nuclear plants still do this manually, newer plants use automatic synchronization circuits.   What we will do is turn on the synch scope. The scope is connected to the bus and the generator, and the resulting out of phase voltages cause the scope to move forward or backward. The scope is round with a needle, like a clock. When the arrow is facing straight up, that means both sources are in phase.   So how we will synchronize the generator, is after the synch scope is on, we check the voltage difference on a meter, and adjust generator voltage to match grid voltage.   Once voltage is matched, we adjust the turbine\/generator governor to adjust frequency. We aim to have the synch scope rotating slowly in the clockwise direction. 1 rpm on the scope or less for a large generator. When the scope rotates clockwise, it means we are slightly ahead of grid frequency, and at less than 1 rpm, we are very close to grid frequency. Then we wait until the needle is about straight up (at the 12 o'clock position) where phase is matched. At this point we will close the generator output breaker.   Once the breaker closes, for the power grid, phase voltage and frequency of the generator will all lock onto grid voltage. The fact that we were slightly faster than the grid means that once we synchronize, we will be putting real power out onto the grid. (If we were slower, the grid would be reverse powering the generator and it would trip).   At this point we will raise governor settings up to put load on the grid and close our steam dumps, while also gaining margin to our reverse power trip. Finally we adjust the voltage regulator to set reactive power and bus voltage where the transmission operators want it.   If you have any questions let me know. I'll see if I can get a video of this in the next day or two from our simulator.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4536.0,"score_ratio":11.0754716981}
{"post_id":"5bsbsk","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"If two power plants feed AC voltage\/current into the same electricity grid, how do we make sure they are in the same phase to not cancel out each other? If two power generators feed a sinusoidal voltage into the grid, but one has a phase difference of 180\u00b0 to the other, wouldn't the voltages cancel each other out?    So after the voltage of the power plant is transformed into the appropriate voltage, how do we make sure the voltages have appropriate phase differences? Or does it not make any difference what phase the feeded voltage of each power plant is?","c_root_id_A":"d9r5gj6","c_root_id_B":"d9r45d3","created_at_utc_A":1478619037,"created_at_utc_B":1478617388,"score_A":587,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Senior reactor operator here.   Prior to connecting any generator to a bus, you need to match phase, frequency, and voltage.   Most nuclear plants still do this manually, newer plants use automatic synchronization circuits.   What we will do is turn on the synch scope. The scope is connected to the bus and the generator, and the resulting out of phase voltages cause the scope to move forward or backward. The scope is round with a needle, like a clock. When the arrow is facing straight up, that means both sources are in phase.   So how we will synchronize the generator, is after the synch scope is on, we check the voltage difference on a meter, and adjust generator voltage to match grid voltage.   Once voltage is matched, we adjust the turbine\/generator governor to adjust frequency. We aim to have the synch scope rotating slowly in the clockwise direction. 1 rpm on the scope or less for a large generator. When the scope rotates clockwise, it means we are slightly ahead of grid frequency, and at less than 1 rpm, we are very close to grid frequency. Then we wait until the needle is about straight up (at the 12 o'clock position) where phase is matched. At this point we will close the generator output breaker.   Once the breaker closes, for the power grid, phase voltage and frequency of the generator will all lock onto grid voltage. The fact that we were slightly faster than the grid means that once we synchronize, we will be putting real power out onto the grid. (If we were slower, the grid would be reverse powering the generator and it would trip).   At this point we will raise governor settings up to put load on the grid and close our steam dumps, while also gaining margin to our reverse power trip. Finally we adjust the voltage regulator to set reactive power and bus voltage where the transmission operators want it.   If you have any questions let me know. I'll see if I can get a video of this in the next day or two from our simulator.","human_ref_B":"I've parallel a nuclear powered ship's (CGN-40) turbine generators with shore power at Norfolk more than once. The electric plant control panel had a Synchroscope https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Synchroscope  that displayed the phase\/frequency relationship between the ship and shore power. If we had just docked, I'd match the shore voltage, then run the ship's generator frequency slightly lower than the shore frequency, and close the paralleling switchgear when the phase difference was zero. It the phase difference is too great, you can motorize your generator, tearing it from it's mountings and cause great harm to ship and crew.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1649.0,"score_ratio":97.8333333333}
{"post_id":"5bsbsk","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"If two power plants feed AC voltage\/current into the same electricity grid, how do we make sure they are in the same phase to not cancel out each other? If two power generators feed a sinusoidal voltage into the grid, but one has a phase difference of 180\u00b0 to the other, wouldn't the voltages cancel each other out?    So after the voltage of the power plant is transformed into the appropriate voltage, how do we make sure the voltages have appropriate phase differences? Or does it not make any difference what phase the feeded voltage of each power plant is?","c_root_id_A":"d9r45d3","c_root_id_B":"d9rc1zb","created_at_utc_A":1478617388,"created_at_utc_B":1478626673,"score_A":6,"score_B":16,"human_ref_A":"I've parallel a nuclear powered ship's (CGN-40) turbine generators with shore power at Norfolk more than once. The electric plant control panel had a Synchroscope https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Synchroscope  that displayed the phase\/frequency relationship between the ship and shore power. If we had just docked, I'd match the shore voltage, then run the ship's generator frequency slightly lower than the shore frequency, and close the paralleling switchgear when the phase difference was zero. It the phase difference is too great, you can motorize your generator, tearing it from it's mountings and cause great harm to ship and crew.","human_ref_B":"I don't know if this is an urban legend or not, but here it is anyway.  Our local electrical generator, Eskom, had a small coal fired power station, which was primarily used for training purposes. The station gets stripped down and rebuilt periodically, as part of their training. This includes removing and reinstalling the taps on the transformers that feed the frequency gauges.  This particular occasion, the taps were installed backwards, resulting in a reading that was 180 degrees out of phase. So when the dial speed spinning, indicating that they were in sync with the grid, and they closed the breaker, the grid effectively said Nope!  Since the grid was backed by thousands of megawatts, and this was something like a 30 MW turbine, the grid won. The turbine stopped turning instantly, only to start turning again 1\/60th of a second later. This resulted in a multiple ton turbine being launched out of the building and over the river several hundred meters away.  The facility was closed down, and never used again.  According to my recollection of the story, this happened in the 1950's or thereabouts, which explains why i have not been able to verify the story.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9285.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"2qdrzd","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Which two are more genetically different... two randomly chosen humans alive today? Or a human alive today and a direct (paternal\/maternal) ancestor from say 10,000 years ago? Bonus question: how far back would you have to go until the difference within a family through time is bigger than the difference between the people alive today?","c_root_id_A":"cn59bbx","c_root_id_B":"cn58xtg","created_at_utc_A":1419542636,"created_at_utc_B":1419541688,"score_A":53,"score_B":24,"human_ref_A":"I'm seeing a lot of attempts to answer this question by asking whether the most recent common ancestor of all humans was more or less than 10,000 years ago. Estimates based on genetic data vary widely, but anthropological evidence suggests the first major migrations out of our species' African birthplace were between 100,000 and 200,000 years ago.  That's not even a very direct way to answer this, actually, but I'll try to explain the intuitive idea behind it. Who are you more related to, your grandfather or your first cousin? Well, think about all the \"hops\" your genome has been through. Half your grandfather's genome hopped into your mother (we'll assume it's your maternal grandfather), and then half of that hopped into you. Two hops. Your *kinship coefficient*, the degree of relatedness between you (technically the probability that you have both inherited the same genetic material from the same origin - in this case your grandfather himself would be the origin) is 1\/4.  To get to your first cousin, you have to hop up twice to your grandparents, then hop down again twice to the cousin, so four hops. What's the kinship coefficient? Well, it's actually 1\/8, not 1\/16, because although there were four hops, there were two different paths (one through your grandfather and one through your grandmother, since you have them in common).  So basically, one way of asking how related you are to any random human in the population is to ask how many generations ago your most recent common ancestor was. This number will vary widely; if you're both German, it's probably much more recent than if one of you is Korean and the other is from a tribe of !Kung San in the Kalahari desert, in which case you might have to trace your common origins all the way back to the first African humans.  ---  That said, it should still be very possible to estimate the average genetic distance between any two living humans, given all the data we've accumulated now. It could be trickier to model the hypothetical gene pool of humanity from 10,000 years ago, and I don't remember enough coalescent theory to do it myself, but I hope some pop-gen expert comes along soon because a lot of the answers in this thread are just naive math that's obviously wrong.","human_ref_B":"There are a few caveats about our genes that you have to consider before taking on this question fully. Humans have greater genetic variance in general than the races have genetic variance from one another. Racial differences are actually a very small portion of our overall genetics. For instance, skin color is a combination of a handful of genes, where a more complex process like digestion has genes numbering in the hundreds. However, of course races do have differing probabilities of having certain genes. Dairy consumption is a good example- among humans that are not northern European, lifelong lactase production to digest dairy is rare at about 2-5% of the population, but among northern Europeans it is highly common being more like 70-80% of the population. Although the entire human race circulates the genes for dairy digestion, that it is so common in northern Europeans is a racial difference. As you can see, the racial difference is not a gene that no one else has, it is merely commonality of a gene the other races have rarely. Every racial difference is this way.  Also, large population groups maintain most of their genes, recirculating them, reducing evolutionary movement. Humans have had populations large enough to breed out almost all mutation for a very long time (if I remember correctly, the last time humans were nearly extinct was because of a volcano 80,000 years ago or so- it was at that time that the races \"split,\" before then there was a more gradual change in traits as you changed location, instead of a few major obviously differentiated groups). Adaptations like the lighter skin and dairy digestion of northern Europeans, where calcium deficiency drove the change by killing off the group members with darker skin and inability to digest dairy, take up to 20,000 years. Although changes in gene commonality occur through selective pressure, mutations are rarely passed on more than a couple generations. As well, if there is no selective pressure creating a change in gene commonality, the population will maintain the same ratios its ancestors had. So, although decreased melamine and increased lactase production were selected for in northern Europeans, most other genes are practically identical in variance to African's. With a few genes, known to be racial differences, you can predict race by genetics extremely precisely, however if you choose random genes you can't tell just about anything.  But, it's important to remember that just because half of your genes come from each parent, doesn't mean that some of their genes didn't match in the first place. As an obvious proof, racial differences are practically always passed on, because both parents share those genes, and thus there is realistically zero chance of the child not inheriting those traits. Your parent's preexisting genetic similarity means that you are slightly more than a half copy of each to the degree that they were slightly already copies of each-other (due to common ancestry). By this mechanism, a village of several thousand people with little immigration or emigration (as most of humankind has existed for most of the last 10,000 years) will simply pass around the genes it already had, changing in relation to each other very little no matter how much time passes (so long as environmental factors remain ineffective- go farming!?).    Now to answer the question: the population of a little village like that in Norway would look very similar genetically to itself over thousands of years. However, that's comparing a population to a population. It will keep the same ratios of genes circulating, but individuals within the population will have random incidences of those genes, which like I noted earlier are far more numerous than racial marker genes, variance shared rather evenly across all humanity. Still, though, like the parents passing on their shared ancestry, because each has some identical genes, the little village will have kept that ancestral gene sequence for thousands of years, as northern Europe has kept the gene sequences for pale skin and milk-drinking for thousands of years. If you were Norwegian, comparing yourself to a 10,000 year old ancestor and a man from modern Zimbabwe, the odds are the longest gene sequences you'd have in common with either would be those \"racial\" differences. The rest of your genes would be a random, more generically human, scramble.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":948.0,"score_ratio":2.2083333333}
{"post_id":"1g9042","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.79,"history":"If we are all star dust and all of the atoms in my body are from supernovas then does that mean I have always existed and atoms that already existed were just clumped together during birth to make \"me\"? Further more, once I die my atoms will still exist, correct? So does that mean they could be clumped together again for me to be \"born\" again?","c_root_id_A":"cai0kut","c_root_id_B":"cai0gul","created_at_utc_A":1371120678,"created_at_utc_B":1371119804,"score_A":26,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"You are made of atoms like a painting is made of paint. Did the painting exist while the paint was in the tubes? You are not so much a lump of carbon and water as you are how these elements have been composed, much in the way a painting is not the sum of the colors, but how they are arranged.   - Yes I know this isn't scientific, but the question is more philosophical \"existence\" than scientific \"existence\" so I think this answer is somewhat appropriate despite being in this sub.","human_ref_B":"You are committing an informal fallacy known as \"composition\" in your question.  Just because something is true of all of the parts of a whole, does not make it true of the whole.  All your atoms have always existed, but you have not always existed.  You, the living person, exist now and will cease to exist when you die.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":874.0,"score_ratio":1.7333333333}
{"post_id":"1g9042","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.79,"history":"If we are all star dust and all of the atoms in my body are from supernovas then does that mean I have always existed and atoms that already existed were just clumped together during birth to make \"me\"? Further more, once I die my atoms will still exist, correct? So does that mean they could be clumped together again for me to be \"born\" again?","c_root_id_A":"cai10an","c_root_id_B":"cai0gul","created_at_utc_A":1371123686,"created_at_utc_B":1371119804,"score_A":16,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"There is no such thing as \"your\" atoms. You lose an acquire new atoms every second. Atoms are interchangeable. The atoms you were made of a few years ago are not the same ones that make you right now. You're not atoms, you're an arrangement.   Relevant xkcd http:\/\/xkcd.com\/659\/","human_ref_B":"You are committing an informal fallacy known as \"composition\" in your question.  Just because something is true of all of the parts of a whole, does not make it true of the whole.  All your atoms have always existed, but you have not always existed.  You, the living person, exist now and will cease to exist when you die.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3882.0,"score_ratio":1.0666666667}
{"post_id":"122dhp","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Is the recording of my voice really what my voice sounds like? Why does it sound more \"nasally\" than when I hear my voice directly?","c_root_id_A":"c6rkr0k","c_root_id_B":"c6rlfnw","created_at_utc_A":1351178633,"created_at_utc_B":1351181509,"score_A":79,"score_B":263,"human_ref_A":"The primary difference is that when you speak you hear sound that it transmitted through your skull. This tends to have stronger low frequency content. So when you remove this your voice sounds much more nasally, as you describe it.  The quality of the recording equipment, primarily the microphone and recording medium, will also color the sound.","human_ref_B":"As an audio engineer I cannot stress enough how much the Mic you use and how you record it will have huge effect on the frequency content of the audio. Look up frequency response in relation to microphones. Every Mic will color the sound in its own way. Most cheap consumer mics tend to boost the frequencies the human voice is centered on (1k to 4k Hz). Which also tends to bring out the nasal sounds too.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2876.0,"score_ratio":3.3291139241}
{"post_id":"gyexm","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"Why does my voice sound different when I listen to a recording of it?","c_root_id_A":"c1r85a6","c_root_id_B":"c1r8d09","created_at_utc_A":1303884981,"created_at_utc_B":1303888730,"score_A":5,"score_B":112,"human_ref_A":"~~Likely because when you are speaking, you are also \"hearing\" your voice not onnly through the compression of the air as it leaves your mouth but also the vibrations that are carried through your bones and flesh.~~  ~~Also, the speakers and recording equipment may not be picking up or returning the exact same mix of tones.~~  EDIT: It appears according to pratchett2 that my comment is incorrect so therefore I am redacting it. Live and learn it appears :)","human_ref_B":"Fluffeh's response is actually somewhat incorrect, though commonly believed to be true.   While there is some contribution to the discrepancy in the sound of one's voice as a result of damping through bone conduction, the major reason is actually something known as the pre-vocalization reflex.    There's a great description of it here, but to summarize, essentially any time you are about to say something, cranial nerves fire in order to ensure that your hearing is dampened at that time, thereby making your voice sound different to yourself. If the function of these cranial nerves is harmed (Bell's Palsy), then you no longer hear yourself the way that you used to hear yourself. (Which is actually one of the symptoms for the disease).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3749.0,"score_ratio":22.4}
{"post_id":"gyexm","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"Why does my voice sound different when I listen to a recording of it?","c_root_id_A":"c1r85a6","c_root_id_B":"c1r8kvp","created_at_utc_A":1303884981,"created_at_utc_B":1303914437,"score_A":5,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"~~Likely because when you are speaking, you are also \"hearing\" your voice not onnly through the compression of the air as it leaves your mouth but also the vibrations that are carried through your bones and flesh.~~  ~~Also, the speakers and recording equipment may not be picking up or returning the exact same mix of tones.~~  EDIT: It appears according to pratchett2 that my comment is incorrect so therefore I am redacting it. Live and learn it appears :)","human_ref_B":"Pratchett's response is most likely the correct response, and the answer that you were looking for.  That said, what pratchett2 has answered is why your voice would sound differently, if your exact sounds were played back to you, perfectly.  However, if you asked this same question on \/r\/wearethemusicmakers, you would receive mountains of information on why your voice, played back to your from a recording, will almost certainly not sound the same way you spoke it, even to someone standing next to you.  The truth is that making a recording that will play back your voice (just one track!) the same way it sounds to an observer when you spoke, is a particularly difficult thing to do... in fact its rarely done.  The recording equipment you need for such a feat not only has to be able to handle particularly high quality recordings (and subsequently needs to be designed to to write large file sizes at a constant rate), but it also needs to be able to do so without adding any extra noise, or any distortion, of any kind.  When you remember that audio equipment isn't a magical box, but really is just a series of resistors, capacitors, and etc, you can see how that could be extremely difficult.  In fact, what usually happens is audio technicians will learn multiple pieces of equipment at each point in the recording chain (this one records voices more jazzy, this one with clearer timbre, this one is much warmer), and mix and match at each step until they've recorded an input signal that sounds closer to what they want to hear (not what was actually sung).  And then playing the sound back causes even more problems.  Studio monitors are (mainly) the only speakers in the world actually designed to play back sound files the way they are recorded.  Almost all other speakers manipulate the EQ in order to sounds better (for cheaper) than their competitor's products.  So in short, if you're testing this off of a cell phone or computer microphone (which records to the smallest file possible, save bandwidth), then play back on the phone or computers basic 20$ speakers, your voice isn't going to sound the same, regardless of pratchett2's psychological mechanism.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":29456.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"7ct8q1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.6,"history":"Let\u2019s say a planet is 200 light years away. How do we know? Do we actually keep a telescope pointed in that area for 200 years to get a reading? If not, why is information traveling faster than the speed of light?","c_root_id_A":"dpsl993","c_root_id_B":"dpslodx","created_at_utc_A":1510639563,"created_at_utc_B":1510640307,"score_A":13,"score_B":86,"human_ref_A":"We know how far away things are by a series of overlapping rulers. For example, we know how far the sun is. As we orbit the sun, we can see shifts in the positions of closer stars. From the size of the shift we can figure how far away the star is.   For farther away stars, we can compare how bright they are, and their color to stars that have a known distance, and then can extend the distance of known objects farther.","human_ref_B":"There's a couple different ways, but the 3 easiest to understand are brightness, parallax and redshift.  **Brightness** is straightforward. Things further away are dimmer. You can tell how bright a star should be by how big it is, and you can tell how big a star is by how things move around it -- the strength of the star's gravity is related to its mass. If you measure the brightness carefully with a telescope, and you know how bright it should be based on the mass, you can get a decent estimate of how far away it is.   **Parallax** is how things move relative to each other based on distance. So, for example, hold a thumb up in front of your face and look at it while winking with each eye. You'll see the thumb move left-right much more than the background. That's the parallax effect. Closer things move more than further-away things.   So for stars, we take a picture of them at opposite points in Earth's orbit. For example, we might take pictures in summer and winter, or fall and spring. The pictures are similar to your eyes winking back and forth -- and some stars move more than others. So from that we can tell relative distances between the stars. If you know relative distances from this, and you know an absolute distance for one of the stars (say from a brightness measurement), now you know the distances of the other stars.  Lastly, **redshift**. This is basically just the Doppler Effect for light. Doppler is what happens when a train or ambulance zips by -- you hear the high-pitched sound and as it zooms past it changes to a low sound. EEEEEEEEEEEEEEoooooooooooooo. The actual sound is the same the whole time, but what's happening is that as it comes toward you, the sound waves bunch up, so it gets higher-pitched. As it leaves, they get stretched out, so it's lower-pitched. The same thing happens to light at very high speeds. Stuff coming toward you really fast would look BLUER, and stuff moving away fast would look REDDER.   Because of the Big Bang, everything is moving away from everything else. So starlight is redder than it should be. The redder it is, the faster it's moving away. And because of some interesting math with the Big Bang, the faster it's moving away, the further away it is.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":744.0,"score_ratio":6.6153846154}
{"post_id":"7ct8q1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.6,"history":"Let\u2019s say a planet is 200 light years away. How do we know? Do we actually keep a telescope pointed in that area for 200 years to get a reading? If not, why is information traveling faster than the speed of light?","c_root_id_A":"dpslcbs","c_root_id_B":"dpslodx","created_at_utc_A":1510639719,"created_at_utc_B":1510640307,"score_A":6,"score_B":86,"human_ref_A":"Distance can be measured by observing the Parallax of the distant object. Using the Earths rotation around the sun you can take measurements 6 months apart to obtain an angle, from that you can use geometry to calculate the distance.  The limit of this technique was ~1600 light years in 1989 using the Hipparcos satellite, which is its primary purpose. While Hubble improved on this to about 10,000 light years in 2014.","human_ref_B":"There's a couple different ways, but the 3 easiest to understand are brightness, parallax and redshift.  **Brightness** is straightforward. Things further away are dimmer. You can tell how bright a star should be by how big it is, and you can tell how big a star is by how things move around it -- the strength of the star's gravity is related to its mass. If you measure the brightness carefully with a telescope, and you know how bright it should be based on the mass, you can get a decent estimate of how far away it is.   **Parallax** is how things move relative to each other based on distance. So, for example, hold a thumb up in front of your face and look at it while winking with each eye. You'll see the thumb move left-right much more than the background. That's the parallax effect. Closer things move more than further-away things.   So for stars, we take a picture of them at opposite points in Earth's orbit. For example, we might take pictures in summer and winter, or fall and spring. The pictures are similar to your eyes winking back and forth -- and some stars move more than others. So from that we can tell relative distances between the stars. If you know relative distances from this, and you know an absolute distance for one of the stars (say from a brightness measurement), now you know the distances of the other stars.  Lastly, **redshift**. This is basically just the Doppler Effect for light. Doppler is what happens when a train or ambulance zips by -- you hear the high-pitched sound and as it zooms past it changes to a low sound. EEEEEEEEEEEEEEoooooooooooooo. The actual sound is the same the whole time, but what's happening is that as it comes toward you, the sound waves bunch up, so it gets higher-pitched. As it leaves, they get stretched out, so it's lower-pitched. The same thing happens to light at very high speeds. Stuff coming toward you really fast would look BLUER, and stuff moving away fast would look REDDER.   Because of the Big Bang, everything is moving away from everything else. So starlight is redder than it should be. The redder it is, the faster it's moving away. And because of some interesting math with the Big Bang, the faster it's moving away, the further away it is.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":588.0,"score_ratio":14.3333333333}
{"post_id":"7ct8q1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.6,"history":"Let\u2019s say a planet is 200 light years away. How do we know? Do we actually keep a telescope pointed in that area for 200 years to get a reading? If not, why is information traveling faster than the speed of light?","c_root_id_A":"dpskbff","c_root_id_B":"dpslodx","created_at_utc_A":1510637963,"created_at_utc_B":1510640307,"score_A":2,"score_B":86,"human_ref_A":"If you were looking at it through an optical telescope, what you'd be seeing is what it looked like 200 years ago when the light bounced off of it.  What is happening there at this moment, we cant see for 200 years.","human_ref_B":"There's a couple different ways, but the 3 easiest to understand are brightness, parallax and redshift.  **Brightness** is straightforward. Things further away are dimmer. You can tell how bright a star should be by how big it is, and you can tell how big a star is by how things move around it -- the strength of the star's gravity is related to its mass. If you measure the brightness carefully with a telescope, and you know how bright it should be based on the mass, you can get a decent estimate of how far away it is.   **Parallax** is how things move relative to each other based on distance. So, for example, hold a thumb up in front of your face and look at it while winking with each eye. You'll see the thumb move left-right much more than the background. That's the parallax effect. Closer things move more than further-away things.   So for stars, we take a picture of them at opposite points in Earth's orbit. For example, we might take pictures in summer and winter, or fall and spring. The pictures are similar to your eyes winking back and forth -- and some stars move more than others. So from that we can tell relative distances between the stars. If you know relative distances from this, and you know an absolute distance for one of the stars (say from a brightness measurement), now you know the distances of the other stars.  Lastly, **redshift**. This is basically just the Doppler Effect for light. Doppler is what happens when a train or ambulance zips by -- you hear the high-pitched sound and as it zooms past it changes to a low sound. EEEEEEEEEEEEEEoooooooooooooo. The actual sound is the same the whole time, but what's happening is that as it comes toward you, the sound waves bunch up, so it gets higher-pitched. As it leaves, they get stretched out, so it's lower-pitched. The same thing happens to light at very high speeds. Stuff coming toward you really fast would look BLUER, and stuff moving away fast would look REDDER.   Because of the Big Bang, everything is moving away from everything else. So starlight is redder than it should be. The redder it is, the faster it's moving away. And because of some interesting math with the Big Bang, the faster it's moving away, the further away it is.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2344.0,"score_ratio":43.0}
{"post_id":"7ct8q1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.6,"history":"Let\u2019s say a planet is 200 light years away. How do we know? Do we actually keep a telescope pointed in that area for 200 years to get a reading? If not, why is information traveling faster than the speed of light?","c_root_id_A":"dpsn2xr","c_root_id_B":"dpsl993","created_at_utc_A":1510643050,"created_at_utc_B":1510639563,"score_A":31,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"Other people have already explained some of the ways distances can be measured, but to answer the other part of the question: >why is information traveling faster than light?  It isn't. When we look at something 200 light years away, we are seeing it as it was 200 years ago. In other words, we are seeing the light than was emitted from the star 200 years, which travelled 200 years until it reached us. When you look in the night sky, you're not seeing the universe as it is now, you're seeing what it looked like in the past.","human_ref_B":"We know how far away things are by a series of overlapping rulers. For example, we know how far the sun is. As we orbit the sun, we can see shifts in the positions of closer stars. From the size of the shift we can figure how far away the star is.   For farther away stars, we can compare how bright they are, and their color to stars that have a known distance, and then can extend the distance of known objects farther.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3487.0,"score_ratio":2.3846153846}
{"post_id":"7ct8q1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.6,"history":"Let\u2019s say a planet is 200 light years away. How do we know? Do we actually keep a telescope pointed in that area for 200 years to get a reading? If not, why is information traveling faster than the speed of light?","c_root_id_A":"dpsn2xr","c_root_id_B":"dpslcbs","created_at_utc_A":1510643050,"created_at_utc_B":1510639719,"score_A":31,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Other people have already explained some of the ways distances can be measured, but to answer the other part of the question: >why is information traveling faster than light?  It isn't. When we look at something 200 light years away, we are seeing it as it was 200 years ago. In other words, we are seeing the light than was emitted from the star 200 years, which travelled 200 years until it reached us. When you look in the night sky, you're not seeing the universe as it is now, you're seeing what it looked like in the past.","human_ref_B":"Distance can be measured by observing the Parallax of the distant object. Using the Earths rotation around the sun you can take measurements 6 months apart to obtain an angle, from that you can use geometry to calculate the distance.  The limit of this technique was ~1600 light years in 1989 using the Hipparcos satellite, which is its primary purpose. While Hubble improved on this to about 10,000 light years in 2014.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3331.0,"score_ratio":5.1666666667}
{"post_id":"7ct8q1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.6,"history":"Let\u2019s say a planet is 200 light years away. How do we know? Do we actually keep a telescope pointed in that area for 200 years to get a reading? If not, why is information traveling faster than the speed of light?","c_root_id_A":"dpsltut","c_root_id_B":"dpsn2xr","created_at_utc_A":1510640583,"created_at_utc_B":1510643050,"score_A":5,"score_B":31,"human_ref_A":"We use parallax. If you hold a finger up at arm's length and look at it with one eye closed, then the other, it looks like it's moving back and forth. If we know the distance between your eyes, we can calculate the distance to your finger by measuring that apparent shift.  Astronomers do much the same thing by looking at a star or planet from one place in earth's rotation around the sun, and then another. Knowing the distance between those two spots, and noting the shift of the star or planet in the sky, they can calculate how far away it is.","human_ref_B":"Other people have already explained some of the ways distances can be measured, but to answer the other part of the question: >why is information traveling faster than light?  It isn't. When we look at something 200 light years away, we are seeing it as it was 200 years ago. In other words, we are seeing the light than was emitted from the star 200 years, which travelled 200 years until it reached us. When you look in the night sky, you're not seeing the universe as it is now, you're seeing what it looked like in the past.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2467.0,"score_ratio":6.2}
{"post_id":"7ct8q1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.6,"history":"Let\u2019s say a planet is 200 light years away. How do we know? Do we actually keep a telescope pointed in that area for 200 years to get a reading? If not, why is information traveling faster than the speed of light?","c_root_id_A":"dpsn2xr","c_root_id_B":"dpskbff","created_at_utc_A":1510643050,"created_at_utc_B":1510637963,"score_A":31,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Other people have already explained some of the ways distances can be measured, but to answer the other part of the question: >why is information traveling faster than light?  It isn't. When we look at something 200 light years away, we are seeing it as it was 200 years ago. In other words, we are seeing the light than was emitted from the star 200 years, which travelled 200 years until it reached us. When you look in the night sky, you're not seeing the universe as it is now, you're seeing what it looked like in the past.","human_ref_B":"If you were looking at it through an optical telescope, what you'd be seeing is what it looked like 200 years ago when the light bounced off of it.  What is happening there at this moment, we cant see for 200 years.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5087.0,"score_ratio":15.5}
{"post_id":"7ct8q1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.6,"history":"Let\u2019s say a planet is 200 light years away. How do we know? Do we actually keep a telescope pointed in that area for 200 years to get a reading? If not, why is information traveling faster than the speed of light?","c_root_id_A":"dpsl993","c_root_id_B":"dpskbff","created_at_utc_A":1510639563,"created_at_utc_B":1510637963,"score_A":13,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"We know how far away things are by a series of overlapping rulers. For example, we know how far the sun is. As we orbit the sun, we can see shifts in the positions of closer stars. From the size of the shift we can figure how far away the star is.   For farther away stars, we can compare how bright they are, and their color to stars that have a known distance, and then can extend the distance of known objects farther.","human_ref_B":"If you were looking at it through an optical telescope, what you'd be seeing is what it looked like 200 years ago when the light bounced off of it.  What is happening there at this moment, we cant see for 200 years.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1600.0,"score_ratio":6.5}
{"post_id":"7ct8q1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.6,"history":"Let\u2019s say a planet is 200 light years away. How do we know? Do we actually keep a telescope pointed in that area for 200 years to get a reading? If not, why is information traveling faster than the speed of light?","c_root_id_A":"dpsnptp","c_root_id_B":"dpslcbs","created_at_utc_A":1510644404,"created_at_utc_B":1510639719,"score_A":7,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"How can you tell that your monitor is closer than the wall behind it? You have 3D vision due to the parallax between your slightly separated two eyes. Each sees a slightly different image, and objects are in slightly different positions in each image. Closer stuff is more displaced than farther stuff. Very distant things like mountains (or, indeed, stars) don't have any apparent parallax though, so it's hard to tell how far away they are other than just guessing based on their size, etc.  However, what if your eyes weren't just a few inches apart but actually three hundred *million* kilometers across? And what if your eyes were vastly more precise, able to pick out even minute changes in position? That's basically how astronomers work to determine distances to stars. They measure the position of nearby stars against the sky while the Earth is on different sides of the Sun in its orbit and they precisely measure the parallax of distant stars. If you divide a circle up into 360 degrees then divide each degree into 60 \"arc minutes\" and then each arcminute into 60 \"arc seconds\" then you could talk about the distance of a star by referencing its parallax, since distance is just the inverse of parallax (something twice as distant will show half as much parallax). You can invent a unit that corresponded to a parallax of exactly 1 arcsecond to either side of the mid-point position of the star on the sky, call it a \"parallax arcsecond\", or \"parsec\" for short. A star that showed 1\/2 of an arcsecond of parallax would be 2 parsecs away, and so forth. As it turns out, the closest other star to the Sun is just a little over a parsec away (1.3 in fact), and shows very close to 1 arcsecond of parallax (0.768).  Using simple trigonometry and knowing the diameter of Earth's orbit it's possible to calculate how far a parsec is in other length units, which gives a distance of 3.26 light-years or 32 petameters.  We've gotten ridiculously good at measuring parallax over the years. The distance to the alpha centauri system was first measured back in the 1830s, to a precision within 1% of the current measurement. The Hipparcos survey satellite from the late 1980s could measure parallax down to just 0.002 arcseconds (up to a distance of 500 parsecs or 1600 light-years). The GAIA spacecraft), launched in 2013 and still operating, can measure parallax to a precision of just 20 micro-arcseconds, 100 times better than Hipparcos, and able to measure distances up to 100x as distant (and a volume a million times larger). GAIA is expected to provide positions for a billion stars in the Milky Way.","human_ref_B":"Distance can be measured by observing the Parallax of the distant object. Using the Earths rotation around the sun you can take measurements 6 months apart to obtain an angle, from that you can use geometry to calculate the distance.  The limit of this technique was ~1600 light years in 1989 using the Hipparcos satellite, which is its primary purpose. While Hubble improved on this to about 10,000 light years in 2014.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4685.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"7ct8q1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.6,"history":"Let\u2019s say a planet is 200 light years away. How do we know? Do we actually keep a telescope pointed in that area for 200 years to get a reading? If not, why is information traveling faster than the speed of light?","c_root_id_A":"dpskbff","c_root_id_B":"dpslcbs","created_at_utc_A":1510637963,"created_at_utc_B":1510639719,"score_A":2,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"If you were looking at it through an optical telescope, what you'd be seeing is what it looked like 200 years ago when the light bounced off of it.  What is happening there at this moment, we cant see for 200 years.","human_ref_B":"Distance can be measured by observing the Parallax of the distant object. Using the Earths rotation around the sun you can take measurements 6 months apart to obtain an angle, from that you can use geometry to calculate the distance.  The limit of this technique was ~1600 light years in 1989 using the Hipparcos satellite, which is its primary purpose. While Hubble improved on this to about 10,000 light years in 2014.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1756.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"7ct8q1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.6,"history":"Let\u2019s say a planet is 200 light years away. How do we know? Do we actually keep a telescope pointed in that area for 200 years to get a reading? If not, why is information traveling faster than the speed of light?","c_root_id_A":"dpsltut","c_root_id_B":"dpsnptp","created_at_utc_A":1510640583,"created_at_utc_B":1510644404,"score_A":5,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"We use parallax. If you hold a finger up at arm's length and look at it with one eye closed, then the other, it looks like it's moving back and forth. If we know the distance between your eyes, we can calculate the distance to your finger by measuring that apparent shift.  Astronomers do much the same thing by looking at a star or planet from one place in earth's rotation around the sun, and then another. Knowing the distance between those two spots, and noting the shift of the star or planet in the sky, they can calculate how far away it is.","human_ref_B":"How can you tell that your monitor is closer than the wall behind it? You have 3D vision due to the parallax between your slightly separated two eyes. Each sees a slightly different image, and objects are in slightly different positions in each image. Closer stuff is more displaced than farther stuff. Very distant things like mountains (or, indeed, stars) don't have any apparent parallax though, so it's hard to tell how far away they are other than just guessing based on their size, etc.  However, what if your eyes weren't just a few inches apart but actually three hundred *million* kilometers across? And what if your eyes were vastly more precise, able to pick out even minute changes in position? That's basically how astronomers work to determine distances to stars. They measure the position of nearby stars against the sky while the Earth is on different sides of the Sun in its orbit and they precisely measure the parallax of distant stars. If you divide a circle up into 360 degrees then divide each degree into 60 \"arc minutes\" and then each arcminute into 60 \"arc seconds\" then you could talk about the distance of a star by referencing its parallax, since distance is just the inverse of parallax (something twice as distant will show half as much parallax). You can invent a unit that corresponded to a parallax of exactly 1 arcsecond to either side of the mid-point position of the star on the sky, call it a \"parallax arcsecond\", or \"parsec\" for short. A star that showed 1\/2 of an arcsecond of parallax would be 2 parsecs away, and so forth. As it turns out, the closest other star to the Sun is just a little over a parsec away (1.3 in fact), and shows very close to 1 arcsecond of parallax (0.768).  Using simple trigonometry and knowing the diameter of Earth's orbit it's possible to calculate how far a parsec is in other length units, which gives a distance of 3.26 light-years or 32 petameters.  We've gotten ridiculously good at measuring parallax over the years. The distance to the alpha centauri system was first measured back in the 1830s, to a precision within 1% of the current measurement. The Hipparcos survey satellite from the late 1980s could measure parallax down to just 0.002 arcseconds (up to a distance of 500 parsecs or 1600 light-years). The GAIA spacecraft), launched in 2013 and still operating, can measure parallax to a precision of just 20 micro-arcseconds, 100 times better than Hipparcos, and able to measure distances up to 100x as distant (and a volume a million times larger). GAIA is expected to provide positions for a billion stars in the Milky Way.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3821.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"7ct8q1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.6,"history":"Let\u2019s say a planet is 200 light years away. How do we know? Do we actually keep a telescope pointed in that area for 200 years to get a reading? If not, why is information traveling faster than the speed of light?","c_root_id_A":"dpskbff","c_root_id_B":"dpsnptp","created_at_utc_A":1510637963,"created_at_utc_B":1510644404,"score_A":2,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"If you were looking at it through an optical telescope, what you'd be seeing is what it looked like 200 years ago when the light bounced off of it.  What is happening there at this moment, we cant see for 200 years.","human_ref_B":"How can you tell that your monitor is closer than the wall behind it? You have 3D vision due to the parallax between your slightly separated two eyes. Each sees a slightly different image, and objects are in slightly different positions in each image. Closer stuff is more displaced than farther stuff. Very distant things like mountains (or, indeed, stars) don't have any apparent parallax though, so it's hard to tell how far away they are other than just guessing based on their size, etc.  However, what if your eyes weren't just a few inches apart but actually three hundred *million* kilometers across? And what if your eyes were vastly more precise, able to pick out even minute changes in position? That's basically how astronomers work to determine distances to stars. They measure the position of nearby stars against the sky while the Earth is on different sides of the Sun in its orbit and they precisely measure the parallax of distant stars. If you divide a circle up into 360 degrees then divide each degree into 60 \"arc minutes\" and then each arcminute into 60 \"arc seconds\" then you could talk about the distance of a star by referencing its parallax, since distance is just the inverse of parallax (something twice as distant will show half as much parallax). You can invent a unit that corresponded to a parallax of exactly 1 arcsecond to either side of the mid-point position of the star on the sky, call it a \"parallax arcsecond\", or \"parsec\" for short. A star that showed 1\/2 of an arcsecond of parallax would be 2 parsecs away, and so forth. As it turns out, the closest other star to the Sun is just a little over a parsec away (1.3 in fact), and shows very close to 1 arcsecond of parallax (0.768).  Using simple trigonometry and knowing the diameter of Earth's orbit it's possible to calculate how far a parsec is in other length units, which gives a distance of 3.26 light-years or 32 petameters.  We've gotten ridiculously good at measuring parallax over the years. The distance to the alpha centauri system was first measured back in the 1830s, to a precision within 1% of the current measurement. The Hipparcos survey satellite from the late 1980s could measure parallax down to just 0.002 arcseconds (up to a distance of 500 parsecs or 1600 light-years). The GAIA spacecraft), launched in 2013 and still operating, can measure parallax to a precision of just 20 micro-arcseconds, 100 times better than Hipparcos, and able to measure distances up to 100x as distant (and a volume a million times larger). GAIA is expected to provide positions for a billion stars in the Milky Way.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6441.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"7ct8q1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.6,"history":"Let\u2019s say a planet is 200 light years away. How do we know? Do we actually keep a telescope pointed in that area for 200 years to get a reading? If not, why is information traveling faster than the speed of light?","c_root_id_A":"dpskbff","c_root_id_B":"dpsltut","created_at_utc_A":1510637963,"created_at_utc_B":1510640583,"score_A":2,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"If you were looking at it through an optical telescope, what you'd be seeing is what it looked like 200 years ago when the light bounced off of it.  What is happening there at this moment, we cant see for 200 years.","human_ref_B":"We use parallax. If you hold a finger up at arm's length and look at it with one eye closed, then the other, it looks like it's moving back and forth. If we know the distance between your eyes, we can calculate the distance to your finger by measuring that apparent shift.  Astronomers do much the same thing by looking at a star or planet from one place in earth's rotation around the sun, and then another. Knowing the distance between those two spots, and noting the shift of the star or planet in the sky, they can calculate how far away it is.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2620.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"7ct8q1","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.6,"history":"Let\u2019s say a planet is 200 light years away. How do we know? Do we actually keep a telescope pointed in that area for 200 years to get a reading? If not, why is information traveling faster than the speed of light?","c_root_id_A":"dpsuylm","c_root_id_B":"dpskbff","created_at_utc_A":1510662507,"created_at_utc_B":1510637963,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"200 light years is a measure of distance.   Light travels at a fast but finite speed. We are seeing the star as it was 200 years ago.  There is no possible way to know what it looks like \"now\", except that most stars are long-lived and slow-changing, so we can guess it looks let much as we see it.  There are various ways of determining the distance to a star, ably covered by other commenters.","human_ref_B":"If you were looking at it through an optical telescope, what you'd be seeing is what it looked like 200 years ago when the light bounced off of it.  What is happening there at this moment, we cant see for 200 years.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":24544.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"ddruw3","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"Light travels faster in vacuum than through air, so is there a material that could slow light down in a way that we could see it traveling? So light travels at 299,792 kilometers per second through vacuum and at \\~200,000 kilometers per second through air. That's almost 100,000 kmps slower, what's the slowest that light can travel through a material and what material?","c_root_id_A":"f2rgeg6","c_root_id_B":"f2t367k","created_at_utc_A":1570372873,"created_at_utc_B":1570390345,"score_A":12,"score_B":16,"human_ref_A":"Light travels slower through materials, but not as slower as you said: light speed in air is almost identical to the one in vacuum, in fact in vacuum is 299 792 458m\/s, while in air is about 299 720 000. This isn\u2019t such an huge difference, and also other materials can\u2019t slow light down so much that we could see it travelling. If u wanna know more look on the internet for refractive index, which is a number that describes how much fast light travels through that material","human_ref_B":"In principle: Yes. Light has been slowed to below 10 m\/s.  https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electromagnetically_induced_transparency  I don't have time right now, might write more about it later.  Edit: The key here is the introduction in the section \"Slow light and stopped light\". Make the absorption depend critically on tiny frequency changes (kHz range) and you get very slow group velocities for a narrow wavelength range.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":17472.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"ddruw3","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"Light travels faster in vacuum than through air, so is there a material that could slow light down in a way that we could see it traveling? So light travels at 299,792 kilometers per second through vacuum and at \\~200,000 kilometers per second through air. That's almost 100,000 kmps slower, what's the slowest that light can travel through a material and what material?","c_root_id_A":"f2sfo34","c_root_id_B":"f2t367k","created_at_utc_A":1570382485,"created_at_utc_B":1570390345,"score_A":2,"score_B":16,"human_ref_A":"Well I mean light really doesn't travel slower, the front velocity of wave is always at the speed of light. The group velocity of the light does change, kind of like an average of all the wave velocities as a photon wave interacts with the medium it's traveling through.","human_ref_B":"In principle: Yes. Light has been slowed to below 10 m\/s.  https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electromagnetically_induced_transparency  I don't have time right now, might write more about it later.  Edit: The key here is the introduction in the section \"Slow light and stopped light\". Make the absorption depend critically on tiny frequency changes (kHz range) and you get very slow group velocities for a narrow wavelength range.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7860.0,"score_ratio":8.0}
{"post_id":"ii0wdg","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":1.0,"history":"How do scientists determine whether an animal is a different species or just a different individual in the same species? Apologies for the possibly confusing title. I'm wondering how many differences do there have to be for two animals to be considered a separate species?","c_root_id_A":"g37i1mh","c_root_id_B":"g37iavv","created_at_utc_A":1598672501,"created_at_utc_B":1598672671,"score_A":4,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"Two animals are considered a seperate species when they can no longer procreate viable offspring (ie. offspring that can then reproduce themselves). For example, male donkeys can mate with female horses to produce a mule but that mule cannot then reproduce with other mules, meaning the horse and donkey are seperate species","human_ref_B":"One of the most basic principals for determining if two species are different is to simply have them mate and see if they produce viable offspring. In rare circumstances, two animals may be able to produce an offspring that can survive but is unable to reproduce (example; a mule is the offspring of a male donkey and a female horse). This outcome occurs due to differing chromosome counts, which impairs sexual cell division resulting in **infertility**.   **Of course, this implies that DNA composition (the base component of chromosomes) is responsible for determining species differences**. However, not all genetic alterations result in species differences (eye color, hair color, ect), *so what differences DO matter and why* do they matter in an evolutionary context?  When it comes to identifying new species, scientists often look at the DNA in regions that are highly evolutionarily conserved, meaning that these regions are often highly regulated and deviations are not tolerated. They often lie in important genes which are vital for life itself, but may have slight flexibility which can change over a vast period of time. This dynamic allows for scientists to make comparisons to other closely related organisms to create phylogenetic trees and develop a timeline for evolutionary changes that *occur slowly*. Once this is done, biologists can then trace a species lineage and determine whether or not it is truely a unique species.  All of this is also paired with other data such as; a physical description, geographic locations, diet ect.  Tldr; It's a combination of molecular work, bioinformatics (computer science + DNA sequences), physical characteristics and a boatload of data.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":170.0,"score_ratio":2.75}
{"post_id":"p5flnf","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"What is the specific advantage of a moon base over an orbital space station? Now that several nations have developed plans for permanent installations on the moon, what is the specific advantage of building such an installation over having an identical facility floating in space?","c_root_id_A":"h96cdzg","c_root_id_B":"h95mrh2","created_at_utc_A":1629132035,"created_at_utc_B":1629121592,"score_A":2245,"score_B":1463,"human_ref_A":"Mass. Every gram of everything that is needed has to be launched to an orbital space station. Structural members, radiation shielding, water, rocket fuel, ammonia, cooling system, oxygen, etc.    On a planetary body, you can get some for free (bury the station for radiation shielding), or minimal processing.  By sending up equipment to process the planetary resources, the total mass can be reduced, and you can build bigger \/ expandable stations.","human_ref_B":"Radiation.  The only known worthwhile shield against solar proton events and galactic cosmic rays is matter. Every gram of orbital space station shield carted up from Earth's surface into orbit costs an obscene amount of money. So they tend to economize on the shield and the astronauts have a yearly limit on visits to the orbital station due to radiation exposure.  On a moon base, radiation shielding is free. Just dig a hole in the ground deep enough and your base will be essentially perfectly shielded.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":10443.0,"score_ratio":1.5345181135}
{"post_id":"p5flnf","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"What is the specific advantage of a moon base over an orbital space station? Now that several nations have developed plans for permanent installations on the moon, what is the specific advantage of building such an installation over having an identical facility floating in space?","c_root_id_A":"h960e47","c_root_id_B":"h96cdzg","created_at_utc_A":1629127334,"created_at_utc_B":1629132035,"score_A":211,"score_B":2245,"human_ref_A":"You only have to protect from meteors coming from one hemisphere  You don't have to expend any design on orbit stationkeeping  You don't need any mechanism to create a familiar up\/down gravity environment for human operators  You have plenty of moon regolith available as a building material, feedstuff or perhaps energy supply","human_ref_B":"Mass. Every gram of everything that is needed has to be launched to an orbital space station. Structural members, radiation shielding, water, rocket fuel, ammonia, cooling system, oxygen, etc.    On a planetary body, you can get some for free (bury the station for radiation shielding), or minimal processing.  By sending up equipment to process the planetary resources, the total mass can be reduced, and you can build bigger \/ expandable stations.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4701.0,"score_ratio":10.6398104265}
{"post_id":"p5flnf","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"What is the specific advantage of a moon base over an orbital space station? Now that several nations have developed plans for permanent installations on the moon, what is the specific advantage of building such an installation over having an identical facility floating in space?","c_root_id_A":"h95hl7h","c_root_id_B":"h96cdzg","created_at_utc_A":1629119103,"created_at_utc_B":1629132035,"score_A":60,"score_B":2245,"human_ref_A":"I\u2019m no expert, just having a punt here\u2026 I guess it\u2019s helpful to have a little gravity. They want to study the moon, studying the space in orbit has less to teach us. Building a base is way cheaper\/easier if you can use local materials, the moon has local materials. Water is also very neccessary and having a chance of mining it locally is much more practical at scale than rocketing it into space. Also as a human off earth I\u2019d much rather live somewhere I can go for a moon-walk than always cooped up in the same set of capsules.","human_ref_B":"Mass. Every gram of everything that is needed has to be launched to an orbital space station. Structural members, radiation shielding, water, rocket fuel, ammonia, cooling system, oxygen, etc.    On a planetary body, you can get some for free (bury the station for radiation shielding), or minimal processing.  By sending up equipment to process the planetary resources, the total mass can be reduced, and you can build bigger \/ expandable stations.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12932.0,"score_ratio":37.4166666667}
{"post_id":"p5flnf","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"What is the specific advantage of a moon base over an orbital space station? Now that several nations have developed plans for permanent installations on the moon, what is the specific advantage of building such an installation over having an identical facility floating in space?","c_root_id_A":"h95hl7h","c_root_id_B":"h95mrh2","created_at_utc_A":1629119103,"created_at_utc_B":1629121592,"score_A":60,"score_B":1463,"human_ref_A":"I\u2019m no expert, just having a punt here\u2026 I guess it\u2019s helpful to have a little gravity. They want to study the moon, studying the space in orbit has less to teach us. Building a base is way cheaper\/easier if you can use local materials, the moon has local materials. Water is also very neccessary and having a chance of mining it locally is much more practical at scale than rocketing it into space. Also as a human off earth I\u2019d much rather live somewhere I can go for a moon-walk than always cooped up in the same set of capsules.","human_ref_B":"Radiation.  The only known worthwhile shield against solar proton events and galactic cosmic rays is matter. Every gram of orbital space station shield carted up from Earth's surface into orbit costs an obscene amount of money. So they tend to economize on the shield and the astronauts have a yearly limit on visits to the orbital station due to radiation exposure.  On a moon base, radiation shielding is free. Just dig a hole in the ground deep enough and your base will be essentially perfectly shielded.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2489.0,"score_ratio":24.3833333333}
{"post_id":"p5flnf","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"What is the specific advantage of a moon base over an orbital space station? Now that several nations have developed plans for permanent installations on the moon, what is the specific advantage of building such an installation over having an identical facility floating in space?","c_root_id_A":"h960e47","c_root_id_B":"h96khdn","created_at_utc_A":1629127334,"created_at_utc_B":1629135150,"score_A":211,"score_B":446,"human_ref_A":"You only have to protect from meteors coming from one hemisphere  You don't have to expend any design on orbit stationkeeping  You don't need any mechanism to create a familiar up\/down gravity environment for human operators  You have plenty of moon regolith available as a building material, feedstuff or perhaps energy supply","human_ref_B":"Adding to the advantages mentioned, we have one big reason- institutional knowledge.   When landing on the moon became the goal, NASA sat down and realized they knew nothing about multiple critical steps needed to make that happen. Docking two spacecraft? Never done before. Psychological stress of people spending a week in space? Never done either. You get the picture.  After putting together a list of Things Not Yet Done, they launched the Gemini missions to fill in those knowledge gaps.   Right now we\u2019re in a similar place with solar exploration. There\u2019s some tasks we need to learn before we go to Mars and beyond. Tasks we know nothing about.   Mitigating cosmic radiation long term? Never done that before. Building a habitat on another planet? Never done that before either. Etc and so on. So just like Gemini we need to learn the small stuff close to home before making the big step to Mars and further. That means making a moon base.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7816.0,"score_ratio":2.1137440758}
{"post_id":"p5flnf","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"What is the specific advantage of a moon base over an orbital space station? Now that several nations have developed plans for permanent installations on the moon, what is the specific advantage of building such an installation over having an identical facility floating in space?","c_root_id_A":"h96khdn","c_root_id_B":"h95hl7h","created_at_utc_A":1629135150,"created_at_utc_B":1629119103,"score_A":446,"score_B":60,"human_ref_A":"Adding to the advantages mentioned, we have one big reason- institutional knowledge.   When landing on the moon became the goal, NASA sat down and realized they knew nothing about multiple critical steps needed to make that happen. Docking two spacecraft? Never done before. Psychological stress of people spending a week in space? Never done either. You get the picture.  After putting together a list of Things Not Yet Done, they launched the Gemini missions to fill in those knowledge gaps.   Right now we\u2019re in a similar place with solar exploration. There\u2019s some tasks we need to learn before we go to Mars and beyond. Tasks we know nothing about.   Mitigating cosmic radiation long term? Never done that before. Building a habitat on another planet? Never done that before either. Etc and so on. So just like Gemini we need to learn the small stuff close to home before making the big step to Mars and further. That means making a moon base.","human_ref_B":"I\u2019m no expert, just having a punt here\u2026 I guess it\u2019s helpful to have a little gravity. They want to study the moon, studying the space in orbit has less to teach us. Building a base is way cheaper\/easier if you can use local materials, the moon has local materials. Water is also very neccessary and having a chance of mining it locally is much more practical at scale than rocketing it into space. Also as a human off earth I\u2019d much rather live somewhere I can go for a moon-walk than always cooped up in the same set of capsules.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":16047.0,"score_ratio":7.4333333333}
{"post_id":"p5flnf","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"What is the specific advantage of a moon base over an orbital space station? Now that several nations have developed plans for permanent installations on the moon, what is the specific advantage of building such an installation over having an identical facility floating in space?","c_root_id_A":"h960e47","c_root_id_B":"h95hl7h","created_at_utc_A":1629127334,"created_at_utc_B":1629119103,"score_A":211,"score_B":60,"human_ref_A":"You only have to protect from meteors coming from one hemisphere  You don't have to expend any design on orbit stationkeeping  You don't need any mechanism to create a familiar up\/down gravity environment for human operators  You have plenty of moon regolith available as a building material, feedstuff or perhaps energy supply","human_ref_B":"I\u2019m no expert, just having a punt here\u2026 I guess it\u2019s helpful to have a little gravity. They want to study the moon, studying the space in orbit has less to teach us. Building a base is way cheaper\/easier if you can use local materials, the moon has local materials. Water is also very neccessary and having a chance of mining it locally is much more practical at scale than rocketing it into space. Also as a human off earth I\u2019d much rather live somewhere I can go for a moon-walk than always cooped up in the same set of capsules.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8231.0,"score_ratio":3.5166666667}
{"post_id":"voz867","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How are cancer rates going up when we've made regulations on regulations to control carcinogen use? as the title says, it just seems like cancer rates are going up, but we've made tons of regulations, warnings and other things to show, limit or stop use of carcinogens. to me this means cancer rates should trend down. but they're not?? what would cause this in modern society???  are genes less healthy?? is our food worse?? are products really not that clean??","c_root_id_A":"iegvlmr","c_root_id_B":"iegsw4w","created_at_utc_A":1656692424,"created_at_utc_B":1656691344,"score_A":572,"score_B":386,"human_ref_A":"A few things 1) less people dying of other things before they can get cancer - the longer you live, the more time you have to accumulate mutations that can lead to cancer and the less good your cells are at repairing them 2) we're better at spotting it.  Lots of small, easily treated tumours get found early that contribute to the number of cancer cases reported but would have never been found before the technology got good.  They might not ever have developed into something dangerous  but we spot them and count them anyway.","human_ref_B":"One reason: many cancers result from years or decades of exposure. A lot of regulations didn't exist when a lot of the people developing cancers right now were being exposed to the things that caused their cancers.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1080.0,"score_ratio":1.481865285}
{"post_id":"voz867","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How are cancer rates going up when we've made regulations on regulations to control carcinogen use? as the title says, it just seems like cancer rates are going up, but we've made tons of regulations, warnings and other things to show, limit or stop use of carcinogens. to me this means cancer rates should trend down. but they're not?? what would cause this in modern society???  are genes less healthy?? is our food worse?? are products really not that clean??","c_root_id_A":"iegupa6","c_root_id_B":"iegvlmr","created_at_utc_A":1656692065,"created_at_utc_B":1656692424,"score_A":4,"score_B":572,"human_ref_A":"There are many reasons: if it is not defined to be cancer, it is not accounted. If it is not detected it is not accounted. If you die too early, it is not in the stats... Like lung cancer rate in developing countries is relatively low, despite they smoke more. Well, they just die too early in their life...","human_ref_B":"A few things 1) less people dying of other things before they can get cancer - the longer you live, the more time you have to accumulate mutations that can lead to cancer and the less good your cells are at repairing them 2) we're better at spotting it.  Lots of small, easily treated tumours get found early that contribute to the number of cancer cases reported but would have never been found before the technology got good.  They might not ever have developed into something dangerous  but we spot them and count them anyway.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":359.0,"score_ratio":143.0}
{"post_id":"voz867","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How are cancer rates going up when we've made regulations on regulations to control carcinogen use? as the title says, it just seems like cancer rates are going up, but we've made tons of regulations, warnings and other things to show, limit or stop use of carcinogens. to me this means cancer rates should trend down. but they're not?? what would cause this in modern society???  are genes less healthy?? is our food worse?? are products really not that clean??","c_root_id_A":"iegsw4w","c_root_id_B":"iehea4p","created_at_utc_A":1656691344,"created_at_utc_B":1656700008,"score_A":386,"score_B":407,"human_ref_A":"One reason: many cancers result from years or decades of exposure. A lot of regulations didn't exist when a lot of the people developing cancers right now were being exposed to the things that caused their cancers.","human_ref_B":"Cancer rates are going up *because society is getting healthier*.   Cancer is a disease of the elderly; it is *immensely* more common in older people. People over 70 are at least 200 times more likely to have cancer than people under 20.   The more old people you have in your society, the more likely people are to die of cancer.  If you want to virtually eliminate cancer deaths, then make sure everyone dies before they're 30, of tuberculosis and whooping cough and measles and COVID and malaria and starvation.    If you're actually interested in whether cancer rates are constant, increasing, or decreasing *in a useful way* that doesn't merely reflect the age of a population, then you need to ask about *age-matched cancer rates*. If you ask that question, then cancer mortality has been continually decreasing over the past 75 years:  >**Age-specific cancer mortality rates have been steadily declining in the United States since the early 1950s**, beginning with children and young adults and now including all age groups. During the second half of the 20th century, each successive decade of births from 1925 to 1995 experienced a lower risk of cancer death than its predecessor at virtually every age for which such a comparison can be made. A major decline in cancer mortality has been occurring in the United States for the past 50 years, affecting birth cohorts born as long as 80 years ago.   --The Decline in U.S. Cancer Mortality in People Born since 1925  The most important factor is probably that smoking in the US is much less common than it was, leading to much lower risks of many cancers associated with smoking. Some other cancers haven't changed their *incidence* much, but are much better treated (virtually all childhood cancers have gone from virtual death sentences, to nearly 100% curable). Other cancers *seem* to be increasing in incidence without a corresponding increase in deaths, because of better detection.   But in general, the premise of this question is flat wrong. For every age group today, your risk of cancer is lower than it was 20, 40, or 60 years ago.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8664.0,"score_ratio":1.0544041451}
{"post_id":"voz867","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How are cancer rates going up when we've made regulations on regulations to control carcinogen use? as the title says, it just seems like cancer rates are going up, but we've made tons of regulations, warnings and other things to show, limit or stop use of carcinogens. to me this means cancer rates should trend down. but they're not?? what would cause this in modern society???  are genes less healthy?? is our food worse?? are products really not that clean??","c_root_id_A":"iehea4p","c_root_id_B":"iegvxrl","created_at_utc_A":1656700008,"created_at_utc_B":1656692556,"score_A":407,"score_B":116,"human_ref_A":"Cancer rates are going up *because society is getting healthier*.   Cancer is a disease of the elderly; it is *immensely* more common in older people. People over 70 are at least 200 times more likely to have cancer than people under 20.   The more old people you have in your society, the more likely people are to die of cancer.  If you want to virtually eliminate cancer deaths, then make sure everyone dies before they're 30, of tuberculosis and whooping cough and measles and COVID and malaria and starvation.    If you're actually interested in whether cancer rates are constant, increasing, or decreasing *in a useful way* that doesn't merely reflect the age of a population, then you need to ask about *age-matched cancer rates*. If you ask that question, then cancer mortality has been continually decreasing over the past 75 years:  >**Age-specific cancer mortality rates have been steadily declining in the United States since the early 1950s**, beginning with children and young adults and now including all age groups. During the second half of the 20th century, each successive decade of births from 1925 to 1995 experienced a lower risk of cancer death than its predecessor at virtually every age for which such a comparison can be made. A major decline in cancer mortality has been occurring in the United States for the past 50 years, affecting birth cohorts born as long as 80 years ago.   --The Decline in U.S. Cancer Mortality in People Born since 1925  The most important factor is probably that smoking in the US is much less common than it was, leading to much lower risks of many cancers associated with smoking. Some other cancers haven't changed their *incidence* much, but are much better treated (virtually all childhood cancers have gone from virtual death sentences, to nearly 100% curable). Other cancers *seem* to be increasing in incidence without a corresponding increase in deaths, because of better detection.   But in general, the premise of this question is flat wrong. For every age group today, your risk of cancer is lower than it was 20, 40, or 60 years ago.","human_ref_B":"Many possible reasons:  * Detection is improving * As average lifespan increases, cancer rates increase * Regulations are fairly limited in scope, compared to the sheer number of chemicals we are exposed to * Occupational hazards are often not covered by regulation or not enforced * Thousands of entirely new chemicals are created every year and almost all of them have unknown carcinogenicity * Air quality continues to get worse * Funding is not in place to clean up known polluted sites, see the \"superfund sites\" in the US, many poorer countries just do nothing","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7452.0,"score_ratio":3.5086206897}
{"post_id":"voz867","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How are cancer rates going up when we've made regulations on regulations to control carcinogen use? as the title says, it just seems like cancer rates are going up, but we've made tons of regulations, warnings and other things to show, limit or stop use of carcinogens. to me this means cancer rates should trend down. but they're not?? what would cause this in modern society???  are genes less healthy?? is our food worse?? are products really not that clean??","c_root_id_A":"iehea4p","c_root_id_B":"ieh3boz","created_at_utc_A":1656700008,"created_at_utc_B":1656695562,"score_A":407,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Cancer rates are going up *because society is getting healthier*.   Cancer is a disease of the elderly; it is *immensely* more common in older people. People over 70 are at least 200 times more likely to have cancer than people under 20.   The more old people you have in your society, the more likely people are to die of cancer.  If you want to virtually eliminate cancer deaths, then make sure everyone dies before they're 30, of tuberculosis and whooping cough and measles and COVID and malaria and starvation.    If you're actually interested in whether cancer rates are constant, increasing, or decreasing *in a useful way* that doesn't merely reflect the age of a population, then you need to ask about *age-matched cancer rates*. If you ask that question, then cancer mortality has been continually decreasing over the past 75 years:  >**Age-specific cancer mortality rates have been steadily declining in the United States since the early 1950s**, beginning with children and young adults and now including all age groups. During the second half of the 20th century, each successive decade of births from 1925 to 1995 experienced a lower risk of cancer death than its predecessor at virtually every age for which such a comparison can be made. A major decline in cancer mortality has been occurring in the United States for the past 50 years, affecting birth cohorts born as long as 80 years ago.   --The Decline in U.S. Cancer Mortality in People Born since 1925  The most important factor is probably that smoking in the US is much less common than it was, leading to much lower risks of many cancers associated with smoking. Some other cancers haven't changed their *incidence* much, but are much better treated (virtually all childhood cancers have gone from virtual death sentences, to nearly 100% curable). Other cancers *seem* to be increasing in incidence without a corresponding increase in deaths, because of better detection.   But in general, the premise of this question is flat wrong. For every age group today, your risk of cancer is lower than it was 20, 40, or 60 years ago.","human_ref_B":"Simple answer is that not all cancers are caused by carcinogens.  It is also a consequence of improved life expectancy.  More people survive and live to ages where chances of developing many types of cancers go way up.  For example, almost every man will have prostate cancer if they live long enough.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4446.0,"score_ratio":27.1333333333}
{"post_id":"voz867","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How are cancer rates going up when we've made regulations on regulations to control carcinogen use? as the title says, it just seems like cancer rates are going up, but we've made tons of regulations, warnings and other things to show, limit or stop use of carcinogens. to me this means cancer rates should trend down. but they're not?? what would cause this in modern society???  are genes less healthy?? is our food worse?? are products really not that clean??","c_root_id_A":"iegupa6","c_root_id_B":"iehea4p","created_at_utc_A":1656692065,"created_at_utc_B":1656700008,"score_A":4,"score_B":407,"human_ref_A":"There are many reasons: if it is not defined to be cancer, it is not accounted. If it is not detected it is not accounted. If you die too early, it is not in the stats... Like lung cancer rate in developing countries is relatively low, despite they smoke more. Well, they just die too early in their life...","human_ref_B":"Cancer rates are going up *because society is getting healthier*.   Cancer is a disease of the elderly; it is *immensely* more common in older people. People over 70 are at least 200 times more likely to have cancer than people under 20.   The more old people you have in your society, the more likely people are to die of cancer.  If you want to virtually eliminate cancer deaths, then make sure everyone dies before they're 30, of tuberculosis and whooping cough and measles and COVID and malaria and starvation.    If you're actually interested in whether cancer rates are constant, increasing, or decreasing *in a useful way* that doesn't merely reflect the age of a population, then you need to ask about *age-matched cancer rates*. If you ask that question, then cancer mortality has been continually decreasing over the past 75 years:  >**Age-specific cancer mortality rates have been steadily declining in the United States since the early 1950s**, beginning with children and young adults and now including all age groups. During the second half of the 20th century, each successive decade of births from 1925 to 1995 experienced a lower risk of cancer death than its predecessor at virtually every age for which such a comparison can be made. A major decline in cancer mortality has been occurring in the United States for the past 50 years, affecting birth cohorts born as long as 80 years ago.   --The Decline in U.S. Cancer Mortality in People Born since 1925  The most important factor is probably that smoking in the US is much less common than it was, leading to much lower risks of many cancers associated with smoking. Some other cancers haven't changed their *incidence* much, but are much better treated (virtually all childhood cancers have gone from virtual death sentences, to nearly 100% curable). Other cancers *seem* to be increasing in incidence without a corresponding increase in deaths, because of better detection.   But in general, the premise of this question is flat wrong. For every age group today, your risk of cancer is lower than it was 20, 40, or 60 years ago.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7943.0,"score_ratio":101.75}
{"post_id":"voz867","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How are cancer rates going up when we've made regulations on regulations to control carcinogen use? as the title says, it just seems like cancer rates are going up, but we've made tons of regulations, warnings and other things to show, limit or stop use of carcinogens. to me this means cancer rates should trend down. but they're not?? what would cause this in modern society???  are genes less healthy?? is our food worse?? are products really not that clean??","c_root_id_A":"iegupa6","c_root_id_B":"iegvxrl","created_at_utc_A":1656692065,"created_at_utc_B":1656692556,"score_A":4,"score_B":116,"human_ref_A":"There are many reasons: if it is not defined to be cancer, it is not accounted. If it is not detected it is not accounted. If you die too early, it is not in the stats... Like lung cancer rate in developing countries is relatively low, despite they smoke more. Well, they just die too early in their life...","human_ref_B":"Many possible reasons:  * Detection is improving * As average lifespan increases, cancer rates increase * Regulations are fairly limited in scope, compared to the sheer number of chemicals we are exposed to * Occupational hazards are often not covered by regulation or not enforced * Thousands of entirely new chemicals are created every year and almost all of them have unknown carcinogenicity * Air quality continues to get worse * Funding is not in place to clean up known polluted sites, see the \"superfund sites\" in the US, many poorer countries just do nothing","labels":0,"seconds_difference":491.0,"score_ratio":29.0}
{"post_id":"voz867","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How are cancer rates going up when we've made regulations on regulations to control carcinogen use? as the title says, it just seems like cancer rates are going up, but we've made tons of regulations, warnings and other things to show, limit or stop use of carcinogens. to me this means cancer rates should trend down. but they're not?? what would cause this in modern society???  are genes less healthy?? is our food worse?? are products really not that clean??","c_root_id_A":"ieh3boz","c_root_id_B":"iei6v59","created_at_utc_A":1656695562,"created_at_utc_B":1656712066,"score_A":15,"score_B":22,"human_ref_A":"Simple answer is that not all cancers are caused by carcinogens.  It is also a consequence of improved life expectancy.  More people survive and live to ages where chances of developing many types of cancers go way up.  For example, almost every man will have prostate cancer if they live long enough.","human_ref_B":"Another reason- obesity rates are on the rise. More than 1 in 20 cancers is caused by excess weight according to Cancer Research UK, and the 13 cancers that you are at higher risk of developing if you are obese or overweight make up 40% of the cancers diagnosed in the USA.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":16504.0,"score_ratio":1.4666666667}
{"post_id":"voz867","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How are cancer rates going up when we've made regulations on regulations to control carcinogen use? as the title says, it just seems like cancer rates are going up, but we've made tons of regulations, warnings and other things to show, limit or stop use of carcinogens. to me this means cancer rates should trend down. but they're not?? what would cause this in modern society???  are genes less healthy?? is our food worse?? are products really not that clean??","c_root_id_A":"iei2ocj","c_root_id_B":"iei6v59","created_at_utc_A":1656710224,"created_at_utc_B":1656712066,"score_A":11,"score_B":22,"human_ref_A":"You are underestimating the number of humans who used to die of cancer only to have the only diagnosis as \u201che died\u201d.  Lots of things used to be diagnosed less. Most of the evidence indicates that we are better at diagnosing, more so than these things are happening more often.","human_ref_B":"Another reason- obesity rates are on the rise. More than 1 in 20 cancers is caused by excess weight according to Cancer Research UK, and the 13 cancers that you are at higher risk of developing if you are obese or overweight make up 40% of the cancers diagnosed in the USA.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1842.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"voz867","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How are cancer rates going up when we've made regulations on regulations to control carcinogen use? as the title says, it just seems like cancer rates are going up, but we've made tons of regulations, warnings and other things to show, limit or stop use of carcinogens. to me this means cancer rates should trend down. but they're not?? what would cause this in modern society???  are genes less healthy?? is our food worse?? are products really not that clean??","c_root_id_A":"iehumxo","c_root_id_B":"iei6v59","created_at_utc_A":1656706806,"created_at_utc_B":1656712066,"score_A":6,"score_B":22,"human_ref_A":"By far the largest risk factor for cancer is age. Cancer is abnormal cell replication. The older you get, the more times your cells divide the more chance for something to go wrong. Society as a whole has been steadily getting older for decades as medicine in general improves. People are getting cancer because they're not dying of other things. Almost everyone will eventually get cancer if they live long enough.","human_ref_B":"Another reason- obesity rates are on the rise. More than 1 in 20 cancers is caused by excess weight according to Cancer Research UK, and the 13 cancers that you are at higher risk of developing if you are obese or overweight make up 40% of the cancers diagnosed in the USA.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5260.0,"score_ratio":3.6666666667}
{"post_id":"voz867","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How are cancer rates going up when we've made regulations on regulations to control carcinogen use? as the title says, it just seems like cancer rates are going up, but we've made tons of regulations, warnings and other things to show, limit or stop use of carcinogens. to me this means cancer rates should trend down. but they're not?? what would cause this in modern society???  are genes less healthy?? is our food worse?? are products really not that clean??","c_root_id_A":"iegupa6","c_root_id_B":"iei6v59","created_at_utc_A":1656692065,"created_at_utc_B":1656712066,"score_A":4,"score_B":22,"human_ref_A":"There are many reasons: if it is not defined to be cancer, it is not accounted. If it is not detected it is not accounted. If you die too early, it is not in the stats... Like lung cancer rate in developing countries is relatively low, despite they smoke more. Well, they just die too early in their life...","human_ref_B":"Another reason- obesity rates are on the rise. More than 1 in 20 cancers is caused by excess weight according to Cancer Research UK, and the 13 cancers that you are at higher risk of developing if you are obese or overweight make up 40% of the cancers diagnosed in the USA.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":20001.0,"score_ratio":5.5}
{"post_id":"voz867","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How are cancer rates going up when we've made regulations on regulations to control carcinogen use? as the title says, it just seems like cancer rates are going up, but we've made tons of regulations, warnings and other things to show, limit or stop use of carcinogens. to me this means cancer rates should trend down. but they're not?? what would cause this in modern society???  are genes less healthy?? is our food worse?? are products really not that clean??","c_root_id_A":"iei6v59","c_root_id_B":"iei0gm8","created_at_utc_A":1656712066,"created_at_utc_B":1656709258,"score_A":22,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Another reason- obesity rates are on the rise. More than 1 in 20 cancers is caused by excess weight according to Cancer Research UK, and the 13 cancers that you are at higher risk of developing if you are obese or overweight make up 40% of the cancers diagnosed in the USA.","human_ref_B":"Depends on the types of cancer, the types of triggers and the ease of detection. Increased PFAS exposure, for example, could be triggering some types of cancer. Esp since the chemicals have been so prevalent in the food industry (such as burger wrappers).  Fire fighting foams, industrial dumping. It\u2019s not really a surprise. You\u2019ve got environmental factors, genetic factors etc to consider.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2808.0,"score_ratio":11.0}
{"post_id":"voz867","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How are cancer rates going up when we've made regulations on regulations to control carcinogen use? as the title says, it just seems like cancer rates are going up, but we've made tons of regulations, warnings and other things to show, limit or stop use of carcinogens. to me this means cancer rates should trend down. but they're not?? what would cause this in modern society???  are genes less healthy?? is our food worse?? are products really not that clean??","c_root_id_A":"iegupa6","c_root_id_B":"ieh3boz","created_at_utc_A":1656692065,"created_at_utc_B":1656695562,"score_A":4,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"There are many reasons: if it is not defined to be cancer, it is not accounted. If it is not detected it is not accounted. If you die too early, it is not in the stats... Like lung cancer rate in developing countries is relatively low, despite they smoke more. Well, they just die too early in their life...","human_ref_B":"Simple answer is that not all cancers are caused by carcinogens.  It is also a consequence of improved life expectancy.  More people survive and live to ages where chances of developing many types of cancers go way up.  For example, almost every man will have prostate cancer if they live long enough.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3497.0,"score_ratio":3.75}
{"post_id":"voz867","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How are cancer rates going up when we've made regulations on regulations to control carcinogen use? as the title says, it just seems like cancer rates are going up, but we've made tons of regulations, warnings and other things to show, limit or stop use of carcinogens. to me this means cancer rates should trend down. but they're not?? what would cause this in modern society???  are genes less healthy?? is our food worse?? are products really not that clean??","c_root_id_A":"iehumxo","c_root_id_B":"iei2ocj","created_at_utc_A":1656706806,"created_at_utc_B":1656710224,"score_A":6,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"By far the largest risk factor for cancer is age. Cancer is abnormal cell replication. The older you get, the more times your cells divide the more chance for something to go wrong. Society as a whole has been steadily getting older for decades as medicine in general improves. People are getting cancer because they're not dying of other things. Almost everyone will eventually get cancer if they live long enough.","human_ref_B":"You are underestimating the number of humans who used to die of cancer only to have the only diagnosis as \u201che died\u201d.  Lots of things used to be diagnosed less. Most of the evidence indicates that we are better at diagnosing, more so than these things are happening more often.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3418.0,"score_ratio":1.8333333333}
{"post_id":"voz867","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How are cancer rates going up when we've made regulations on regulations to control carcinogen use? as the title says, it just seems like cancer rates are going up, but we've made tons of regulations, warnings and other things to show, limit or stop use of carcinogens. to me this means cancer rates should trend down. but they're not?? what would cause this in modern society???  are genes less healthy?? is our food worse?? are products really not that clean??","c_root_id_A":"iei2ocj","c_root_id_B":"iegupa6","created_at_utc_A":1656710224,"created_at_utc_B":1656692065,"score_A":11,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"You are underestimating the number of humans who used to die of cancer only to have the only diagnosis as \u201che died\u201d.  Lots of things used to be diagnosed less. Most of the evidence indicates that we are better at diagnosing, more so than these things are happening more often.","human_ref_B":"There are many reasons: if it is not defined to be cancer, it is not accounted. If it is not detected it is not accounted. If you die too early, it is not in the stats... Like lung cancer rate in developing countries is relatively low, despite they smoke more. Well, they just die too early in their life...","labels":1,"seconds_difference":18159.0,"score_ratio":2.75}
{"post_id":"voz867","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How are cancer rates going up when we've made regulations on regulations to control carcinogen use? as the title says, it just seems like cancer rates are going up, but we've made tons of regulations, warnings and other things to show, limit or stop use of carcinogens. to me this means cancer rates should trend down. but they're not?? what would cause this in modern society???  are genes less healthy?? is our food worse?? are products really not that clean??","c_root_id_A":"iei2ocj","c_root_id_B":"iei0gm8","created_at_utc_A":1656710224,"created_at_utc_B":1656709258,"score_A":11,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"You are underestimating the number of humans who used to die of cancer only to have the only diagnosis as \u201che died\u201d.  Lots of things used to be diagnosed less. Most of the evidence indicates that we are better at diagnosing, more so than these things are happening more often.","human_ref_B":"Depends on the types of cancer, the types of triggers and the ease of detection. Increased PFAS exposure, for example, could be triggering some types of cancer. Esp since the chemicals have been so prevalent in the food industry (such as burger wrappers).  Fire fighting foams, industrial dumping. It\u2019s not really a surprise. You\u2019ve got environmental factors, genetic factors etc to consider.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":966.0,"score_ratio":5.5}
{"post_id":"voz867","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How are cancer rates going up when we've made regulations on regulations to control carcinogen use? as the title says, it just seems like cancer rates are going up, but we've made tons of regulations, warnings and other things to show, limit or stop use of carcinogens. to me this means cancer rates should trend down. but they're not?? what would cause this in modern society???  are genes less healthy?? is our food worse?? are products really not that clean??","c_root_id_A":"ieicdkd","c_root_id_B":"iehumxo","created_at_utc_A":1656714541,"created_at_utc_B":1656706806,"score_A":11,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"There are new and exciting chemical compounds created every year that end up in our water, food, and air.  And we don't discover the long-term effects until many, many years later and by that time it's too late.  For example the chemicals used in plastic food packaging or chemicals used in household products like furniture and carpet.  Also, every time we discover that a chemical is a suspected or known carcinogen, the chemical industry just comes up with a similar chemical to replace it.... which we again don't find out the potential bad side effects until many years later.  Part of the problem is severe deregulation and lack of government power to enforce the existing regulations due to corporate lobbying.  Also, it's much cheaper for companies to just settle lawsuits out of court or pay a few fines than to actually do the right thing and not poison us in the first place.  Yay! Capitalism.","human_ref_B":"By far the largest risk factor for cancer is age. Cancer is abnormal cell replication. The older you get, the more times your cells divide the more chance for something to go wrong. Society as a whole has been steadily getting older for decades as medicine in general improves. People are getting cancer because they're not dying of other things. Almost everyone will eventually get cancer if they live long enough.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7735.0,"score_ratio":1.8333333333}
{"post_id":"voz867","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How are cancer rates going up when we've made regulations on regulations to control carcinogen use? as the title says, it just seems like cancer rates are going up, but we've made tons of regulations, warnings and other things to show, limit or stop use of carcinogens. to me this means cancer rates should trend down. but they're not?? what would cause this in modern society???  are genes less healthy?? is our food worse?? are products really not that clean??","c_root_id_A":"iegupa6","c_root_id_B":"ieicdkd","created_at_utc_A":1656692065,"created_at_utc_B":1656714541,"score_A":4,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"There are many reasons: if it is not defined to be cancer, it is not accounted. If it is not detected it is not accounted. If you die too early, it is not in the stats... Like lung cancer rate in developing countries is relatively low, despite they smoke more. Well, they just die too early in their life...","human_ref_B":"There are new and exciting chemical compounds created every year that end up in our water, food, and air.  And we don't discover the long-term effects until many, many years later and by that time it's too late.  For example the chemicals used in plastic food packaging or chemicals used in household products like furniture and carpet.  Also, every time we discover that a chemical is a suspected or known carcinogen, the chemical industry just comes up with a similar chemical to replace it.... which we again don't find out the potential bad side effects until many years later.  Part of the problem is severe deregulation and lack of government power to enforce the existing regulations due to corporate lobbying.  Also, it's much cheaper for companies to just settle lawsuits out of court or pay a few fines than to actually do the right thing and not poison us in the first place.  Yay! Capitalism.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":22476.0,"score_ratio":2.75}
{"post_id":"voz867","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How are cancer rates going up when we've made regulations on regulations to control carcinogen use? as the title says, it just seems like cancer rates are going up, but we've made tons of regulations, warnings and other things to show, limit or stop use of carcinogens. to me this means cancer rates should trend down. but they're not?? what would cause this in modern society???  are genes less healthy?? is our food worse?? are products really not that clean??","c_root_id_A":"iei0gm8","c_root_id_B":"ieicdkd","created_at_utc_A":1656709258,"created_at_utc_B":1656714541,"score_A":2,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"Depends on the types of cancer, the types of triggers and the ease of detection. Increased PFAS exposure, for example, could be triggering some types of cancer. Esp since the chemicals have been so prevalent in the food industry (such as burger wrappers).  Fire fighting foams, industrial dumping. It\u2019s not really a surprise. You\u2019ve got environmental factors, genetic factors etc to consider.","human_ref_B":"There are new and exciting chemical compounds created every year that end up in our water, food, and air.  And we don't discover the long-term effects until many, many years later and by that time it's too late.  For example the chemicals used in plastic food packaging or chemicals used in household products like furniture and carpet.  Also, every time we discover that a chemical is a suspected or known carcinogen, the chemical industry just comes up with a similar chemical to replace it.... which we again don't find out the potential bad side effects until many years later.  Part of the problem is severe deregulation and lack of government power to enforce the existing regulations due to corporate lobbying.  Also, it's much cheaper for companies to just settle lawsuits out of court or pay a few fines than to actually do the right thing and not poison us in the first place.  Yay! Capitalism.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5283.0,"score_ratio":5.5}
{"post_id":"voz867","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How are cancer rates going up when we've made regulations on regulations to control carcinogen use? as the title says, it just seems like cancer rates are going up, but we've made tons of regulations, warnings and other things to show, limit or stop use of carcinogens. to me this means cancer rates should trend down. but they're not?? what would cause this in modern society???  are genes less healthy?? is our food worse?? are products really not that clean??","c_root_id_A":"iegupa6","c_root_id_B":"iehumxo","created_at_utc_A":1656692065,"created_at_utc_B":1656706806,"score_A":4,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"There are many reasons: if it is not defined to be cancer, it is not accounted. If it is not detected it is not accounted. If you die too early, it is not in the stats... Like lung cancer rate in developing countries is relatively low, despite they smoke more. Well, they just die too early in their life...","human_ref_B":"By far the largest risk factor for cancer is age. Cancer is abnormal cell replication. The older you get, the more times your cells divide the more chance for something to go wrong. Society as a whole has been steadily getting older for decades as medicine in general improves. People are getting cancer because they're not dying of other things. Almost everyone will eventually get cancer if they live long enough.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":14741.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"voz867","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How are cancer rates going up when we've made regulations on regulations to control carcinogen use? as the title says, it just seems like cancer rates are going up, but we've made tons of regulations, warnings and other things to show, limit or stop use of carcinogens. to me this means cancer rates should trend down. but they're not?? what would cause this in modern society???  are genes less healthy?? is our food worse?? are products really not that clean??","c_root_id_A":"ieidtbw","c_root_id_B":"iei0gm8","created_at_utc_A":1656715194,"created_at_utc_B":1656709258,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"- We are constantly getting better at detecting it  - People are living longer and cancer is a mutation of normal cells. Increased age = increased risk of development - More people have access to health care to actually get diagnosed with cancer Edit: typo","human_ref_B":"Depends on the types of cancer, the types of triggers and the ease of detection. Increased PFAS exposure, for example, could be triggering some types of cancer. Esp since the chemicals have been so prevalent in the food industry (such as burger wrappers).  Fire fighting foams, industrial dumping. It\u2019s not really a surprise. You\u2019ve got environmental factors, genetic factors etc to consider.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5936.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"voz867","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How are cancer rates going up when we've made regulations on regulations to control carcinogen use? as the title says, it just seems like cancer rates are going up, but we've made tons of regulations, warnings and other things to show, limit or stop use of carcinogens. to me this means cancer rates should trend down. but they're not?? what would cause this in modern society???  are genes less healthy?? is our food worse?? are products really not that clean??","c_root_id_A":"iei0gm8","c_root_id_B":"ieifxvm","created_at_utc_A":1656709258,"created_at_utc_B":1656716179,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Depends on the types of cancer, the types of triggers and the ease of detection. Increased PFAS exposure, for example, could be triggering some types of cancer. Esp since the chemicals have been so prevalent in the food industry (such as burger wrappers).  Fire fighting foams, industrial dumping. It\u2019s not really a surprise. You\u2019ve got environmental factors, genetic factors etc to consider.","human_ref_B":"Cancer rate are going up because people are dying less of other causes.  We haven't found a way to be immortal yet,  so anything we do to reduce death just delay it and may change the final cause.  Cancer is one of the cause of death that increase with age,  so the better we are at avoiding death, the more we are going to die from cancer. It's also the case for hearth attack, respiratory arrest, cardiac arrest, alzheimer, etc.  Our health is improving, that's why the life expectancy is going up.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6921.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"3ogmnr","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Why does the speed of light(299,792,458 m\/s, a finite number) require an infinite amount of energy to reach?","c_root_id_A":"cvxbqlh","c_root_id_B":"cvxbmhp","created_at_utc_A":1444681934,"created_at_utc_B":1444681768,"score_A":22,"score_B":21,"human_ref_A":"Here's a cute analogy.  The amount of hair the guinea pig has is finite, but with each extra haircut the results are diminishing, so no amount of haircuts will fully shave it.  The speed of light is like a Guinea pig","human_ref_B":"I prefer to say that it's impossible (for a massive object) to reach the speed of light, rather than that it would take an infinite amount of energy to reach it, even though these are more or less equivalent statements. In any case, the formula for energy of a massive object is mc^(2)\/sqrt(1 - v^(2)\/c^(2)), and you can see that the closer v is to c, the larger the energy. There is no amount of energy that satisfies the equation for v = c.  In case you wanted a mathematical explanation.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":166.0,"score_ratio":1.0476190476}
{"post_id":"3ogmnr","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Why does the speed of light(299,792,458 m\/s, a finite number) require an infinite amount of energy to reach?","c_root_id_A":"cvx31ij","c_root_id_B":"cvxbmhp","created_at_utc_A":1444669404,"created_at_utc_B":1444681768,"score_A":11,"score_B":21,"human_ref_A":"Have you studied asymptotes? They happen when a curve approaches a finite number but never reaches it. Take this example. If you follow the blue line from the left, it gets closer and closer to -2 as it goes up... but it never quite reaches -2.  In the case of velocity reaching the speed of light, you can take the x-axis as velocity and the y-axis as energy. As the curve gets closer to x=c (as velocity approaches the speed of light) the curve (energy) shoots up to infinity and never quite crosses c.","human_ref_B":"I prefer to say that it's impossible (for a massive object) to reach the speed of light, rather than that it would take an infinite amount of energy to reach it, even though these are more or less equivalent statements. In any case, the formula for energy of a massive object is mc^(2)\/sqrt(1 - v^(2)\/c^(2)), and you can see that the closer v is to c, the larger the energy. There is no amount of energy that satisfies the equation for v = c.  In case you wanted a mathematical explanation.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12364.0,"score_ratio":1.9090909091}
{"post_id":"3ogmnr","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Why does the speed of light(299,792,458 m\/s, a finite number) require an infinite amount of energy to reach?","c_root_id_A":"cvx31ij","c_root_id_B":"cvxbqlh","created_at_utc_A":1444669404,"created_at_utc_B":1444681934,"score_A":11,"score_B":22,"human_ref_A":"Have you studied asymptotes? They happen when a curve approaches a finite number but never reaches it. Take this example. If you follow the blue line from the left, it gets closer and closer to -2 as it goes up... but it never quite reaches -2.  In the case of velocity reaching the speed of light, you can take the x-axis as velocity and the y-axis as energy. As the curve gets closer to x=c (as velocity approaches the speed of light) the curve (energy) shoots up to infinity and never quite crosses c.","human_ref_B":"Here's a cute analogy.  The amount of hair the guinea pig has is finite, but with each extra haircut the results are diminishing, so no amount of haircuts will fully shave it.  The speed of light is like a Guinea pig","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12530.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"ias2a4m","c_root_id_B":"iarvve0","created_at_utc_A":1654086795,"created_at_utc_B":1654082840,"score_A":14,"score_B":10,"human_ref_A":"1) what is your high level process to identify and research future trends\/technologies  2) what do you see as the most transformative development in the next 20-50 years","human_ref_B":"Any idea how to best go about protecting our personal biological data and how to keep it out of the hands of unscrupulous actors? Because if it\u2019s handled in any way similar to our online personal data, things could get real ugly real quick with these powerful emerging technologies.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3955.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"ias2a4m","c_root_id_B":"iarzfc6","created_at_utc_A":1654086795,"created_at_utc_B":1654085104,"score_A":14,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"1) what is your high level process to identify and research future trends\/technologies  2) what do you see as the most transformative development in the next 20-50 years","human_ref_B":"For people who haven't read into this too much, can you give us a breakdown of the biggest potential breakthroughs in the next 20-40 years that we'll see with this technology?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1691.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"ias2a4m","c_root_id_B":"iarwa35","created_at_utc_A":1654086795,"created_at_utc_B":1654083115,"score_A":14,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"1) what is your high level process to identify and research future trends\/technologies  2) what do you see as the most transformative development in the next 20-50 years","human_ref_B":"What is your 'doomsday scenario' ?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3680.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iaryyfv","c_root_id_B":"ias2a4m","created_at_utc_A":1654084815,"created_at_utc_B":1654086795,"score_A":4,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"Hello!  How close to reality could humans and computers merge? As in the movie \"Ghost in the Shell\".  What do you believe humanity's short-term future will be?","human_ref_B":"1) what is your high level process to identify and research future trends\/technologies  2) what do you see as the most transformative development in the next 20-50 years","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1980.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iarulrc","c_root_id_B":"ias2a4m","created_at_utc_A":1654081955,"created_at_utc_B":1654086795,"score_A":2,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"How can I improve the transformation and regeneration efficiencies of my agro-transformed hemp calli? I get a few chimera but the efficiency is way lower than in arabidopsis. I'm limited on genotype selection which I know plays a big role (thanks, university's \"preferred vendors\")","human_ref_B":"1) what is your high level process to identify and research future trends\/technologies  2) what do you see as the most transformative development in the next 20-50 years","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4840.0,"score_ratio":7.0}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iarvve0","c_root_id_B":"iarulrc","created_at_utc_A":1654082840,"created_at_utc_B":1654081955,"score_A":10,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Any idea how to best go about protecting our personal biological data and how to keep it out of the hands of unscrupulous actors? Because if it\u2019s handled in any way similar to our online personal data, things could get real ugly real quick with these powerful emerging technologies.","human_ref_B":"How can I improve the transformation and regeneration efficiencies of my agro-transformed hemp calli? I get a few chimera but the efficiency is way lower than in arabidopsis. I'm limited on genotype selection which I know plays a big role (thanks, university's \"preferred vendors\")","labels":1,"seconds_difference":885.0,"score_ratio":5.0}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iarzfc6","c_root_id_B":"ias4x33","created_at_utc_A":1654085104,"created_at_utc_B":1654088244,"score_A":6,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"For people who haven't read into this too much, can you give us a breakdown of the biggest potential breakthroughs in the next 20-40 years that we'll see with this technology?","human_ref_B":"What is (or are some of) the most commonly misunderstood (by the general public) aspects of your research?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3140.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iaryyfv","c_root_id_B":"iarzfc6","created_at_utc_A":1654084815,"created_at_utc_B":1654085104,"score_A":4,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Hello!  How close to reality could humans and computers merge? As in the movie \"Ghost in the Shell\".  What do you believe humanity's short-term future will be?","human_ref_B":"For people who haven't read into this too much, can you give us a breakdown of the biggest potential breakthroughs in the next 20-40 years that we'll see with this technology?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":289.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iarulrc","c_root_id_B":"iarzfc6","created_at_utc_A":1654081955,"created_at_utc_B":1654085104,"score_A":2,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"How can I improve the transformation and regeneration efficiencies of my agro-transformed hemp calli? I get a few chimera but the efficiency is way lower than in arabidopsis. I'm limited on genotype selection which I know plays a big role (thanks, university's \"preferred vendors\")","human_ref_B":"For people who haven't read into this too much, can you give us a breakdown of the biggest potential breakthroughs in the next 20-40 years that we'll see with this technology?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3149.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iarwa35","c_root_id_B":"ias4x33","created_at_utc_A":1654083115,"created_at_utc_B":1654088244,"score_A":6,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"What is your 'doomsday scenario' ?","human_ref_B":"What is (or are some of) the most commonly misunderstood (by the general public) aspects of your research?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5129.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"ias3yzm","c_root_id_B":"ias4x33","created_at_utc_A":1654087731,"created_at_utc_B":1654088244,"score_A":5,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"What do you think about the Secure DNA project and mandatory screening of synthesized DNA for harmful sequences? Is it likely to work well in practice?","human_ref_B":"What is (or are some of) the most commonly misunderstood (by the general public) aspects of your research?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":513.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iaryyfv","c_root_id_B":"ias4x33","created_at_utc_A":1654084815,"created_at_utc_B":1654088244,"score_A":4,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Hello!  How close to reality could humans and computers merge? As in the movie \"Ghost in the Shell\".  What do you believe humanity's short-term future will be?","human_ref_B":"What is (or are some of) the most commonly misunderstood (by the general public) aspects of your research?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3429.0,"score_ratio":1.75}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iarulrc","c_root_id_B":"ias4x33","created_at_utc_A":1654081955,"created_at_utc_B":1654088244,"score_A":2,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"How can I improve the transformation and regeneration efficiencies of my agro-transformed hemp calli? I get a few chimera but the efficiency is way lower than in arabidopsis. I'm limited on genotype selection which I know plays a big role (thanks, university's \"preferred vendors\")","human_ref_B":"What is (or are some of) the most commonly misunderstood (by the general public) aspects of your research?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6289.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iarulrc","c_root_id_B":"iarwa35","created_at_utc_A":1654081955,"created_at_utc_B":1654083115,"score_A":2,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"How can I improve the transformation and regeneration efficiencies of my agro-transformed hemp calli? I get a few chimera but the efficiency is way lower than in arabidopsis. I'm limited on genotype selection which I know plays a big role (thanks, university's \"preferred vendors\")","human_ref_B":"What is your 'doomsday scenario' ?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1160.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iaryyfv","c_root_id_B":"ias3yzm","created_at_utc_A":1654084815,"created_at_utc_B":1654087731,"score_A":4,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Hello!  How close to reality could humans and computers merge? As in the movie \"Ghost in the Shell\".  What do you believe humanity's short-term future will be?","human_ref_B":"What do you think about the Secure DNA project and mandatory screening of synthesized DNA for harmful sequences? Is it likely to work well in practice?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2916.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"ias3yzm","c_root_id_B":"iarulrc","created_at_utc_A":1654087731,"created_at_utc_B":1654081955,"score_A":5,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"What do you think about the Secure DNA project and mandatory screening of synthesized DNA for harmful sequences? Is it likely to work well in practice?","human_ref_B":"How can I improve the transformation and regeneration efficiencies of my agro-transformed hemp calli? I get a few chimera but the efficiency is way lower than in arabidopsis. I'm limited on genotype selection which I know plays a big role (thanks, university's \"preferred vendors\")","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5776.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iat32zw","c_root_id_B":"ias8822","created_at_utc_A":1654103448,"created_at_utc_B":1654089935,"score_A":4,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"There are an increasing number of companies on the biotech scene right now (ginkgo bioworks, amyris, etc.) touting incredible narratives about the possibilities of synthetic biology. Almost sound too good to be true. Are they the next Theranos? Do you see a difference in optimism between those doing research in this body of work in an academic setting versus industry?","human_ref_B":"Do you foresee a way to combat autoimmune diseases?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":13513.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iat9q4k","c_root_id_B":"ias8822","created_at_utc_A":1654106202,"created_at_utc_B":1654089935,"score_A":4,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Hey everyone. Thanks so much for these questions -- and for those of you here now, thanks for joining! We'll get started in earnest in \\~5 minutes.","human_ref_B":"Do you foresee a way to combat autoimmune diseases?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":16267.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"ias8822","c_root_id_B":"iarulrc","created_at_utc_A":1654089935,"created_at_utc_B":1654081955,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Do you foresee a way to combat autoimmune diseases?","human_ref_B":"How can I improve the transformation and regeneration efficiencies of my agro-transformed hemp calli? I get a few chimera but the efficiency is way lower than in arabidopsis. I'm limited on genotype selection which I know plays a big role (thanks, university's \"preferred vendors\")","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7980.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iat32zw","c_root_id_B":"iasqi4v","created_at_utc_A":1654103448,"created_at_utc_B":1654098173,"score_A":4,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"There are an increasing number of companies on the biotech scene right now (ginkgo bioworks, amyris, etc.) touting incredible narratives about the possibilities of synthetic biology. Almost sound too good to be true. Are they the next Theranos? Do you see a difference in optimism between those doing research in this body of work in an academic setting versus industry?","human_ref_B":"What is your favorite version of a *possible* future designer organism? How would you make it?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5275.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iarulrc","c_root_id_B":"iat32zw","created_at_utc_A":1654081955,"created_at_utc_B":1654103448,"score_A":2,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"How can I improve the transformation and regeneration efficiencies of my agro-transformed hemp calli? I get a few chimera but the efficiency is way lower than in arabidopsis. I'm limited on genotype selection which I know plays a big role (thanks, university's \"preferred vendors\")","human_ref_B":"There are an increasing number of companies on the biotech scene right now (ginkgo bioworks, amyris, etc.) touting incredible narratives about the possibilities of synthetic biology. Almost sound too good to be true. Are they the next Theranos? Do you see a difference in optimism between those doing research in this body of work in an academic setting versus industry?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":21493.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iaskuc7","c_root_id_B":"iat32zw","created_at_utc_A":1654095721,"created_at_utc_B":1654103448,"score_A":2,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Of all the nightmare scenarios you and your team forecast--which one or ones keep you up at night the most?","human_ref_B":"There are an increasing number of companies on the biotech scene right now (ginkgo bioworks, amyris, etc.) touting incredible narratives about the possibilities of synthetic biology. Almost sound too good to be true. Are they the next Theranos? Do you see a difference in optimism between those doing research in this body of work in an academic setting versus industry?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7727.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iat32zw","c_root_id_B":"iasosyi","created_at_utc_A":1654103448,"created_at_utc_B":1654097441,"score_A":4,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"There are an increasing number of companies on the biotech scene right now (ginkgo bioworks, amyris, etc.) touting incredible narratives about the possibilities of synthetic biology. Almost sound too good to be true. Are they the next Theranos? Do you see a difference in optimism between those doing research in this body of work in an academic setting versus industry?","human_ref_B":"When will y\u2019all be able to create life from hot mineral water baths, ya know, the old fashioned way?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6007.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iasprmw","c_root_id_B":"iat32zw","created_at_utc_A":1654097858,"created_at_utc_B":1654103448,"score_A":2,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Dr. Webb, thank you for this AMA! I want to learn more about my biology and DNA, I think that a lot of knowledge and behavior is encoded not only in my own DNA but also in the DNA of my symbiotic microbiota. I would like to study this with more depth, perhaps even pursue an advanced degree after my retirement, with a focus on identifying the behavior code in wild animals then pivot to identifying the behavior code in microbiota, ultimately identifying the links between dietary patterns and behavioral patterns. I am a technologist and can visualize my work growing to pursue inter-species language development, leaning on machine learning and AI to not only facilitate identification but also facilitate DNA editing and tool development to converge on inter-species collaborative activities, such as deep ocean exploration with cetaceans, or transforming disease remediation via active microbiota changes and cooperation.  Question: is there a formal education program or resources that might help me build my base knowledge?","human_ref_B":"There are an increasing number of companies on the biotech scene right now (ginkgo bioworks, amyris, etc.) touting incredible narratives about the possibilities of synthetic biology. Almost sound too good to be true. Are they the next Theranos? Do you see a difference in optimism between those doing research in this body of work in an academic setting versus industry?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5590.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iasqi4v","c_root_id_B":"iat9q4k","created_at_utc_A":1654098173,"created_at_utc_B":1654106202,"score_A":3,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"What is your favorite version of a *possible* future designer organism? How would you make it?","human_ref_B":"Hey everyone. Thanks so much for these questions -- and for those of you here now, thanks for joining! We'll get started in earnest in \\~5 minutes.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8029.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iat9q4k","c_root_id_B":"iat3ydo","created_at_utc_A":1654106202,"created_at_utc_B":1654103814,"score_A":4,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Hey everyone. Thanks so much for these questions -- and for those of you here now, thanks for joining! We'll get started in earnest in \\~5 minutes.","human_ref_B":"Could you tell us your take on whether the following are trends or trendy?  - The Metaverse - NFTs - Aerial drone delivery","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2388.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iat9q4k","c_root_id_B":"iat7b2r","created_at_utc_A":1654106202,"created_at_utc_B":1654105199,"score_A":4,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Hey everyone. Thanks so much for these questions -- and for those of you here now, thanks for joining! We'll get started in earnest in \\~5 minutes.","human_ref_B":"When will I be able to grow my computer, or parts of my computer's motherboard (e.g. memory, CPU) from a seed, spore, protist cell culture, etc.?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1003.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iarulrc","c_root_id_B":"iat9q4k","created_at_utc_A":1654081955,"created_at_utc_B":1654106202,"score_A":2,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"How can I improve the transformation and regeneration efficiencies of my agro-transformed hemp calli? I get a few chimera but the efficiency is way lower than in arabidopsis. I'm limited on genotype selection which I know plays a big role (thanks, university's \"preferred vendors\")","human_ref_B":"Hey everyone. Thanks so much for these questions -- and for those of you here now, thanks for joining! We'll get started in earnest in \\~5 minutes.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":24247.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iaskuc7","c_root_id_B":"iat9q4k","created_at_utc_A":1654095721,"created_at_utc_B":1654106202,"score_A":2,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Of all the nightmare scenarios you and your team forecast--which one or ones keep you up at night the most?","human_ref_B":"Hey everyone. Thanks so much for these questions -- and for those of you here now, thanks for joining! We'll get started in earnest in \\~5 minutes.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":10481.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iat9q4k","c_root_id_B":"iasosyi","created_at_utc_A":1654106202,"created_at_utc_B":1654097441,"score_A":4,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hey everyone. Thanks so much for these questions -- and for those of you here now, thanks for joining! We'll get started in earnest in \\~5 minutes.","human_ref_B":"When will y\u2019all be able to create life from hot mineral water baths, ya know, the old fashioned way?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8761.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iasprmw","c_root_id_B":"iat9q4k","created_at_utc_A":1654097858,"created_at_utc_B":1654106202,"score_A":2,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Dr. Webb, thank you for this AMA! I want to learn more about my biology and DNA, I think that a lot of knowledge and behavior is encoded not only in my own DNA but also in the DNA of my symbiotic microbiota. I would like to study this with more depth, perhaps even pursue an advanced degree after my retirement, with a focus on identifying the behavior code in wild animals then pivot to identifying the behavior code in microbiota, ultimately identifying the links between dietary patterns and behavioral patterns. I am a technologist and can visualize my work growing to pursue inter-species language development, leaning on machine learning and AI to not only facilitate identification but also facilitate DNA editing and tool development to converge on inter-species collaborative activities, such as deep ocean exploration with cetaceans, or transforming disease remediation via active microbiota changes and cooperation.  Question: is there a formal education program or resources that might help me build my base knowledge?","human_ref_B":"Hey everyone. Thanks so much for these questions -- and for those of you here now, thanks for joining! We'll get started in earnest in \\~5 minutes.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8344.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iat4cnm","c_root_id_B":"iat9q4k","created_at_utc_A":1654103982,"created_at_utc_B":1654106202,"score_A":2,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"How do you grapple with the ethics of what you're doing?   Do you find it ethical to manipulate organisms?","human_ref_B":"Hey everyone. Thanks so much for these questions -- and for those of you here now, thanks for joining! We'll get started in earnest in \\~5 minutes.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2220.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iat9q4k","c_root_id_B":"iat7w2m","created_at_utc_A":1654106202,"created_at_utc_B":1654105441,"score_A":4,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hey everyone. Thanks so much for these questions -- and for those of you here now, thanks for joining! We'll get started in earnest in \\~5 minutes.","human_ref_B":"What will be the next probable computing revolution(s)? Microfluidics? Electro-mycelium neural networks? Photonics? Spintronics?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":761.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iaryyfv","c_root_id_B":"iarulrc","created_at_utc_A":1654084815,"created_at_utc_B":1654081955,"score_A":4,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hello!  How close to reality could humans and computers merge? As in the movie \"Ghost in the Shell\".  What do you believe humanity's short-term future will be?","human_ref_B":"How can I improve the transformation and regeneration efficiencies of my agro-transformed hemp calli? I get a few chimera but the efficiency is way lower than in arabidopsis. I'm limited on genotype selection which I know plays a big role (thanks, university's \"preferred vendors\")","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2860.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iasqi4v","c_root_id_B":"iarulrc","created_at_utc_A":1654098173,"created_at_utc_B":1654081955,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"What is your favorite version of a *possible* future designer organism? How would you make it?","human_ref_B":"How can I improve the transformation and regeneration efficiencies of my agro-transformed hemp calli? I get a few chimera but the efficiency is way lower than in arabidopsis. I'm limited on genotype selection which I know plays a big role (thanks, university's \"preferred vendors\")","labels":1,"seconds_difference":16218.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iaskuc7","c_root_id_B":"iasqi4v","created_at_utc_A":1654095721,"created_at_utc_B":1654098173,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Of all the nightmare scenarios you and your team forecast--which one or ones keep you up at night the most?","human_ref_B":"What is your favorite version of a *possible* future designer organism? How would you make it?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2452.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iasqi4v","c_root_id_B":"iasosyi","created_at_utc_A":1654098173,"created_at_utc_B":1654097441,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"What is your favorite version of a *possible* future designer organism? How would you make it?","human_ref_B":"When will y\u2019all be able to create life from hot mineral water baths, ya know, the old fashioned way?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":732.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iasprmw","c_root_id_B":"iasqi4v","created_at_utc_A":1654097858,"created_at_utc_B":1654098173,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Dr. Webb, thank you for this AMA! I want to learn more about my biology and DNA, I think that a lot of knowledge and behavior is encoded not only in my own DNA but also in the DNA of my symbiotic microbiota. I would like to study this with more depth, perhaps even pursue an advanced degree after my retirement, with a focus on identifying the behavior code in wild animals then pivot to identifying the behavior code in microbiota, ultimately identifying the links between dietary patterns and behavioral patterns. I am a technologist and can visualize my work growing to pursue inter-species language development, leaning on machine learning and AI to not only facilitate identification but also facilitate DNA editing and tool development to converge on inter-species collaborative activities, such as deep ocean exploration with cetaceans, or transforming disease remediation via active microbiota changes and cooperation.  Question: is there a formal education program or resources that might help me build my base knowledge?","human_ref_B":"What is your favorite version of a *possible* future designer organism? How would you make it?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":315.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iat3ydo","c_root_id_B":"iarulrc","created_at_utc_A":1654103814,"created_at_utc_B":1654081955,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Could you tell us your take on whether the following are trends or trendy?  - The Metaverse - NFTs - Aerial drone delivery","human_ref_B":"How can I improve the transformation and regeneration efficiencies of my agro-transformed hemp calli? I get a few chimera but the efficiency is way lower than in arabidopsis. I'm limited on genotype selection which I know plays a big role (thanks, university's \"preferred vendors\")","labels":1,"seconds_difference":21859.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iat3ydo","c_root_id_B":"iaskuc7","created_at_utc_A":1654103814,"created_at_utc_B":1654095721,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Could you tell us your take on whether the following are trends or trendy?  - The Metaverse - NFTs - Aerial drone delivery","human_ref_B":"Of all the nightmare scenarios you and your team forecast--which one or ones keep you up at night the most?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8093.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iat3ydo","c_root_id_B":"iasosyi","created_at_utc_A":1654103814,"created_at_utc_B":1654097441,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Could you tell us your take on whether the following are trends or trendy?  - The Metaverse - NFTs - Aerial drone delivery","human_ref_B":"When will y\u2019all be able to create life from hot mineral water baths, ya know, the old fashioned way?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6373.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iat3ydo","c_root_id_B":"iasprmw","created_at_utc_A":1654103814,"created_at_utc_B":1654097858,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Could you tell us your take on whether the following are trends or trendy?  - The Metaverse - NFTs - Aerial drone delivery","human_ref_B":"Dr. Webb, thank you for this AMA! I want to learn more about my biology and DNA, I think that a lot of knowledge and behavior is encoded not only in my own DNA but also in the DNA of my symbiotic microbiota. I would like to study this with more depth, perhaps even pursue an advanced degree after my retirement, with a focus on identifying the behavior code in wild animals then pivot to identifying the behavior code in microbiota, ultimately identifying the links between dietary patterns and behavioral patterns. I am a technologist and can visualize my work growing to pursue inter-species language development, leaning on machine learning and AI to not only facilitate identification but also facilitate DNA editing and tool development to converge on inter-species collaborative activities, such as deep ocean exploration with cetaceans, or transforming disease remediation via active microbiota changes and cooperation.  Question: is there a formal education program or resources that might help me build my base knowledge?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5956.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iat7b2r","c_root_id_B":"iarulrc","created_at_utc_A":1654105199,"created_at_utc_B":1654081955,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"When will I be able to grow my computer, or parts of my computer's motherboard (e.g. memory, CPU) from a seed, spore, protist cell culture, etc.?","human_ref_B":"How can I improve the transformation and regeneration efficiencies of my agro-transformed hemp calli? I get a few chimera but the efficiency is way lower than in arabidopsis. I'm limited on genotype selection which I know plays a big role (thanks, university's \"preferred vendors\")","labels":1,"seconds_difference":23244.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iaskuc7","c_root_id_B":"iat7b2r","created_at_utc_A":1654095721,"created_at_utc_B":1654105199,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Of all the nightmare scenarios you and your team forecast--which one or ones keep you up at night the most?","human_ref_B":"When will I be able to grow my computer, or parts of my computer's motherboard (e.g. memory, CPU) from a seed, spore, protist cell culture, etc.?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9478.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iat7b2r","c_root_id_B":"iasosyi","created_at_utc_A":1654105199,"created_at_utc_B":1654097441,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"When will I be able to grow my computer, or parts of my computer's motherboard (e.g. memory, CPU) from a seed, spore, protist cell culture, etc.?","human_ref_B":"When will y\u2019all be able to create life from hot mineral water baths, ya know, the old fashioned way?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7758.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iasprmw","c_root_id_B":"iat7b2r","created_at_utc_A":1654097858,"created_at_utc_B":1654105199,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Dr. Webb, thank you for this AMA! I want to learn more about my biology and DNA, I think that a lot of knowledge and behavior is encoded not only in my own DNA but also in the DNA of my symbiotic microbiota. I would like to study this with more depth, perhaps even pursue an advanced degree after my retirement, with a focus on identifying the behavior code in wild animals then pivot to identifying the behavior code in microbiota, ultimately identifying the links between dietary patterns and behavioral patterns. I am a technologist and can visualize my work growing to pursue inter-species language development, leaning on machine learning and AI to not only facilitate identification but also facilitate DNA editing and tool development to converge on inter-species collaborative activities, such as deep ocean exploration with cetaceans, or transforming disease remediation via active microbiota changes and cooperation.  Question: is there a formal education program or resources that might help me build my base knowledge?","human_ref_B":"When will I be able to grow my computer, or parts of my computer's motherboard (e.g. memory, CPU) from a seed, spore, protist cell culture, etc.?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7341.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iat4cnm","c_root_id_B":"iat7b2r","created_at_utc_A":1654103982,"created_at_utc_B":1654105199,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"How do you grapple with the ethics of what you're doing?   Do you find it ethical to manipulate organisms?","human_ref_B":"When will I be able to grow my computer, or parts of my computer's motherboard (e.g. memory, CPU) from a seed, spore, protist cell culture, etc.?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1217.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iarulrc","c_root_id_B":"iataht8","created_at_utc_A":1654081955,"created_at_utc_B":1654106520,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"How can I improve the transformation and regeneration efficiencies of my agro-transformed hemp calli? I get a few chimera but the efficiency is way lower than in arabidopsis. I'm limited on genotype selection which I know plays a big role (thanks, university's \"preferred vendors\")","human_ref_B":"Now that it has been almost four years since you wrote The Big Nine, can you identify things you got right on the mark, or maybe some things you missed. Or perhaps instead, what would you add if you were to do a second edition to update the text based on the news of the past 3 years?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":24565.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iaskuc7","c_root_id_B":"iataht8","created_at_utc_A":1654095721,"created_at_utc_B":1654106520,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Of all the nightmare scenarios you and your team forecast--which one or ones keep you up at night the most?","human_ref_B":"Now that it has been almost four years since you wrote The Big Nine, can you identify things you got right on the mark, or maybe some things you missed. Or perhaps instead, what would you add if you were to do a second edition to update the text based on the news of the past 3 years?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":10799.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iasosyi","c_root_id_B":"iataht8","created_at_utc_A":1654097441,"created_at_utc_B":1654106520,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"When will y\u2019all be able to create life from hot mineral water baths, ya know, the old fashioned way?","human_ref_B":"Now that it has been almost four years since you wrote The Big Nine, can you identify things you got right on the mark, or maybe some things you missed. Or perhaps instead, what would you add if you were to do a second edition to update the text based on the news of the past 3 years?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9079.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iasprmw","c_root_id_B":"iataht8","created_at_utc_A":1654097858,"created_at_utc_B":1654106520,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Dr. Webb, thank you for this AMA! I want to learn more about my biology and DNA, I think that a lot of knowledge and behavior is encoded not only in my own DNA but also in the DNA of my symbiotic microbiota. I would like to study this with more depth, perhaps even pursue an advanced degree after my retirement, with a focus on identifying the behavior code in wild animals then pivot to identifying the behavior code in microbiota, ultimately identifying the links between dietary patterns and behavioral patterns. I am a technologist and can visualize my work growing to pursue inter-species language development, leaning on machine learning and AI to not only facilitate identification but also facilitate DNA editing and tool development to converge on inter-species collaborative activities, such as deep ocean exploration with cetaceans, or transforming disease remediation via active microbiota changes and cooperation.  Question: is there a formal education program or resources that might help me build my base knowledge?","human_ref_B":"Now that it has been almost four years since you wrote The Big Nine, can you identify things you got right on the mark, or maybe some things you missed. Or perhaps instead, what would you add if you were to do a second edition to update the text based on the news of the past 3 years?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8662.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iat4cnm","c_root_id_B":"iataht8","created_at_utc_A":1654103982,"created_at_utc_B":1654106520,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"How do you grapple with the ethics of what you're doing?   Do you find it ethical to manipulate organisms?","human_ref_B":"Now that it has been almost four years since you wrote The Big Nine, can you identify things you got right on the mark, or maybe some things you missed. Or perhaps instead, what would you add if you were to do a second edition to update the text based on the news of the past 3 years?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2538.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iat7w2m","c_root_id_B":"iataht8","created_at_utc_A":1654105441,"created_at_utc_B":1654106520,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"What will be the next probable computing revolution(s)? Microfluidics? Electro-mycelium neural networks? Photonics? Spintronics?","human_ref_B":"Now that it has been almost four years since you wrote The Big Nine, can you identify things you got right on the mark, or maybe some things you missed. Or perhaps instead, what would you add if you were to do a second edition to update the text based on the news of the past 3 years?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1079.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iataht8","c_root_id_B":"iat9yhl","created_at_utc_A":1654106520,"created_at_utc_B":1654106297,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Now that it has been almost four years since you wrote The Big Nine, can you identify things you got right on the mark, or maybe some things you missed. Or perhaps instead, what would you add if you were to do a second edition to update the text based on the news of the past 3 years?","human_ref_B":"What\u2019s your opinion of SuperForecasters and their capabilities? They seem to think that forecasting more than 3-5 years out is close to impossible. Yet you have you decade predictions. What is difference between methodologies of you and the SuperForecasters, and what makes your methodology more accurate in your opinion?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":223.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iatircx","c_root_id_B":"iarulrc","created_at_utc_A":1654109977,"created_at_utc_B":1654081955,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Holy smokes -- lots of questions. I'll work on shorter answers!!","human_ref_B":"How can I improve the transformation and regeneration efficiencies of my agro-transformed hemp calli? I get a few chimera but the efficiency is way lower than in arabidopsis. I'm limited on genotype selection which I know plays a big role (thanks, university's \"preferred vendors\")","labels":1,"seconds_difference":28022.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iatircx","c_root_id_B":"iaskuc7","created_at_utc_A":1654109977,"created_at_utc_B":1654095721,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Holy smokes -- lots of questions. I'll work on shorter answers!!","human_ref_B":"Of all the nightmare scenarios you and your team forecast--which one or ones keep you up at night the most?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":14256.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iasosyi","c_root_id_B":"iatircx","created_at_utc_A":1654097441,"created_at_utc_B":1654109977,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"When will y\u2019all be able to create life from hot mineral water baths, ya know, the old fashioned way?","human_ref_B":"Holy smokes -- lots of questions. I'll work on shorter answers!!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12536.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iasprmw","c_root_id_B":"iatircx","created_at_utc_A":1654097858,"created_at_utc_B":1654109977,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Dr. Webb, thank you for this AMA! I want to learn more about my biology and DNA, I think that a lot of knowledge and behavior is encoded not only in my own DNA but also in the DNA of my symbiotic microbiota. I would like to study this with more depth, perhaps even pursue an advanced degree after my retirement, with a focus on identifying the behavior code in wild animals then pivot to identifying the behavior code in microbiota, ultimately identifying the links between dietary patterns and behavioral patterns. I am a technologist and can visualize my work growing to pursue inter-species language development, leaning on machine learning and AI to not only facilitate identification but also facilitate DNA editing and tool development to converge on inter-species collaborative activities, such as deep ocean exploration with cetaceans, or transforming disease remediation via active microbiota changes and cooperation.  Question: is there a formal education program or resources that might help me build my base knowledge?","human_ref_B":"Holy smokes -- lots of questions. I'll work on shorter answers!!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12119.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iatircx","c_root_id_B":"iat4cnm","created_at_utc_A":1654109977,"created_at_utc_B":1654103982,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Holy smokes -- lots of questions. I'll work on shorter answers!!","human_ref_B":"How do you grapple with the ethics of what you're doing?   Do you find it ethical to manipulate organisms?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5995.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iat7w2m","c_root_id_B":"iatircx","created_at_utc_A":1654105441,"created_at_utc_B":1654109977,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"What will be the next probable computing revolution(s)? Microfluidics? Electro-mycelium neural networks? Photonics? Spintronics?","human_ref_B":"Holy smokes -- lots of questions. I'll work on shorter answers!!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4536.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"v2eaob","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Futurist Amy Webb, and I just wrote a new book about a wild emerging technology called synthetic biology. AMA! We can now program cells as if they were tiny computers. What happens when anyone can manipulate organisms - or even create new ones? My new book, The Genesis Machine, gives you the background you need to think differently about research underway now, and what that could mean for humanity's futures. What questions do you have for me, Redditors? I'll be on from 2-4pmET (18-20 UT), AMA!     Username: \/u\/Amy_Webb","c_root_id_A":"iatircx","c_root_id_B":"iat9yhl","created_at_utc_A":1654109977,"created_at_utc_B":1654106297,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Holy smokes -- lots of questions. I'll work on shorter answers!!","human_ref_B":"What\u2019s your opinion of SuperForecasters and their capabilities? They seem to think that forecasting more than 3-5 years out is close to impossible. Yet you have you decade predictions. What is difference between methodologies of you and the SuperForecasters, and what makes your methodology more accurate in your opinion?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3680.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xsdn3","c_root_id_B":"e7xm9zm","created_at_utc_A":1539788458,"created_at_utc_B":1539783112,"score_A":26,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"To my non-colorblind eyes, cividis looks quite similar to the parula colormap which if I recall correctly is meant to address similar issues. What are the advantages, if any, to cividis over parula?","human_ref_B":"Hi and thanks for joining us today!  Is viridis 508 compliant?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5346.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xsdn3","c_root_id_B":"e7xifka","created_at_utc_A":1539788458,"created_at_utc_B":1539778943,"score_A":26,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"To my non-colorblind eyes, cividis looks quite similar to the parula colormap which if I recall correctly is meant to address similar issues. What are the advantages, if any, to cividis over parula?","human_ref_B":"Thanks for doing this good work and and AMA.  One issue that I didn't see addressed in quick read: there's often reason to overlay additional data.  It might be contour lines giving different information than the shading, or just outlines of shapes of objects or borders between regions in a simulation.  It looks like you used white for that in sample images and it worked ok, but have you thought about that more rigorously, and considered how to leave space for that in the gamut in your optimization?  Subjectively, when I seen color map that uses very dark shades in the low value regions, my gut reaction is to feel like it's too dark in that region for me to see what is going on.  My impulse is to want to get a flashlight and shine it in that area, which might be of critical importance, to see what is going on.  That's illogical, but that's the way I seem to be wired.  It seems like systematic user testing would ultimately be needed to get at things like that.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9515.0,"score_ratio":2.3636363636}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xsdn3","c_root_id_B":"e7xp7le","created_at_utc_A":1539788458,"created_at_utc_B":1539785793,"score_A":26,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"To my non-colorblind eyes, cividis looks quite similar to the parula colormap which if I recall correctly is meant to address similar issues. What are the advantages, if any, to cividis over parula?","human_ref_B":"As a WSU-TC student, What is the best way to get an interview for an internship? It feels like a masters is required to get in the door. (EE student if that matters).","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2665.0,"score_ratio":2.1666666667}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xsdn3","c_root_id_B":"e7xozag","created_at_utc_A":1539788458,"created_at_utc_B":1539785597,"score_A":26,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"To my non-colorblind eyes, cividis looks quite similar to the parula colormap which if I recall correctly is meant to address similar issues. What are the advantages, if any, to cividis over parula?","human_ref_B":"This is great! I introduced viridis to my undergrads and spent a while extolling its many benefits when compared with jet and the like.  Question - Did you consider blue-yellow colorblindness in generating Cividis, or just red-green (which is more common). I imagine the same optimization process would work to generate a blue-yellow robust map.  A correction - I believe recent literature has shown sensitivity to more gradiations in grayscale than the thirty you report in the paper source.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2861.0,"score_ratio":3.25}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xsdn3","c_root_id_B":"e7xo8j1","created_at_utc_A":1539788458,"created_at_utc_B":1539784947,"score_A":26,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"To my non-colorblind eyes, cividis looks quite similar to the parula colormap which if I recall correctly is meant to address similar issues. What are the advantages, if any, to cividis over parula?","human_ref_B":"Has anyone implemented this as a color palette in ROOT yet?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3511.0,"score_ratio":6.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xof7p","c_root_id_B":"e7xsdn3","created_at_utc_A":1539785112,"created_at_utc_B":1539788458,"score_A":3,"score_B":26,"human_ref_A":"Besides using tools like the ones you guys have created, what else can researchers do to increase accessibility in interpretation of their data? Any common pitfalls you have come across in your research?  What was the impetus for this research project?  What questions are there going forward?","human_ref_B":"To my non-colorblind eyes, cividis looks quite similar to the parula colormap which if I recall correctly is meant to address similar issues. What are the advantages, if any, to cividis over parula?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3346.0,"score_ratio":8.6666666667}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xsdn3","c_root_id_B":"e7xp48d","created_at_utc_A":1539788458,"created_at_utc_B":1539785714,"score_A":26,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"To my non-colorblind eyes, cividis looks quite similar to the parula colormap which if I recall correctly is meant to address similar issues. What are the advantages, if any, to cividis over parula?","human_ref_B":"Does your mapping use an algorithm to adjust the colors, or a one to one mapping?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2744.0,"score_ratio":8.6666666667}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xsdn3","c_root_id_B":"e7xm4wh","created_at_utc_A":1539788458,"created_at_utc_B":1539782971,"score_A":26,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"To my non-colorblind eyes, cividis looks quite similar to the parula colormap which if I recall correctly is meant to address similar issues. What are the advantages, if any, to cividis over parula?","human_ref_B":"This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5487.0,"score_ratio":13.0}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xpv6x","c_root_id_B":"e7xsdn3","created_at_utc_A":1539786358,"created_at_utc_B":1539788458,"score_A":2,"score_B":26,"human_ref_A":"Is there more documentation in helping create optimized colormaps for different purposes?  For example I want to represent wavelength ranges that commonly correspond to visible Blue Green Red etc. So I usually use the corresponding color of the rainbow for the optical wavelength ranges. How can I convert them into something that is better for color blind people but still try to keep a consistent mapping between color and wavelength range or something like that?","human_ref_B":"To my non-colorblind eyes, cividis looks quite similar to the parula colormap which if I recall correctly is meant to address similar issues. What are the advantages, if any, to cividis over parula?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2100.0,"score_ratio":13.0}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xm9zm","c_root_id_B":"e7xifka","created_at_utc_A":1539783112,"created_at_utc_B":1539778943,"score_A":13,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"Hi and thanks for joining us today!  Is viridis 508 compliant?","human_ref_B":"Thanks for doing this good work and and AMA.  One issue that I didn't see addressed in quick read: there's often reason to overlay additional data.  It might be contour lines giving different information than the shading, or just outlines of shapes of objects or borders between regions in a simulation.  It looks like you used white for that in sample images and it worked ok, but have you thought about that more rigorously, and considered how to leave space for that in the gamut in your optimization?  Subjectively, when I seen color map that uses very dark shades in the low value regions, my gut reaction is to feel like it's too dark in that region for me to see what is going on.  My impulse is to want to get a flashlight and shine it in that area, which might be of critical importance, to see what is going on.  That's illogical, but that's the way I seem to be wired.  It seems like systematic user testing would ultimately be needed to get at things like that.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4169.0,"score_ratio":1.1818181818}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xm9zm","c_root_id_B":"e7xm4wh","created_at_utc_A":1539783112,"created_at_utc_B":1539782971,"score_A":13,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hi and thanks for joining us today!  Is viridis 508 compliant?","human_ref_B":"This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":141.0,"score_ratio":6.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xp7le","c_root_id_B":"e7xifka","created_at_utc_A":1539785793,"created_at_utc_B":1539778943,"score_A":12,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"As a WSU-TC student, What is the best way to get an interview for an internship? It feels like a masters is required to get in the door. (EE student if that matters).","human_ref_B":"Thanks for doing this good work and and AMA.  One issue that I didn't see addressed in quick read: there's often reason to overlay additional data.  It might be contour lines giving different information than the shading, or just outlines of shapes of objects or borders between regions in a simulation.  It looks like you used white for that in sample images and it worked ok, but have you thought about that more rigorously, and considered how to leave space for that in the gamut in your optimization?  Subjectively, when I seen color map that uses very dark shades in the low value regions, my gut reaction is to feel like it's too dark in that region for me to see what is going on.  My impulse is to want to get a flashlight and shine it in that area, which might be of critical importance, to see what is going on.  That's illogical, but that's the way I seem to be wired.  It seems like systematic user testing would ultimately be needed to get at things like that.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6850.0,"score_ratio":1.0909090909}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xozag","c_root_id_B":"e7xp7le","created_at_utc_A":1539785597,"created_at_utc_B":1539785793,"score_A":8,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"This is great! I introduced viridis to my undergrads and spent a while extolling its many benefits when compared with jet and the like.  Question - Did you consider blue-yellow colorblindness in generating Cividis, or just red-green (which is more common). I imagine the same optimization process would work to generate a blue-yellow robust map.  A correction - I believe recent literature has shown sensitivity to more gradiations in grayscale than the thirty you report in the paper source.","human_ref_B":"As a WSU-TC student, What is the best way to get an interview for an internship? It feels like a masters is required to get in the door. (EE student if that matters).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":196.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xp7le","c_root_id_B":"e7xo8j1","created_at_utc_A":1539785793,"created_at_utc_B":1539784947,"score_A":12,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"As a WSU-TC student, What is the best way to get an interview for an internship? It feels like a masters is required to get in the door. (EE student if that matters).","human_ref_B":"Has anyone implemented this as a color palette in ROOT yet?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":846.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xof7p","c_root_id_B":"e7xp7le","created_at_utc_A":1539785112,"created_at_utc_B":1539785793,"score_A":3,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"Besides using tools like the ones you guys have created, what else can researchers do to increase accessibility in interpretation of their data? Any common pitfalls you have come across in your research?  What was the impetus for this research project?  What questions are there going forward?","human_ref_B":"As a WSU-TC student, What is the best way to get an interview for an internship? It feels like a masters is required to get in the door. (EE student if that matters).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":681.0,"score_ratio":4.0}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xp7le","c_root_id_B":"e7xp48d","created_at_utc_A":1539785793,"created_at_utc_B":1539785714,"score_A":12,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"As a WSU-TC student, What is the best way to get an interview for an internship? It feels like a masters is required to get in the door. (EE student if that matters).","human_ref_B":"Does your mapping use an algorithm to adjust the colors, or a one to one mapping?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":79.0,"score_ratio":4.0}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xm4wh","c_root_id_B":"e7xp7le","created_at_utc_A":1539782971,"created_at_utc_B":1539785793,"score_A":2,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!","human_ref_B":"As a WSU-TC student, What is the best way to get an interview for an internship? It feels like a masters is required to get in the door. (EE student if that matters).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2822.0,"score_ratio":6.0}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xozag","c_root_id_B":"e7xo8j1","created_at_utc_A":1539785597,"created_at_utc_B":1539784947,"score_A":8,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"This is great! I introduced viridis to my undergrads and spent a while extolling its many benefits when compared with jet and the like.  Question - Did you consider blue-yellow colorblindness in generating Cividis, or just red-green (which is more common). I imagine the same optimization process would work to generate a blue-yellow robust map.  A correction - I believe recent literature has shown sensitivity to more gradiations in grayscale than the thirty you report in the paper source.","human_ref_B":"Has anyone implemented this as a color palette in ROOT yet?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":650.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xof7p","c_root_id_B":"e7xozag","created_at_utc_A":1539785112,"created_at_utc_B":1539785597,"score_A":3,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Besides using tools like the ones you guys have created, what else can researchers do to increase accessibility in interpretation of their data? Any common pitfalls you have come across in your research?  What was the impetus for this research project?  What questions are there going forward?","human_ref_B":"This is great! I introduced viridis to my undergrads and spent a while extolling its many benefits when compared with jet and the like.  Question - Did you consider blue-yellow colorblindness in generating Cividis, or just red-green (which is more common). I imagine the same optimization process would work to generate a blue-yellow robust map.  A correction - I believe recent literature has shown sensitivity to more gradiations in grayscale than the thirty you report in the paper source.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":485.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xozag","c_root_id_B":"e7xm4wh","created_at_utc_A":1539785597,"created_at_utc_B":1539782971,"score_A":8,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"This is great! I introduced viridis to my undergrads and spent a while extolling its many benefits when compared with jet and the like.  Question - Did you consider blue-yellow colorblindness in generating Cividis, or just red-green (which is more common). I imagine the same optimization process would work to generate a blue-yellow robust map.  A correction - I believe recent literature has shown sensitivity to more gradiations in grayscale than the thirty you report in the paper source.","human_ref_B":"This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2626.0,"score_ratio":4.0}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xuvvq","c_root_id_B":"e7xo8j1","created_at_utc_A":1539790501,"created_at_utc_B":1539784947,"score_A":6,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"How does someone who has really good MS Office skills, but doesn't have a deep knowledge of programming take advantage of this?","human_ref_B":"Has anyone implemented this as a color palette in ROOT yet?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5554.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xuvvq","c_root_id_B":"e7xof7p","created_at_utc_A":1539790501,"created_at_utc_B":1539785112,"score_A":6,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"How does someone who has really good MS Office skills, but doesn't have a deep knowledge of programming take advantage of this?","human_ref_B":"Besides using tools like the ones you guys have created, what else can researchers do to increase accessibility in interpretation of their data? Any common pitfalls you have come across in your research?  What was the impetus for this research project?  What questions are there going forward?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5389.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xp48d","c_root_id_B":"e7xuvvq","created_at_utc_A":1539785714,"created_at_utc_B":1539790501,"score_A":3,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Does your mapping use an algorithm to adjust the colors, or a one to one mapping?","human_ref_B":"How does someone who has really good MS Office skills, but doesn't have a deep knowledge of programming take advantage of this?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4787.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xuvvq","c_root_id_B":"e7xm4wh","created_at_utc_A":1539790501,"created_at_utc_B":1539782971,"score_A":6,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"How does someone who has really good MS Office skills, but doesn't have a deep knowledge of programming take advantage of this?","human_ref_B":"This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7530.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xpv6x","c_root_id_B":"e7xuvvq","created_at_utc_A":1539786358,"created_at_utc_B":1539790501,"score_A":2,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Is there more documentation in helping create optimized colormaps for different purposes?  For example I want to represent wavelength ranges that commonly correspond to visible Blue Green Red etc. So I usually use the corresponding color of the rainbow for the optical wavelength ranges. How can I convert them into something that is better for color blind people but still try to keep a consistent mapping between color and wavelength range or something like that?","human_ref_B":"How does someone who has really good MS Office skills, but doesn't have a deep knowledge of programming take advantage of this?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4143.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7yeo9z","c_root_id_B":"e7xo8j1","created_at_utc_A":1539806377,"created_at_utc_B":1539784947,"score_A":5,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Hey Ryan,  This is some really cool work you've shown. I was wondering - if we are given an image (say RGB) with a colormap legend, can it be converted to be cividis-based on that alone? or does the module you created need access to original data of some sort?  Really interested to see if this would help with regards to SEM images with elemental maps overlaid.  Go Cougs!","human_ref_B":"Has anyone implemented this as a color palette in ROOT yet?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":21430.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xof7p","c_root_id_B":"e7yeo9z","created_at_utc_A":1539785112,"created_at_utc_B":1539806377,"score_A":3,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Besides using tools like the ones you guys have created, what else can researchers do to increase accessibility in interpretation of their data? Any common pitfalls you have come across in your research?  What was the impetus for this research project?  What questions are there going forward?","human_ref_B":"Hey Ryan,  This is some really cool work you've shown. I was wondering - if we are given an image (say RGB) with a colormap legend, can it be converted to be cividis-based on that alone? or does the module you created need access to original data of some sort?  Really interested to see if this would help with regards to SEM images with elemental maps overlaid.  Go Cougs!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":21265.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7yeo9z","c_root_id_B":"e7xp48d","created_at_utc_A":1539806377,"created_at_utc_B":1539785714,"score_A":5,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Hey Ryan,  This is some really cool work you've shown. I was wondering - if we are given an image (say RGB) with a colormap legend, can it be converted to be cividis-based on that alone? or does the module you created need access to original data of some sort?  Really interested to see if this would help with regards to SEM images with elemental maps overlaid.  Go Cougs!","human_ref_B":"Does your mapping use an algorithm to adjust the colors, or a one to one mapping?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":20663.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7yeo9z","c_root_id_B":"e7xw18j","created_at_utc_A":1539806377,"created_at_utc_B":1539791420,"score_A":5,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Hey Ryan,  This is some really cool work you've shown. I was wondering - if we are given an image (say RGB) with a colormap legend, can it be converted to be cividis-based on that alone? or does the module you created need access to original data of some sort?  Really interested to see if this would help with regards to SEM images with elemental maps overlaid.  Go Cougs!","human_ref_B":"Hi there, thanks for joining us! I've been a huge proponent of cividis since it (recently came out). Given what you've shown in the Ja'b' colorspace, is there a way to make a \"significant\" jump to the \"next generation\" default colormap kind of like jet to viridis and then viridis to jet? Or is this close to some optimal colormap?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":14957.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7yeo9z","c_root_id_B":"e7y8e18","created_at_utc_A":1539806377,"created_at_utc_B":1539801316,"score_A":5,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Hey Ryan,  This is some really cool work you've shown. I was wondering - if we are given an image (say RGB) with a colormap legend, can it be converted to be cividis-based on that alone? or does the module you created need access to original data of some sort?  Really interested to see if this would help with regards to SEM images with elemental maps overlaid.  Go Cougs!","human_ref_B":"As a resident of the Tri-Cities, I'm just popping in to comment that PNNL rules.  Keep up the great work :)","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5061.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7yeo9z","c_root_id_B":"e7xm4wh","created_at_utc_A":1539806377,"created_at_utc_B":1539782971,"score_A":5,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hey Ryan,  This is some really cool work you've shown. I was wondering - if we are given an image (say RGB) with a colormap legend, can it be converted to be cividis-based on that alone? or does the module you created need access to original data of some sort?  Really interested to see if this would help with regards to SEM images with elemental maps overlaid.  Go Cougs!","human_ref_B":"This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":23406.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7yeo9z","c_root_id_B":"e7xpv6x","created_at_utc_A":1539806377,"created_at_utc_B":1539786358,"score_A":5,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hey Ryan,  This is some really cool work you've shown. I was wondering - if we are given an image (say RGB) with a colormap legend, can it be converted to be cividis-based on that alone? or does the module you created need access to original data of some sort?  Really interested to see if this would help with regards to SEM images with elemental maps overlaid.  Go Cougs!","human_ref_B":"Is there more documentation in helping create optimized colormaps for different purposes?  For example I want to represent wavelength ranges that commonly correspond to visible Blue Green Red etc. So I usually use the corresponding color of the rainbow for the optical wavelength ranges. How can I convert them into something that is better for color blind people but still try to keep a consistent mapping between color and wavelength range or something like that?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":20019.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xydtq","c_root_id_B":"e7yeo9z","created_at_utc_A":1539793281,"created_at_utc_B":1539806377,"score_A":2,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"A brief glance leads me to think this is for a continuous colormap specifically, right?  What about a categorical alternative?","human_ref_B":"Hey Ryan,  This is some really cool work you've shown. I was wondering - if we are given an image (say RGB) with a colormap legend, can it be converted to be cividis-based on that alone? or does the module you created need access to original data of some sort?  Really interested to see if this would help with regards to SEM images with elemental maps overlaid.  Go Cougs!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":13096.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7yeo9z","c_root_id_B":"e7y2ykd","created_at_utc_A":1539806377,"created_at_utc_B":1539796931,"score_A":5,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hey Ryan,  This is some really cool work you've shown. I was wondering - if we are given an image (say RGB) with a colormap legend, can it be converted to be cividis-based on that alone? or does the module you created need access to original data of some sort?  Really interested to see if this would help with regards to SEM images with elemental maps overlaid.  Go Cougs!","human_ref_B":"How would you compare cividis to viridis? Obviously there's a name similarity.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9446.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7y6eff","c_root_id_B":"e7yeo9z","created_at_utc_A":1539799707,"created_at_utc_B":1539806377,"score_A":2,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Why are your colormaps preferable to a monochromatic gradient? Is there a reason to vary hue when you can just manipulate luminance?","human_ref_B":"Hey Ryan,  This is some really cool work you've shown. I was wondering - if we are given an image (say RGB) with a colormap legend, can it be converted to be cividis-based on that alone? or does the module you created need access to original data of some sort?  Really interested to see if this would help with regards to SEM images with elemental maps overlaid.  Go Cougs!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6670.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xo8j1","c_root_id_B":"e7xm4wh","created_at_utc_A":1539784947,"created_at_utc_B":1539782971,"score_A":4,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Has anyone implemented this as a color palette in ROOT yet?","human_ref_B":"This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1976.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xm4wh","c_root_id_B":"e7xof7p","created_at_utc_A":1539782971,"created_at_utc_B":1539785112,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!","human_ref_B":"Besides using tools like the ones you guys have created, what else can researchers do to increase accessibility in interpretation of their data? Any common pitfalls you have come across in your research?  What was the impetus for this research project?  What questions are there going forward?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2141.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xm4wh","c_root_id_B":"e7xp48d","created_at_utc_A":1539782971,"created_at_utc_B":1539785714,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!","human_ref_B":"Does your mapping use an algorithm to adjust the colors, or a one to one mapping?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2743.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xw18j","c_root_id_B":"e7xm4wh","created_at_utc_A":1539791420,"created_at_utc_B":1539782971,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hi there, thanks for joining us! I've been a huge proponent of cividis since it (recently came out). Given what you've shown in the Ja'b' colorspace, is there a way to make a \"significant\" jump to the \"next generation\" default colormap kind of like jet to viridis and then viridis to jet? Or is this close to some optimal colormap?","human_ref_B":"This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8449.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xw18j","c_root_id_B":"e7xpv6x","created_at_utc_A":1539791420,"created_at_utc_B":1539786358,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hi there, thanks for joining us! I've been a huge proponent of cividis since it (recently came out). Given what you've shown in the Ja'b' colorspace, is there a way to make a \"significant\" jump to the \"next generation\" default colormap kind of like jet to viridis and then viridis to jet? Or is this close to some optimal colormap?","human_ref_B":"Is there more documentation in helping create optimized colormaps for different purposes?  For example I want to represent wavelength ranges that commonly correspond to visible Blue Green Red etc. So I usually use the corresponding color of the rainbow for the optical wavelength ranges. How can I convert them into something that is better for color blind people but still try to keep a consistent mapping between color and wavelength range or something like that?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5062.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7y8e18","c_root_id_B":"e7xm4wh","created_at_utc_A":1539801316,"created_at_utc_B":1539782971,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"As a resident of the Tri-Cities, I'm just popping in to comment that PNNL rules.  Keep up the great work :)","human_ref_B":"This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":18345.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7y8e18","c_root_id_B":"e7xpv6x","created_at_utc_A":1539801316,"created_at_utc_B":1539786358,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"As a resident of the Tri-Cities, I'm just popping in to comment that PNNL rules.  Keep up the great work :)","human_ref_B":"Is there more documentation in helping create optimized colormaps for different purposes?  For example I want to represent wavelength ranges that commonly correspond to visible Blue Green Red etc. So I usually use the corresponding color of the rainbow for the optical wavelength ranges. How can I convert them into something that is better for color blind people but still try to keep a consistent mapping between color and wavelength range or something like that?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":14958.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xydtq","c_root_id_B":"e7y8e18","created_at_utc_A":1539793281,"created_at_utc_B":1539801316,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"A brief glance leads me to think this is for a continuous colormap specifically, right?  What about a categorical alternative?","human_ref_B":"As a resident of the Tri-Cities, I'm just popping in to comment that PNNL rules.  Keep up the great work :)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8035.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7y2ykd","c_root_id_B":"e7y8e18","created_at_utc_A":1539796931,"created_at_utc_B":1539801316,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"How would you compare cividis to viridis? Obviously there's a name similarity.","human_ref_B":"As a resident of the Tri-Cities, I'm just popping in to comment that PNNL rules.  Keep up the great work :)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4385.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7y6eff","c_root_id_B":"e7y8e18","created_at_utc_A":1539799707,"created_at_utc_B":1539801316,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Why are your colormaps preferable to a monochromatic gradient? Is there a reason to vary hue when you can just manipulate luminance?","human_ref_B":"As a resident of the Tri-Cities, I'm just popping in to comment that PNNL rules.  Keep up the great work :)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1609.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7ykr28","c_root_id_B":"e7xm4wh","created_at_utc_A":1539811507,"created_at_utc_B":1539782971,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"I really appreciate this part of your paper:  &#x200B;  >A downside of cividis, as reported by colleagues, is its minimal coverage of different colors: varying straight from blue to yellow rather than cycling through other colors ... Of course, this is because those who have a form of CVD cannot see these colors the way those with normal vision can. However, since normal color vision is more common, **using more colors is often desired for representation of data and for increasing visual perception precision through use of a larger dynamic color range**. An area of research we are pursuing is the ability to cycle through more colors while still keeping both normal color vision and deuteranomaly (ranging from a mild form to complete dichromacy) perceptions of the colormap optimal.  &#x200B;  Have you made any progress on this? For datasets with a large dynamic range, and with fractal-like behavior, the limited number of colors sampled by cividis (and viridis) makes them highly sub-optimal (if you have normal vision).","human_ref_B":"This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":28536.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7ykr28","c_root_id_B":"e7xpv6x","created_at_utc_A":1539811507,"created_at_utc_B":1539786358,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"I really appreciate this part of your paper:  &#x200B;  >A downside of cividis, as reported by colleagues, is its minimal coverage of different colors: varying straight from blue to yellow rather than cycling through other colors ... Of course, this is because those who have a form of CVD cannot see these colors the way those with normal vision can. However, since normal color vision is more common, **using more colors is often desired for representation of data and for increasing visual perception precision through use of a larger dynamic color range**. An area of research we are pursuing is the ability to cycle through more colors while still keeping both normal color vision and deuteranomaly (ranging from a mild form to complete dichromacy) perceptions of the colormap optimal.  &#x200B;  Have you made any progress on this? For datasets with a large dynamic range, and with fractal-like behavior, the limited number of colors sampled by cividis (and viridis) makes them highly sub-optimal (if you have normal vision).","human_ref_B":"Is there more documentation in helping create optimized colormaps for different purposes?  For example I want to represent wavelength ranges that commonly correspond to visible Blue Green Red etc. So I usually use the corresponding color of the rainbow for the optical wavelength ranges. How can I convert them into something that is better for color blind people but still try to keep a consistent mapping between color and wavelength range or something like that?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":25149.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7xydtq","c_root_id_B":"e7ykr28","created_at_utc_A":1539793281,"created_at_utc_B":1539811507,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"A brief glance leads me to think this is for a continuous colormap specifically, right?  What about a categorical alternative?","human_ref_B":"I really appreciate this part of your paper:  &#x200B;  >A downside of cividis, as reported by colleagues, is its minimal coverage of different colors: varying straight from blue to yellow rather than cycling through other colors ... Of course, this is because those who have a form of CVD cannot see these colors the way those with normal vision can. However, since normal color vision is more common, **using more colors is often desired for representation of data and for increasing visual perception precision through use of a larger dynamic color range**. An area of research we are pursuing is the ability to cycle through more colors while still keeping both normal color vision and deuteranomaly (ranging from a mild form to complete dichromacy) perceptions of the colormap optimal.  &#x200B;  Have you made any progress on this? For datasets with a large dynamic range, and with fractal-like behavior, the limited number of colors sampled by cividis (and viridis) makes them highly sub-optimal (if you have normal vision).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":18226.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7y2ykd","c_root_id_B":"e7ykr28","created_at_utc_A":1539796931,"created_at_utc_B":1539811507,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"How would you compare cividis to viridis? Obviously there's a name similarity.","human_ref_B":"I really appreciate this part of your paper:  &#x200B;  >A downside of cividis, as reported by colleagues, is its minimal coverage of different colors: varying straight from blue to yellow rather than cycling through other colors ... Of course, this is because those who have a form of CVD cannot see these colors the way those with normal vision can. However, since normal color vision is more common, **using more colors is often desired for representation of data and for increasing visual perception precision through use of a larger dynamic color range**. An area of research we are pursuing is the ability to cycle through more colors while still keeping both normal color vision and deuteranomaly (ranging from a mild form to complete dichromacy) perceptions of the colormap optimal.  &#x200B;  Have you made any progress on this? For datasets with a large dynamic range, and with fractal-like behavior, the limited number of colors sampled by cividis (and viridis) makes them highly sub-optimal (if you have normal vision).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":14576.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7y6eff","c_root_id_B":"e7ykr28","created_at_utc_A":1539799707,"created_at_utc_B":1539811507,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Why are your colormaps preferable to a monochromatic gradient? Is there a reason to vary hue when you can just manipulate luminance?","human_ref_B":"I really appreciate this part of your paper:  &#x200B;  >A downside of cividis, as reported by colleagues, is its minimal coverage of different colors: varying straight from blue to yellow rather than cycling through other colors ... Of course, this is because those who have a form of CVD cannot see these colors the way those with normal vision can. However, since normal color vision is more common, **using more colors is often desired for representation of data and for increasing visual perception precision through use of a larger dynamic color range**. An area of research we are pursuing is the ability to cycle through more colors while still keeping both normal color vision and deuteranomaly (ranging from a mild form to complete dichromacy) perceptions of the colormap optimal.  &#x200B;  Have you made any progress on this? For datasets with a large dynamic range, and with fractal-like behavior, the limited number of colors sampled by cividis (and viridis) makes them highly sub-optimal (if you have normal vision).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":11800.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"9oxlk9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https:\/\/github.com\/pnnl\/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https:\/\/goo.gl\/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!","c_root_id_A":"e7yject","c_root_id_B":"e7ykr28","created_at_utc_A":1539810366,"created_at_utc_B":1539811507,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Thank you for your work and this AMA.  Did you also create other color maps with the same advantageous properties, namely...  1. A color map which contains white rather than black at one end of the spectrum, for showing anomalies when printing on white paper 2. A symmetric color map, which changes from one color to black, and then from black to another color, to show symmetric data, e.g. magnetic fields 3. A symmetric color map like above, but with white in the middle, for printing on white paper  Thanks!","human_ref_B":"I really appreciate this part of your paper:  &#x200B;  >A downside of cividis, as reported by colleagues, is its minimal coverage of different colors: varying straight from blue to yellow rather than cycling through other colors ... Of course, this is because those who have a form of CVD cannot see these colors the way those with normal vision can. However, since normal color vision is more common, **using more colors is often desired for representation of data and for increasing visual perception precision through use of a larger dynamic color range**. An area of research we are pursuing is the ability to cycle through more colors while still keeping both normal color vision and deuteranomaly (ranging from a mild form to complete dichromacy) perceptions of the colormap optimal.  &#x200B;  Have you made any progress on this? For datasets with a large dynamic range, and with fractal-like behavior, the limited number of colors sampled by cividis (and viridis) makes them highly sub-optimal (if you have normal vision).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1141.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"mdgua","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.68,"history":"We are all familiar with the original hydrogen, and now the helium filled blimps. Why can't we simply vacuum all the air out completely, and have a blimp that floated because of the void in it? We do not use hydrogen airships ever since the Hindenburg disaster. Helium is much safer but not near as efficient. Couldn't we build a rigid structure inside the airship's body to hold the skin firmly, while we pumped all the air out completely? Seems like this type of airship would float extremely efficiently and be virtually free to \"fill\" the ship's floatation chamber.","c_root_id_A":"c301mxb","c_root_id_B":"c3026vc","created_at_utc_A":1321392384,"created_at_utc_B":1321395817,"score_A":8,"score_B":16,"human_ref_A":"Pressure.  In a Hydrogen, Helium, or hot air balloon the pressure is equivalent inside and outside, this makes it easy to create very tenuous and light-weight balloons, which is good for lifting capacity. If you replace the lifting gas with a vacuum then there are suddenly huge forces working to collapse the balloon. Now you need a very strong rigid structure to hold up against those forces. Likely, a structure strong enough to withstand being crushed will also be heavier than a comparable structure filled with Helium.","human_ref_B":"Here is what happens when the pressure inside a large steel tanker is lower than the atmosphere. youtube clip  Here is what an \"airship\" sized vacuum chamber looks like.  NASA has one.  It would be like trying to fly the pyramids.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3433.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"mdgua","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.68,"history":"We are all familiar with the original hydrogen, and now the helium filled blimps. Why can't we simply vacuum all the air out completely, and have a blimp that floated because of the void in it? We do not use hydrogen airships ever since the Hindenburg disaster. Helium is much safer but not near as efficient. Couldn't we build a rigid structure inside the airship's body to hold the skin firmly, while we pumped all the air out completely? Seems like this type of airship would float extremely efficiently and be virtually free to \"fill\" the ship's floatation chamber.","c_root_id_A":"c30269z","c_root_id_B":"c3026vc","created_at_utc_A":1321395710,"created_at_utc_B":1321395817,"score_A":2,"score_B":16,"human_ref_A":"The equation to look at it Force=gV(p1-p2)  So if you put a ball filled with air in water it will float because p1 or density of water is higher than p2, the density of air.  Multiply this by g (gravity) and V (volume of ball) to get the force exerted upwards by the ball.  To slightly complicate things, the density of air is not the density of air.  It is actually the average density of both the air and the material of the ball (with their volumes, respectively).  So the \u201csystem\u201d is both the ball material and the air in it.  Now, taking this to your example.  The system with the hot air balloon is the balloon material, the basket (holding the people) and the helium inside the balloon.  So basically you would need as much helium as it would take to get the average density of the whole system to be lesser than the density of the air, thus making it float.  If there is no helium, then the density of the system would just be the hot air balloon\u2019s material, making it much, much more dense than air and will sink.","human_ref_B":"Here is what happens when the pressure inside a large steel tanker is lower than the atmosphere. youtube clip  Here is what an \"airship\" sized vacuum chamber looks like.  NASA has one.  It would be like trying to fly the pyramids.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":107.0,"score_ratio":8.0}
{"post_id":"mdgua","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.68,"history":"We are all familiar with the original hydrogen, and now the helium filled blimps. Why can't we simply vacuum all the air out completely, and have a blimp that floated because of the void in it? We do not use hydrogen airships ever since the Hindenburg disaster. Helium is much safer but not near as efficient. Couldn't we build a rigid structure inside the airship's body to hold the skin firmly, while we pumped all the air out completely? Seems like this type of airship would float extremely efficiently and be virtually free to \"fill\" the ship's floatation chamber.","c_root_id_A":"c30269z","c_root_id_B":"c303vix","created_at_utc_A":1321395710,"created_at_utc_B":1321407738,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"The equation to look at it Force=gV(p1-p2)  So if you put a ball filled with air in water it will float because p1 or density of water is higher than p2, the density of air.  Multiply this by g (gravity) and V (volume of ball) to get the force exerted upwards by the ball.  To slightly complicate things, the density of air is not the density of air.  It is actually the average density of both the air and the material of the ball (with their volumes, respectively).  So the \u201csystem\u201d is both the ball material and the air in it.  Now, taking this to your example.  The system with the hot air balloon is the balloon material, the basket (holding the people) and the helium inside the balloon.  So basically you would need as much helium as it would take to get the average density of the whole system to be lesser than the density of the air, thus making it float.  If there is no helium, then the density of the system would just be the hot air balloon\u2019s material, making it much, much more dense than air and will sink.","human_ref_B":"*Even if* a suitably low mass, highly rigid structure were possible with current materials and designs, I don't believe any engineer worth their BSME would use it:  * per @Treats, reaction to leakage. * danger of implosion. * energy required to create and maintain vacuum.  Also, a point of clarification, re *\"Helium is much safer but not near as efficient\"*:  Helium provides 92% as much buoyancy as Hydrogen. That 8% is the tradeoff of for a lower propensity to leak, and zero propensity to oxidize. Any engineer will trade the buoyancy for the storage and safety margin, and look elsewhere to achieve a payload goal.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12028.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"mdgua","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.68,"history":"We are all familiar with the original hydrogen, and now the helium filled blimps. Why can't we simply vacuum all the air out completely, and have a blimp that floated because of the void in it? We do not use hydrogen airships ever since the Hindenburg disaster. Helium is much safer but not near as efficient. Couldn't we build a rigid structure inside the airship's body to hold the skin firmly, while we pumped all the air out completely? Seems like this type of airship would float extremely efficiently and be virtually free to \"fill\" the ship's floatation chamber.","c_root_id_A":"c303s78","c_root_id_B":"c303vix","created_at_utc_A":1321407029,"created_at_utc_B":1321407738,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"I was pondering this same thing a while back. After a while I started thinking, what if you had Y number of buckyballs of radius X? Is it possible to create a vacuum inside a buckeyball? My estimates seemed to indicate that it was close, although I have no idea how to really calculate if an O2 molecule can fit through the space between C atoms.  So assuming you can create these things in a vacuum so that no gases are trapped inside the balls, and you can \"seal\" them from ambient gases(perhaps charge them?), it appears to be an issue of finding the best ratio of X to Y - is there enough net lift per buckyball that a reasonable volume of them can lift their container? Maybe someone can help fill in the details and point out what I've missed?","human_ref_B":"*Even if* a suitably low mass, highly rigid structure were possible with current materials and designs, I don't believe any engineer worth their BSME would use it:  * per @Treats, reaction to leakage. * danger of implosion. * energy required to create and maintain vacuum.  Also, a point of clarification, re *\"Helium is much safer but not near as efficient\"*:  Helium provides 92% as much buoyancy as Hydrogen. That 8% is the tradeoff of for a lower propensity to leak, and zero propensity to oxidize. Any engineer will trade the buoyancy for the storage and safety margin, and look elsewhere to achieve a payload goal.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":709.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"5qhs3u","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"If there is no friction in space, how do the thrusters work on space shuttle? Don't they have to push against something to move, like air.","c_root_id_A":"dczdtsl","c_root_id_B":"dczfs68","created_at_utc_A":1485535400,"created_at_utc_B":1485537606,"score_A":50,"score_B":476,"human_ref_A":"The explosions inside a rocket aren't going in any specific direction; it's exerting force in all directions. The opening of a rocket engine gives an exit for some of the force of the explosions to escape from. Because of this opening, there is a lack of force in that specific direction, so the rocket moves in the opposite direction of that because the explosions are pushing on it from within...  That's quite difficult to explain without a diagram, so picture the letter C with arrows inside of it pointing in all directions. Most of the arrows hit the inner lining of the C, but some arrows escape to the right. Picture these arrows push whatever they hit in the direction they are going. Because the arrows to the right aren't pushing anything, the arrows to the left are not equalized and make the C go that direction.  Edit: wow totally had my lefts and rights mixed up... my bad","human_ref_B":"Others have given very good explanations, but here's another way to think about it. Imagine you and your buddy are floating around in space. You both have the same mass. Now you push your buddy as hard as you can. He will get pushed away from you, but because of Newton's third law you will also get pushed away from him. So you both start moving in opposite directions.   See how you didn't need any air to push off of in order to move? Same thing happens with rockets, only they are pushing the fuel away from them instead of another human being (ideally).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2206.0,"score_ratio":9.52}
{"post_id":"5qhs3u","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"If there is no friction in space, how do the thrusters work on space shuttle? Don't they have to push against something to move, like air.","c_root_id_A":"dczfs68","c_root_id_B":"dczdx3v","created_at_utc_A":1485537606,"created_at_utc_B":1485535504,"score_A":476,"score_B":44,"human_ref_A":"Others have given very good explanations, but here's another way to think about it. Imagine you and your buddy are floating around in space. You both have the same mass. Now you push your buddy as hard as you can. He will get pushed away from you, but because of Newton's third law you will also get pushed away from him. So you both start moving in opposite directions.   See how you didn't need any air to push off of in order to move? Same thing happens with rockets, only they are pushing the fuel away from them instead of another human being (ideally).","human_ref_B":"Rocket initially has no momentum.  Exhaust, which has mass, shoots right, the rocket must shoot left so that momentum is still zero (momentum is a vector, which means motion to the right cancel motion to the left).    If M_gas is the mass of the gas and v_gas is the speed with which it is shot to the right, and M_rocket is the mass of the rocket then the velocity of the rocket to the left must be.  v_rocket = M_gas x v_gas \/ M_rocket","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2102.0,"score_ratio":10.8181818182}
{"post_id":"5qhs3u","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"If there is no friction in space, how do the thrusters work on space shuttle? Don't they have to push against something to move, like air.","c_root_id_A":"dczi4mj","c_root_id_B":"dczdtsl","created_at_utc_A":1485540212,"created_at_utc_B":1485535400,"score_A":72,"score_B":50,"human_ref_A":"If you're really interested in the mechanics of space flight, I'd recommend getting the game Kerbal Space Program.  Once you mastered launching a rocket, changing orbital planes, rendezvousing with other space craft and deorbiting, you'll have a firm grasp on how it all works.  It's actually a lot of fun too, you won't even realize how much you're learning until one day it all just clicks.","human_ref_B":"The explosions inside a rocket aren't going in any specific direction; it's exerting force in all directions. The opening of a rocket engine gives an exit for some of the force of the explosions to escape from. Because of this opening, there is a lack of force in that specific direction, so the rocket moves in the opposite direction of that because the explosions are pushing on it from within...  That's quite difficult to explain without a diagram, so picture the letter C with arrows inside of it pointing in all directions. Most of the arrows hit the inner lining of the C, but some arrows escape to the right. Picture these arrows push whatever they hit in the direction they are going. Because the arrows to the right aren't pushing anything, the arrows to the left are not equalized and make the C go that direction.  Edit: wow totally had my lefts and rights mixed up... my bad","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4812.0,"score_ratio":1.44}
{"post_id":"5qhs3u","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"If there is no friction in space, how do the thrusters work on space shuttle? Don't they have to push against something to move, like air.","c_root_id_A":"dczi4mj","c_root_id_B":"dczdx3v","created_at_utc_A":1485540212,"created_at_utc_B":1485535504,"score_A":72,"score_B":44,"human_ref_A":"If you're really interested in the mechanics of space flight, I'd recommend getting the game Kerbal Space Program.  Once you mastered launching a rocket, changing orbital planes, rendezvousing with other space craft and deorbiting, you'll have a firm grasp on how it all works.  It's actually a lot of fun too, you won't even realize how much you're learning until one day it all just clicks.","human_ref_B":"Rocket initially has no momentum.  Exhaust, which has mass, shoots right, the rocket must shoot left so that momentum is still zero (momentum is a vector, which means motion to the right cancel motion to the left).    If M_gas is the mass of the gas and v_gas is the speed with which it is shot to the right, and M_rocket is the mass of the rocket then the velocity of the rocket to the left must be.  v_rocket = M_gas x v_gas \/ M_rocket","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4708.0,"score_ratio":1.6363636364}
{"post_id":"182nrf","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.83,"history":"[Mathematics] If Euclid derived a formula for finding a prime higher than all the other primes, why is us discovering a new prime so important? For example... Euclid said there are infinitely many primes because you can multiply all the primes you know together, add one, and that number will also be prime. So can't we just use that method to get more primes easily?","c_root_id_A":"c8b4qrj","c_root_id_B":"c8b324s","created_at_utc_A":1360266365,"created_at_utc_B":1360261609,"score_A":12,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"I heard a mathematician on NPR saying that finding the largest prime so far isn't _important_ per se....it's just a thing that people try to do...like climbing a mountain or creating a work of art.  Or perhaps you could say that it's important because people find it so for it's own sake, not because it directly contributes to something else.","human_ref_B":"The number you are talking about is not necessarily prime.  See his proof here.  q in the Wikipedia article is what you're referring to.  There is no assertion that q is definitely prime.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4756.0,"score_ratio":1.7142857143}
{"post_id":"182nrf","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.83,"history":"[Mathematics] If Euclid derived a formula for finding a prime higher than all the other primes, why is us discovering a new prime so important? For example... Euclid said there are infinitely many primes because you can multiply all the primes you know together, add one, and that number will also be prime. So can't we just use that method to get more primes easily?","c_root_id_A":"c8b33gi","c_root_id_B":"c8b4qrj","created_at_utc_A":1360261713,"created_at_utc_B":1360266365,"score_A":5,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"Euclid didn't give a formula to find primes, he gave a proof that infinitely many. He didn't prove that \"you can multiply all the primes you know together, add one, and that number will also be prime.\" He showed if you pick a number, call it n, and claim it's the biggest prime, then you can multiply that with all the previous primes below it, and add one. The number you construct by doing that is EITHER prime OR has a prime factor which is larger than n, and in either case you've shown that there is a prime greater than n.","human_ref_B":"I heard a mathematician on NPR saying that finding the largest prime so far isn't _important_ per se....it's just a thing that people try to do...like climbing a mountain or creating a work of art.  Or perhaps you could say that it's important because people find it so for it's own sake, not because it directly contributes to something else.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4652.0,"score_ratio":2.4}
{"post_id":"6478wy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.82,"history":"Do aerodynamic properties hold at different model sizes? If you have an exact model of a jet that is 1\/10 the size, 1\/4, 1\/2, and full size... will aerodynamic forces act the same way in a controlled environment?","c_root_id_A":"dfzztbs","c_root_id_B":"dfzxj6q","created_at_utc_A":1491666616,"created_at_utc_B":1491663147,"score_A":41,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"No, they won't. However, they do act in a way that can be accounted for. It's been a while, but the Reynold's number (which deals with the viscosity of the fluid) and the Mach number (which deals with the speed of the fluid) are both quantities that can be easily determined, and so a model can be made that accounts for the fact that these do not scale linearly.  It was actually a fascinating topic to learn about, and I'm sorry I don't remember it better","human_ref_B":"Generally no.  IIRC fluids have properties (viscosity, density, etc.) which do not 'scale' with the model. To some extent (maybe 5:1) you might be able to switch fluids (like hydrogen instead of air) and get a more useful simulation, but IMO scale models are limited for this reason.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3469.0,"score_ratio":3.7272727273}
{"post_id":"6478wy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.82,"history":"Do aerodynamic properties hold at different model sizes? If you have an exact model of a jet that is 1\/10 the size, 1\/4, 1\/2, and full size... will aerodynamic forces act the same way in a controlled environment?","c_root_id_A":"dg00gi1","c_root_id_B":"dfzxj6q","created_at_utc_A":1491667536,"created_at_utc_B":1491663147,"score_A":30,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"There is something called \"theory of similarity\" in aerodynamics which states that in order for you to be able to compare aerodynamic coefficients between two cases, Reynolds number has to be the same.   Reynolds number equals (velocity of fluid x characteristic linear dimension (mean aerodynamic chord for wings, body length for fuselages)) \/ kinematic viscosity of the fluid.  From this equation, you see that if you decrease size 2 times, you have to increase velocity 2 times in order to have same lift or drag coefficient. This is the reason why all airfoils are designed for specific Reynolds number, and why large airplane airfoils won't work for flying models.  Now looking at the formula for aerodynamic force, it equals F=Cx0.5xRoxSxV^2 where  C is force coefficient, Ro is density, V is fluid velocity, and S is characteristic surface area (wing area for wings).   Providing the fluid is the same (density constant), if you decrease size 2 times, you have to increase velocity 2 times to get the same aerodynamic force.  And this is all for subsonic speeds, once you start going into transsonic or supersonic regions, wave drag and Mach number comes into play and the explanation is not nearly as simple as the one above...  Edit: spelling","human_ref_B":"Generally no.  IIRC fluids have properties (viscosity, density, etc.) which do not 'scale' with the model. To some extent (maybe 5:1) you might be able to switch fluids (like hydrogen instead of air) and get a more useful simulation, but IMO scale models are limited for this reason.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4389.0,"score_ratio":2.7272727273}
{"post_id":"ou6wj6","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"What is the protection status for the Russian Sputnik and the Cuban Vaccine compared to moderna, Pfizer, Johnson and astrazeneca? I can't seem to find statistics and comparable numbers.","c_root_id_A":"h725mwv","c_root_id_B":"h71trvb","created_at_utc_A":1627632040,"created_at_utc_B":1627622680,"score_A":67,"score_B":51,"human_ref_A":"You could compare the efficacy number, but it's important to know what it means.  >A vaccine\u2019s efficacy is measured in a controlled clinical trial and is based on how many people who got vaccinated developed the \u2018outcome of interest\u2019 (usually disease) compared with how many people who got the placebo (dummy vaccine) developed the same outcome.  Because of this, the time of the trial and the variants around at the time have effect on the efficacy rate. The population and the healthy infrastructure available to the test group as well. Redoing the trials of the Moderna-vaccine today would yield different results.  It also doesn't mean the chance of death is reduced by this number - in the trials there is about 0% chance of dying from Covid after having the vaccine, even the vaccines with lower efficacy numbers. What is prevented is becoming measurably sick.  Pfizer's vaccine shows efficacy of 95%, Moderna 94.1%, Novavax 90%, Sputnik 91.6%00234-8\/fulltext), Abdala 92.28%, Soberana 02+Plus  91.2%, J&J 66%, Astrazenica 63.09%.  Note: J&J only requires one dose, so it's not that bad. Astrazenica's number is a bit controversial - they claimed a higher number earlier but it was rebuked. Now the number is quite low but it would be higher by waiting longer between shots, like most countries do.  The Cuban studies still need to be published, and their vaccines require 3 shots to reach those numbers. But despite being a poor country Cuba has excellent bioscience and a good record when it comes to developing vaccines, so there is not really a reason to doubt the numbers at this point. The Sputnik vaccine is really comparable to the vaccines you may be familiar with.  tl;dr: you can compare efficacy but really all vaccines are awesome for preventing serious damage or death","human_ref_B":"Sputnik seems to be highly efficient. Studies state efficacies of 70-80% for one dose and over 90% for two doses against asymptomatic infections.  Source: https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/d41586-021-01813-2  But it's definitely everything other than trivial to compare the efficiency of the different vaccines. You have to include the different study conditions such as dominant virus mutations at the time etc","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9360.0,"score_ratio":1.3137254902}
{"post_id":"108nvt","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"This may be a dumb question, but when I turn off my lights, where does all the light go? Does it get absorbed into matter? It does it just disappear into nothingness?","c_root_id_A":"c6bc3cy","c_root_id_B":"c6bctjv","created_at_utc_A":1348223862,"created_at_utc_B":1348230698,"score_A":20,"score_B":2829,"human_ref_A":"And fun fact, it only goes away because light waves will spread over an odd number of Dimentions (3). So the delta function is solution of the wave equation. In an even number of Dimentions the wave stays in place, like when you throw a stone to water, the point of contact keeps waving.","human_ref_B":"This is far from a dumb question, it's actually a very good question. Light is a form of energy, but when you turn the light off, the light goes away, so where does the energy go?  The short answer is: it gets absorbed by the wall as heat.  The longer answer needs a bit of a more detailed mental picture. The wall is a solid, which consists of a (fairly) regular structure of atoms. Just imagine a grid of hard spheres laying against each other. This is the surface of the wall. At absolute zero, these atoms do not move and are simply at rest, one just touching the next. Having a temperature means that the wall contains ~~heat~~ *thermal energy*. This ~~heat~~ *thermal energy* is a random motion of the atoms around their equilibrium point, they're basically vibrating. Such a vibration can travel rather far through the lattice in the form of a wave. One ball pushes the next, which pushes the next, which pushes ... etc. Such a wave is commonly called a 'phonon', because it is also the way in which sound can move through solids.  Now think of the light. Light consists of tiny particles called photons, not to be confused with the phonons in the wall. Each photon is a tiny packet of electromagnetic energy and momentum. If such a photon hits (an atom of) the wall, its energy and momentum is absorbed. Since both these quantities need to be conserved, it means the atom will get a little \"kick\" from absorbing the photon. It will move, and kick against its neighbor, etc etc. So basically the photon has been converted into a phonon.  If enough photons get absorbed, this will result in the wall warming up slightly. So the light gets converted into ~~heat~~ *thermal energy* in the wall.  It's rather analogous to a stone falling into a lake. The energy of the stone will spread out over the surface of the water in the form of waves. The water itself doesn't move much, but the waves can carry the energy quite far. Likewise, the atoms don't move much, but the energy\/momentum from the photons can carry rather deep into the wall.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6836.0,"score_ratio":141.45}
{"post_id":"108nvt","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"This may be a dumb question, but when I turn off my lights, where does all the light go? Does it get absorbed into matter? It does it just disappear into nothingness?","c_root_id_A":"c6bc3cy","c_root_id_B":"c6bdt9j","created_at_utc_A":1348223862,"created_at_utc_B":1348236377,"score_A":20,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"And fun fact, it only goes away because light waves will spread over an odd number of Dimentions (3). So the delta function is solution of the wave equation. In an even number of Dimentions the wave stays in place, like when you throw a stone to water, the point of contact keeps waving.","human_ref_B":"So far I haven't seen an answer that tells the whole story.  When the light switch is on, an electrical circuit is closed, meaning that electrons are allowed to flow through the light bulb.  The light bulb creates photons (packets of light) by using up energy from the electric current.  Each photon then flies across the room at the speed of light.  When it runs into a wall, it either gets absorbed by the atoms in the wall, heating them up, or bounces off (and may get absorbed by the next wall it runs into).  Most of the photons are absorbed after just a couple bounces.  This whole process takes nanoseconds.  So when you turn off the light switch, the process just stops - the bulb stops creating photons, and the last set of photons run into walls until they're all absorbed, which happens faster than you can see.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12515.0,"score_ratio":2.3}
{"post_id":"1cr0v6","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Did Apollo-era NASA have an official policy on what to do if they encountered extra-terrestrial life on the Moon? Furthermore, do they have a general policy now?  X-post from \/r\/NASA","c_root_id_A":"c9jasek","c_root_id_B":"c9jb3w5","created_at_utc_A":1366497075,"created_at_utc_B":1366498223,"score_A":55,"score_B":88,"human_ref_A":"Buzz, Neil, and Mike were all quarantined when they got back from the moon for 21 days to avoid any possible contamination.  It was not till a month later that they got their ticker tape parade. Here is the wiki","human_ref_B":"Yes.  The most basic thing is to keep any pobe and lander sterile so nothing from earth gets introduced to anything else anywhere accidentally. Some bacteria might be able to spread quick without a chance to remove them. This is also important to keep the instruments clean that can detect life.  There is also a Group within NASA that developed a protocol to represent earth in a first contact scenario.  The en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Voyager_Golden_Record with images and sounds on Voyager tells a lot about how NASA thinks about representing earth.  The http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arecibo_message is not very representative and keeps no secrets.  There have been long quarantines after apollo missions just as a safety measure.  All known previous landing sites are off limits for new missions. Even a closse flyby could blow up a lot of dust. Landing sites are conserved history and we can see long exposire to other environments on them. We dont go there anymore, theres nothing new to see there anyways.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1148.0,"score_ratio":1.6}
{"post_id":"1cr0v6","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Did Apollo-era NASA have an official policy on what to do if they encountered extra-terrestrial life on the Moon? Furthermore, do they have a general policy now?  X-post from \/r\/NASA","c_root_id_A":"c9j9gp4","c_root_id_B":"c9jb3w5","created_at_utc_A":1366492304,"created_at_utc_B":1366498223,"score_A":11,"score_B":88,"human_ref_A":"Crosspost to \/r\/AskHistorians, if you have not done so already.","human_ref_B":"Yes.  The most basic thing is to keep any pobe and lander sterile so nothing from earth gets introduced to anything else anywhere accidentally. Some bacteria might be able to spread quick without a chance to remove them. This is also important to keep the instruments clean that can detect life.  There is also a Group within NASA that developed a protocol to represent earth in a first contact scenario.  The en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Voyager_Golden_Record with images and sounds on Voyager tells a lot about how NASA thinks about representing earth.  The http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arecibo_message is not very representative and keeps no secrets.  There have been long quarantines after apollo missions just as a safety measure.  All known previous landing sites are off limits for new missions. Even a closse flyby could blow up a lot of dust. Landing sites are conserved history and we can see long exposire to other environments on them. We dont go there anymore, theres nothing new to see there anyways.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5919.0,"score_ratio":8.0}
{"post_id":"1cr0v6","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Did Apollo-era NASA have an official policy on what to do if they encountered extra-terrestrial life on the Moon? Furthermore, do they have a general policy now?  X-post from \/r\/NASA","c_root_id_A":"c9j9gp4","c_root_id_B":"c9jasek","created_at_utc_A":1366492304,"created_at_utc_B":1366497075,"score_A":11,"score_B":55,"human_ref_A":"Crosspost to \/r\/AskHistorians, if you have not done so already.","human_ref_B":"Buzz, Neil, and Mike were all quarantined when they got back from the moon for 21 days to avoid any possible contamination.  It was not till a month later that they got their ticker tape parade. Here is the wiki","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4771.0,"score_ratio":5.0}
{"post_id":"1iatme","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do rainbows have ultraviolet and infrared bands?","c_root_id_A":"cb2ntgv","c_root_id_B":"cb2qi7j","created_at_utc_A":1373841334,"created_at_utc_B":1373849865,"score_A":241,"score_B":1656,"human_ref_A":"Yes. Rainbows are caused by the dispersion of sunlight by water droplets. The effect is analogous to how a prism splits incoming visible light, only in the case of rainbows the colors are less saturated since there is some blurring caused by geometric considerations (the angle subtended by sunlight is not small compared to the angular width of the rainbow). In any case though, just as with a sphere at the opposite ends of the rainbow there will be band corresponding to ultraviolet and infrared radiation.","human_ref_B":"In fact this is how infrared light was first discovered.   >Herschel directed sunlight through a glass prism to create a spectrum - the \"rainbow\" created when light is divided into its colors - and measured the temperature of each color. He used three thermometers with blackened bulbs (to better absorb the heat) and placed one bulb in each color while the other two were placed beyond the spectrum as control samples. As he measured the temperatures of the violet, blue, green, yellow, orange and red light, he noticed that all of the colors had temperatures higher than the controls and that the temperature of the colors increased from the violet to the red part of the spectrum. After noticing this pattern, Herschel decided to measure the temperature just beyond the red portion of the spectrum in a region apparently devoid of sunlight. To his surprise, he found that this region had the highest temperature of all.   And you can even recreate the experiment http:\/\/coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu\/cosmic_classroom\/classroom_activities\/herschel_experiment2.html Very fun with kids.  Some typical results","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8531.0,"score_ratio":6.8713692946}
{"post_id":"1iatme","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do rainbows have ultraviolet and infrared bands?","c_root_id_A":"cb2pspf","c_root_id_B":"cb2qi7j","created_at_utc_A":1373847663,"created_at_utc_B":1373849865,"score_A":40,"score_B":1656,"human_ref_A":"Interestingly the visible wavelengths we see have low absorption coefficients in liquid water:  http:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/18\/Absorption_spectrum_of_liquid_water.png  Perhaps it is a development of early underwater evolution.  In any case, refraction would be significantly attenuated by absorption. I would think that UV and IR bands would be far \"dimmer\" if they were present.","human_ref_B":"In fact this is how infrared light was first discovered.   >Herschel directed sunlight through a glass prism to create a spectrum - the \"rainbow\" created when light is divided into its colors - and measured the temperature of each color. He used three thermometers with blackened bulbs (to better absorb the heat) and placed one bulb in each color while the other two were placed beyond the spectrum as control samples. As he measured the temperatures of the violet, blue, green, yellow, orange and red light, he noticed that all of the colors had temperatures higher than the controls and that the temperature of the colors increased from the violet to the red part of the spectrum. After noticing this pattern, Herschel decided to measure the temperature just beyond the red portion of the spectrum in a region apparently devoid of sunlight. To his surprise, he found that this region had the highest temperature of all.   And you can even recreate the experiment http:\/\/coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu\/cosmic_classroom\/classroom_activities\/herschel_experiment2.html Very fun with kids.  Some typical results","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2202.0,"score_ratio":41.4}
{"post_id":"1iatme","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do rainbows have ultraviolet and infrared bands?","c_root_id_A":"cb2qi7j","c_root_id_B":"cb2oh2a","created_at_utc_A":1373849865,"created_at_utc_B":1373843423,"score_A":1656,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"In fact this is how infrared light was first discovered.   >Herschel directed sunlight through a glass prism to create a spectrum - the \"rainbow\" created when light is divided into its colors - and measured the temperature of each color. He used three thermometers with blackened bulbs (to better absorb the heat) and placed one bulb in each color while the other two were placed beyond the spectrum as control samples. As he measured the temperatures of the violet, blue, green, yellow, orange and red light, he noticed that all of the colors had temperatures higher than the controls and that the temperature of the colors increased from the violet to the red part of the spectrum. After noticing this pattern, Herschel decided to measure the temperature just beyond the red portion of the spectrum in a region apparently devoid of sunlight. To his surprise, he found that this region had the highest temperature of all.   And you can even recreate the experiment http:\/\/coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu\/cosmic_classroom\/classroom_activities\/herschel_experiment2.html Very fun with kids.  Some typical results","human_ref_B":"Rainbows are caused when sunlight is diffracted by spherical drops of water in the atmosphere. The light must pass through the drops (it also reflects off the inner surface) to be diffracted. The water will cause the presence of absorption lines in the resulting spectrum so not all of the UV and IR will be present in the rainbow. There is still a significant amount of UV and IR in the rainbow though. Check out atoptics.co.uk for lots of informative reading on the subject of rainbows.  Edit: Refraction is more dominant than diffraction in typical rain sized drops.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6442.0,"score_ratio":127.3846153846}
{"post_id":"1iatme","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do rainbows have ultraviolet and infrared bands?","c_root_id_A":"cb2pspf","c_root_id_B":"cb2oh2a","created_at_utc_A":1373847663,"created_at_utc_B":1373843423,"score_A":40,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"Interestingly the visible wavelengths we see have low absorption coefficients in liquid water:  http:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/18\/Absorption_spectrum_of_liquid_water.png  Perhaps it is a development of early underwater evolution.  In any case, refraction would be significantly attenuated by absorption. I would think that UV and IR bands would be far \"dimmer\" if they were present.","human_ref_B":"Rainbows are caused when sunlight is diffracted by spherical drops of water in the atmosphere. The light must pass through the drops (it also reflects off the inner surface) to be diffracted. The water will cause the presence of absorption lines in the resulting spectrum so not all of the UV and IR will be present in the rainbow. There is still a significant amount of UV and IR in the rainbow though. Check out atoptics.co.uk for lots of informative reading on the subject of rainbows.  Edit: Refraction is more dominant than diffraction in typical rain sized drops.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4240.0,"score_ratio":3.0769230769}
{"post_id":"1iatme","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do rainbows have ultraviolet and infrared bands?","c_root_id_A":"cb2rth1","c_root_id_B":"cb2oh2a","created_at_utc_A":1373853892,"created_at_utc_B":1373843423,"score_A":18,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"So in a double rainbow, the distance between the two rainbows is filled the UV and IR bands?","human_ref_B":"Rainbows are caused when sunlight is diffracted by spherical drops of water in the atmosphere. The light must pass through the drops (it also reflects off the inner surface) to be diffracted. The water will cause the presence of absorption lines in the resulting spectrum so not all of the UV and IR will be present in the rainbow. There is still a significant amount of UV and IR in the rainbow though. Check out atoptics.co.uk for lots of informative reading on the subject of rainbows.  Edit: Refraction is more dominant than diffraction in typical rain sized drops.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":10469.0,"score_ratio":1.3846153846}
{"post_id":"gmota8","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: My name is Dr. Joseph Allen, and I am an Assistant Professor of exposure assessment science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and Director of Harvard\u2019s Healthy Buildings Program. Ask me anything about COVID-19 and the future of the built environment, AMA! I am an Assistant Professor of Exposure Assessment Science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and the founding director of the Healthy Buildings Program. I also have a new book, out last month: *Healthy Buildings*. In March 2020, I became co-chair of the International Well Building Institute\u2019s Coronavirus Task Force.  For several years in private industry before joining the faculty at Harvard, I led teams of scientists and engineers investigating, and resolving, hundreds of indoor environmental quality issues, from'sick buildings' to cancer clusters to all types of chemical\/radiological\/biological hazards. I learned two important facts: 1) too often we are responding to issues after there is a problem, and 2) we cannot solve these problems without a multidisciplinary approach. I have an interest in the dynamic interplay between the indoor environment and health and am continuing this line of research at Harvard, with a focus on optimizing indoor environments for health benefits. A natural extension of my research on buildings and the indoor environment is the consideration of the products we use in those environments, and how those influence our exposure and health.  I believe that we have to force a collision between these two disciplines: building science and health science. The indoor built environment (homes, offices, schools, hospitals, airplanes, laboratories) plays a critical role in our overall health, both due to the amount of time we spend indoors (~90%) and the ability of the buildings to positively and negatively influence our exposure. The goal is to improve the health of all people, in all buildings, everywhere, every day.  The pandemic spawned by the novel coronavirus has given us a heightened awareness of the role our buildings play in our health and wellbeing. I'm on the record back in early February advocating for healthy buildings strategies, like air filtration and increased ventilation, to reduce the spread of the virus indoors. Since then, I've written several articles about what we can do to reduce our exposure to the virus, including in grocery stores, public parks, and cars\/ride shares.  I've also joined forces with my colleagues at Harvard's Center for Communicable Diseases to develop a detailed plan for saving lives and the economy: https:\/\/covidpathforward.com\/. I'll see you all at 1 PM ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"fr4upyz","c_root_id_B":"fr51rkh","created_at_utc_A":1589897242,"created_at_utc_B":1589900956,"score_A":5,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"What do you think is going to happen to open office spaces? How will they be adapted, and do you see them becoming less popular?","human_ref_B":"As states relax restrictions on non-essential businesses, where should gyms \/ fitness centers fall in phases of re-opening? What measures should gyms take to ensure the safety of their members?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3714.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"gmota8","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: My name is Dr. Joseph Allen, and I am an Assistant Professor of exposure assessment science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and Director of Harvard\u2019s Healthy Buildings Program. Ask me anything about COVID-19 and the future of the built environment, AMA! I am an Assistant Professor of Exposure Assessment Science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and the founding director of the Healthy Buildings Program. I also have a new book, out last month: *Healthy Buildings*. In March 2020, I became co-chair of the International Well Building Institute\u2019s Coronavirus Task Force.  For several years in private industry before joining the faculty at Harvard, I led teams of scientists and engineers investigating, and resolving, hundreds of indoor environmental quality issues, from'sick buildings' to cancer clusters to all types of chemical\/radiological\/biological hazards. I learned two important facts: 1) too often we are responding to issues after there is a problem, and 2) we cannot solve these problems without a multidisciplinary approach. I have an interest in the dynamic interplay between the indoor environment and health and am continuing this line of research at Harvard, with a focus on optimizing indoor environments for health benefits. A natural extension of my research on buildings and the indoor environment is the consideration of the products we use in those environments, and how those influence our exposure and health.  I believe that we have to force a collision between these two disciplines: building science and health science. The indoor built environment (homes, offices, schools, hospitals, airplanes, laboratories) plays a critical role in our overall health, both due to the amount of time we spend indoors (~90%) and the ability of the buildings to positively and negatively influence our exposure. The goal is to improve the health of all people, in all buildings, everywhere, every day.  The pandemic spawned by the novel coronavirus has given us a heightened awareness of the role our buildings play in our health and wellbeing. I'm on the record back in early February advocating for healthy buildings strategies, like air filtration and increased ventilation, to reduce the spread of the virus indoors. Since then, I've written several articles about what we can do to reduce our exposure to the virus, including in grocery stores, public parks, and cars\/ride shares.  I've also joined forces with my colleagues at Harvard's Center for Communicable Diseases to develop a detailed plan for saving lives and the economy: https:\/\/covidpathforward.com\/. I'll see you all at 1 PM ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"fr51rkh","c_root_id_B":"fr4t3p7","created_at_utc_A":1589900956,"created_at_utc_B":1589896336,"score_A":7,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"As states relax restrictions on non-essential businesses, where should gyms \/ fitness centers fall in phases of re-opening? What measures should gyms take to ensure the safety of their members?","human_ref_B":"Hi and thanks for joining us today!  What is structural inequality?  What can the US do to protect those people that are vulnerable to structural inequality?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4620.0,"score_ratio":1.75}
{"post_id":"gmota8","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: My name is Dr. Joseph Allen, and I am an Assistant Professor of exposure assessment science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and Director of Harvard\u2019s Healthy Buildings Program. Ask me anything about COVID-19 and the future of the built environment, AMA! I am an Assistant Professor of Exposure Assessment Science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and the founding director of the Healthy Buildings Program. I also have a new book, out last month: *Healthy Buildings*. In March 2020, I became co-chair of the International Well Building Institute\u2019s Coronavirus Task Force.  For several years in private industry before joining the faculty at Harvard, I led teams of scientists and engineers investigating, and resolving, hundreds of indoor environmental quality issues, from'sick buildings' to cancer clusters to all types of chemical\/radiological\/biological hazards. I learned two important facts: 1) too often we are responding to issues after there is a problem, and 2) we cannot solve these problems without a multidisciplinary approach. I have an interest in the dynamic interplay between the indoor environment and health and am continuing this line of research at Harvard, with a focus on optimizing indoor environments for health benefits. A natural extension of my research on buildings and the indoor environment is the consideration of the products we use in those environments, and how those influence our exposure and health.  I believe that we have to force a collision between these two disciplines: building science and health science. The indoor built environment (homes, offices, schools, hospitals, airplanes, laboratories) plays a critical role in our overall health, both due to the amount of time we spend indoors (~90%) and the ability of the buildings to positively and negatively influence our exposure. The goal is to improve the health of all people, in all buildings, everywhere, every day.  The pandemic spawned by the novel coronavirus has given us a heightened awareness of the role our buildings play in our health and wellbeing. I'm on the record back in early February advocating for healthy buildings strategies, like air filtration and increased ventilation, to reduce the spread of the virus indoors. Since then, I've written several articles about what we can do to reduce our exposure to the virus, including in grocery stores, public parks, and cars\/ride shares.  I've also joined forces with my colleagues at Harvard's Center for Communicable Diseases to develop a detailed plan for saving lives and the economy: https:\/\/covidpathforward.com\/. I'll see you all at 1 PM ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"fr4x48h","c_root_id_B":"fr51rkh","created_at_utc_A":1589898536,"created_at_utc_B":1589900956,"score_A":3,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Thank you for being here with us today. This is not a field I think many of us think of even though it's incredibly important to our day to day lives.  What made you go into this field? How is Covid-19 changing the way you view things moving forward?","human_ref_B":"As states relax restrictions on non-essential businesses, where should gyms \/ fitness centers fall in phases of re-opening? What measures should gyms take to ensure the safety of their members?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2420.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"gmota8","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: My name is Dr. Joseph Allen, and I am an Assistant Professor of exposure assessment science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and Director of Harvard\u2019s Healthy Buildings Program. Ask me anything about COVID-19 and the future of the built environment, AMA! I am an Assistant Professor of Exposure Assessment Science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and the founding director of the Healthy Buildings Program. I also have a new book, out last month: *Healthy Buildings*. In March 2020, I became co-chair of the International Well Building Institute\u2019s Coronavirus Task Force.  For several years in private industry before joining the faculty at Harvard, I led teams of scientists and engineers investigating, and resolving, hundreds of indoor environmental quality issues, from'sick buildings' to cancer clusters to all types of chemical\/radiological\/biological hazards. I learned two important facts: 1) too often we are responding to issues after there is a problem, and 2) we cannot solve these problems without a multidisciplinary approach. I have an interest in the dynamic interplay between the indoor environment and health and am continuing this line of research at Harvard, with a focus on optimizing indoor environments for health benefits. A natural extension of my research on buildings and the indoor environment is the consideration of the products we use in those environments, and how those influence our exposure and health.  I believe that we have to force a collision between these two disciplines: building science and health science. The indoor built environment (homes, offices, schools, hospitals, airplanes, laboratories) plays a critical role in our overall health, both due to the amount of time we spend indoors (~90%) and the ability of the buildings to positively and negatively influence our exposure. The goal is to improve the health of all people, in all buildings, everywhere, every day.  The pandemic spawned by the novel coronavirus has given us a heightened awareness of the role our buildings play in our health and wellbeing. I'm on the record back in early February advocating for healthy buildings strategies, like air filtration and increased ventilation, to reduce the spread of the virus indoors. Since then, I've written several articles about what we can do to reduce our exposure to the virus, including in grocery stores, public parks, and cars\/ride shares.  I've also joined forces with my colleagues at Harvard's Center for Communicable Diseases to develop a detailed plan for saving lives and the economy: https:\/\/covidpathforward.com\/. I'll see you all at 1 PM ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"fr51rkh","c_root_id_B":"fr4swql","created_at_utc_A":1589900956,"created_at_utc_B":1589896225,"score_A":7,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"As states relax restrictions on non-essential businesses, where should gyms \/ fitness centers fall in phases of re-opening? What measures should gyms take to ensure the safety of their members?","human_ref_B":"How likely is it that we get another worldwide pandemic like this in the future? will it be man-made or not? how did you get into Harvard\/work for them","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4731.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"gmota8","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: My name is Dr. Joseph Allen, and I am an Assistant Professor of exposure assessment science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and Director of Harvard\u2019s Healthy Buildings Program. Ask me anything about COVID-19 and the future of the built environment, AMA! I am an Assistant Professor of Exposure Assessment Science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and the founding director of the Healthy Buildings Program. I also have a new book, out last month: *Healthy Buildings*. In March 2020, I became co-chair of the International Well Building Institute\u2019s Coronavirus Task Force.  For several years in private industry before joining the faculty at Harvard, I led teams of scientists and engineers investigating, and resolving, hundreds of indoor environmental quality issues, from'sick buildings' to cancer clusters to all types of chemical\/radiological\/biological hazards. I learned two important facts: 1) too often we are responding to issues after there is a problem, and 2) we cannot solve these problems without a multidisciplinary approach. I have an interest in the dynamic interplay between the indoor environment and health and am continuing this line of research at Harvard, with a focus on optimizing indoor environments for health benefits. A natural extension of my research on buildings and the indoor environment is the consideration of the products we use in those environments, and how those influence our exposure and health.  I believe that we have to force a collision between these two disciplines: building science and health science. The indoor built environment (homes, offices, schools, hospitals, airplanes, laboratories) plays a critical role in our overall health, both due to the amount of time we spend indoors (~90%) and the ability of the buildings to positively and negatively influence our exposure. The goal is to improve the health of all people, in all buildings, everywhere, every day.  The pandemic spawned by the novel coronavirus has given us a heightened awareness of the role our buildings play in our health and wellbeing. I'm on the record back in early February advocating for healthy buildings strategies, like air filtration and increased ventilation, to reduce the spread of the virus indoors. Since then, I've written several articles about what we can do to reduce our exposure to the virus, including in grocery stores, public parks, and cars\/ride shares.  I've also joined forces with my colleagues at Harvard's Center for Communicable Diseases to develop a detailed plan for saving lives and the economy: https:\/\/covidpathforward.com\/. I'll see you all at 1 PM ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"fr4tmwu","c_root_id_B":"fr51rkh","created_at_utc_A":1589896636,"created_at_utc_B":1589900956,"score_A":2,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Thanks for being here.    What about elevators?  Seems to me their efficiency just went down by an order of magnitude.","human_ref_B":"As states relax restrictions on non-essential businesses, where should gyms \/ fitness centers fall in phases of re-opening? What measures should gyms take to ensure the safety of their members?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4320.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"gmota8","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: My name is Dr. Joseph Allen, and I am an Assistant Professor of exposure assessment science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and Director of Harvard\u2019s Healthy Buildings Program. Ask me anything about COVID-19 and the future of the built environment, AMA! I am an Assistant Professor of Exposure Assessment Science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and the founding director of the Healthy Buildings Program. I also have a new book, out last month: *Healthy Buildings*. In March 2020, I became co-chair of the International Well Building Institute\u2019s Coronavirus Task Force.  For several years in private industry before joining the faculty at Harvard, I led teams of scientists and engineers investigating, and resolving, hundreds of indoor environmental quality issues, from'sick buildings' to cancer clusters to all types of chemical\/radiological\/biological hazards. I learned two important facts: 1) too often we are responding to issues after there is a problem, and 2) we cannot solve these problems without a multidisciplinary approach. I have an interest in the dynamic interplay between the indoor environment and health and am continuing this line of research at Harvard, with a focus on optimizing indoor environments for health benefits. A natural extension of my research on buildings and the indoor environment is the consideration of the products we use in those environments, and how those influence our exposure and health.  I believe that we have to force a collision between these two disciplines: building science and health science. The indoor built environment (homes, offices, schools, hospitals, airplanes, laboratories) plays a critical role in our overall health, both due to the amount of time we spend indoors (~90%) and the ability of the buildings to positively and negatively influence our exposure. The goal is to improve the health of all people, in all buildings, everywhere, every day.  The pandemic spawned by the novel coronavirus has given us a heightened awareness of the role our buildings play in our health and wellbeing. I'm on the record back in early February advocating for healthy buildings strategies, like air filtration and increased ventilation, to reduce the spread of the virus indoors. Since then, I've written several articles about what we can do to reduce our exposure to the virus, including in grocery stores, public parks, and cars\/ride shares.  I've also joined forces with my colleagues at Harvard's Center for Communicable Diseases to develop a detailed plan for saving lives and the economy: https:\/\/covidpathforward.com\/. I'll see you all at 1 PM ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"fr4wlu7","c_root_id_B":"fr51rkh","created_at_utc_A":1589898258,"created_at_utc_B":1589900956,"score_A":2,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Long term, without a vaccine, in a few years will 95% of the world of had Covid-19?  Would there be any other way to stop eventual exposure other than a vaccine?  Can social measures drive the infection rate low enough to extinguish any residual population?  Are there projections showing how long it would take to reach saturation or extinction?","human_ref_B":"As states relax restrictions on non-essential businesses, where should gyms \/ fitness centers fall in phases of re-opening? What measures should gyms take to ensure the safety of their members?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2698.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"gmota8","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: My name is Dr. Joseph Allen, and I am an Assistant Professor of exposure assessment science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and Director of Harvard\u2019s Healthy Buildings Program. Ask me anything about COVID-19 and the future of the built environment, AMA! I am an Assistant Professor of Exposure Assessment Science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and the founding director of the Healthy Buildings Program. I also have a new book, out last month: *Healthy Buildings*. In March 2020, I became co-chair of the International Well Building Institute\u2019s Coronavirus Task Force.  For several years in private industry before joining the faculty at Harvard, I led teams of scientists and engineers investigating, and resolving, hundreds of indoor environmental quality issues, from'sick buildings' to cancer clusters to all types of chemical\/radiological\/biological hazards. I learned two important facts: 1) too often we are responding to issues after there is a problem, and 2) we cannot solve these problems without a multidisciplinary approach. I have an interest in the dynamic interplay between the indoor environment and health and am continuing this line of research at Harvard, with a focus on optimizing indoor environments for health benefits. A natural extension of my research on buildings and the indoor environment is the consideration of the products we use in those environments, and how those influence our exposure and health.  I believe that we have to force a collision between these two disciplines: building science and health science. The indoor built environment (homes, offices, schools, hospitals, airplanes, laboratories) plays a critical role in our overall health, both due to the amount of time we spend indoors (~90%) and the ability of the buildings to positively and negatively influence our exposure. The goal is to improve the health of all people, in all buildings, everywhere, every day.  The pandemic spawned by the novel coronavirus has given us a heightened awareness of the role our buildings play in our health and wellbeing. I'm on the record back in early February advocating for healthy buildings strategies, like air filtration and increased ventilation, to reduce the spread of the virus indoors. Since then, I've written several articles about what we can do to reduce our exposure to the virus, including in grocery stores, public parks, and cars\/ride shares.  I've also joined forces with my colleagues at Harvard's Center for Communicable Diseases to develop a detailed plan for saving lives and the economy: https:\/\/covidpathforward.com\/. I'll see you all at 1 PM ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"fr4upyz","c_root_id_B":"fr4t3p7","created_at_utc_A":1589897242,"created_at_utc_B":1589896336,"score_A":5,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"What do you think is going to happen to open office spaces? How will they be adapted, and do you see them becoming less popular?","human_ref_B":"Hi and thanks for joining us today!  What is structural inequality?  What can the US do to protect those people that are vulnerable to structural inequality?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":906.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"gmota8","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: My name is Dr. Joseph Allen, and I am an Assistant Professor of exposure assessment science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and Director of Harvard\u2019s Healthy Buildings Program. Ask me anything about COVID-19 and the future of the built environment, AMA! I am an Assistant Professor of Exposure Assessment Science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and the founding director of the Healthy Buildings Program. I also have a new book, out last month: *Healthy Buildings*. In March 2020, I became co-chair of the International Well Building Institute\u2019s Coronavirus Task Force.  For several years in private industry before joining the faculty at Harvard, I led teams of scientists and engineers investigating, and resolving, hundreds of indoor environmental quality issues, from'sick buildings' to cancer clusters to all types of chemical\/radiological\/biological hazards. I learned two important facts: 1) too often we are responding to issues after there is a problem, and 2) we cannot solve these problems without a multidisciplinary approach. I have an interest in the dynamic interplay between the indoor environment and health and am continuing this line of research at Harvard, with a focus on optimizing indoor environments for health benefits. A natural extension of my research on buildings and the indoor environment is the consideration of the products we use in those environments, and how those influence our exposure and health.  I believe that we have to force a collision between these two disciplines: building science and health science. The indoor built environment (homes, offices, schools, hospitals, airplanes, laboratories) plays a critical role in our overall health, both due to the amount of time we spend indoors (~90%) and the ability of the buildings to positively and negatively influence our exposure. The goal is to improve the health of all people, in all buildings, everywhere, every day.  The pandemic spawned by the novel coronavirus has given us a heightened awareness of the role our buildings play in our health and wellbeing. I'm on the record back in early February advocating for healthy buildings strategies, like air filtration and increased ventilation, to reduce the spread of the virus indoors. Since then, I've written several articles about what we can do to reduce our exposure to the virus, including in grocery stores, public parks, and cars\/ride shares.  I've also joined forces with my colleagues at Harvard's Center for Communicable Diseases to develop a detailed plan for saving lives and the economy: https:\/\/covidpathforward.com\/. I'll see you all at 1 PM ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"fr4upyz","c_root_id_B":"fr4swql","created_at_utc_A":1589897242,"created_at_utc_B":1589896225,"score_A":5,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"What do you think is going to happen to open office spaces? How will they be adapted, and do you see them becoming less popular?","human_ref_B":"How likely is it that we get another worldwide pandemic like this in the future? will it be man-made or not? how did you get into Harvard\/work for them","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1017.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"gmota8","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: My name is Dr. Joseph Allen, and I am an Assistant Professor of exposure assessment science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and Director of Harvard\u2019s Healthy Buildings Program. Ask me anything about COVID-19 and the future of the built environment, AMA! I am an Assistant Professor of Exposure Assessment Science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and the founding director of the Healthy Buildings Program. I also have a new book, out last month: *Healthy Buildings*. In March 2020, I became co-chair of the International Well Building Institute\u2019s Coronavirus Task Force.  For several years in private industry before joining the faculty at Harvard, I led teams of scientists and engineers investigating, and resolving, hundreds of indoor environmental quality issues, from'sick buildings' to cancer clusters to all types of chemical\/radiological\/biological hazards. I learned two important facts: 1) too often we are responding to issues after there is a problem, and 2) we cannot solve these problems without a multidisciplinary approach. I have an interest in the dynamic interplay between the indoor environment and health and am continuing this line of research at Harvard, with a focus on optimizing indoor environments for health benefits. A natural extension of my research on buildings and the indoor environment is the consideration of the products we use in those environments, and how those influence our exposure and health.  I believe that we have to force a collision between these two disciplines: building science and health science. The indoor built environment (homes, offices, schools, hospitals, airplanes, laboratories) plays a critical role in our overall health, both due to the amount of time we spend indoors (~90%) and the ability of the buildings to positively and negatively influence our exposure. The goal is to improve the health of all people, in all buildings, everywhere, every day.  The pandemic spawned by the novel coronavirus has given us a heightened awareness of the role our buildings play in our health and wellbeing. I'm on the record back in early February advocating for healthy buildings strategies, like air filtration and increased ventilation, to reduce the spread of the virus indoors. Since then, I've written several articles about what we can do to reduce our exposure to the virus, including in grocery stores, public parks, and cars\/ride shares.  I've also joined forces with my colleagues at Harvard's Center for Communicable Diseases to develop a detailed plan for saving lives and the economy: https:\/\/covidpathforward.com\/. I'll see you all at 1 PM ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"fr4tmwu","c_root_id_B":"fr4upyz","created_at_utc_A":1589896636,"created_at_utc_B":1589897242,"score_A":2,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Thanks for being here.    What about elevators?  Seems to me their efficiency just went down by an order of magnitude.","human_ref_B":"What do you think is going to happen to open office spaces? How will they be adapted, and do you see them becoming less popular?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":606.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"gmota8","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: My name is Dr. Joseph Allen, and I am an Assistant Professor of exposure assessment science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and Director of Harvard\u2019s Healthy Buildings Program. Ask me anything about COVID-19 and the future of the built environment, AMA! I am an Assistant Professor of Exposure Assessment Science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and the founding director of the Healthy Buildings Program. I also have a new book, out last month: *Healthy Buildings*. In March 2020, I became co-chair of the International Well Building Institute\u2019s Coronavirus Task Force.  For several years in private industry before joining the faculty at Harvard, I led teams of scientists and engineers investigating, and resolving, hundreds of indoor environmental quality issues, from'sick buildings' to cancer clusters to all types of chemical\/radiological\/biological hazards. I learned two important facts: 1) too often we are responding to issues after there is a problem, and 2) we cannot solve these problems without a multidisciplinary approach. I have an interest in the dynamic interplay between the indoor environment and health and am continuing this line of research at Harvard, with a focus on optimizing indoor environments for health benefits. A natural extension of my research on buildings and the indoor environment is the consideration of the products we use in those environments, and how those influence our exposure and health.  I believe that we have to force a collision between these two disciplines: building science and health science. The indoor built environment (homes, offices, schools, hospitals, airplanes, laboratories) plays a critical role in our overall health, both due to the amount of time we spend indoors (~90%) and the ability of the buildings to positively and negatively influence our exposure. The goal is to improve the health of all people, in all buildings, everywhere, every day.  The pandemic spawned by the novel coronavirus has given us a heightened awareness of the role our buildings play in our health and wellbeing. I'm on the record back in early February advocating for healthy buildings strategies, like air filtration and increased ventilation, to reduce the spread of the virus indoors. Since then, I've written several articles about what we can do to reduce our exposure to the virus, including in grocery stores, public parks, and cars\/ride shares.  I've also joined forces with my colleagues at Harvard's Center for Communicable Diseases to develop a detailed plan for saving lives and the economy: https:\/\/covidpathforward.com\/. I'll see you all at 1 PM ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"fr4swql","c_root_id_B":"fr4t3p7","created_at_utc_A":1589896225,"created_at_utc_B":1589896336,"score_A":2,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"How likely is it that we get another worldwide pandemic like this in the future? will it be man-made or not? how did you get into Harvard\/work for them","human_ref_B":"Hi and thanks for joining us today!  What is structural inequality?  What can the US do to protect those people that are vulnerable to structural inequality?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":111.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"gmota8","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: My name is Dr. Joseph Allen, and I am an Assistant Professor of exposure assessment science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and Director of Harvard\u2019s Healthy Buildings Program. Ask me anything about COVID-19 and the future of the built environment, AMA! I am an Assistant Professor of Exposure Assessment Science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and the founding director of the Healthy Buildings Program. I also have a new book, out last month: *Healthy Buildings*. In March 2020, I became co-chair of the International Well Building Institute\u2019s Coronavirus Task Force.  For several years in private industry before joining the faculty at Harvard, I led teams of scientists and engineers investigating, and resolving, hundreds of indoor environmental quality issues, from'sick buildings' to cancer clusters to all types of chemical\/radiological\/biological hazards. I learned two important facts: 1) too often we are responding to issues after there is a problem, and 2) we cannot solve these problems without a multidisciplinary approach. I have an interest in the dynamic interplay between the indoor environment and health and am continuing this line of research at Harvard, with a focus on optimizing indoor environments for health benefits. A natural extension of my research on buildings and the indoor environment is the consideration of the products we use in those environments, and how those influence our exposure and health.  I believe that we have to force a collision between these two disciplines: building science and health science. The indoor built environment (homes, offices, schools, hospitals, airplanes, laboratories) plays a critical role in our overall health, both due to the amount of time we spend indoors (~90%) and the ability of the buildings to positively and negatively influence our exposure. The goal is to improve the health of all people, in all buildings, everywhere, every day.  The pandemic spawned by the novel coronavirus has given us a heightened awareness of the role our buildings play in our health and wellbeing. I'm on the record back in early February advocating for healthy buildings strategies, like air filtration and increased ventilation, to reduce the spread of the virus indoors. Since then, I've written several articles about what we can do to reduce our exposure to the virus, including in grocery stores, public parks, and cars\/ride shares.  I've also joined forces with my colleagues at Harvard's Center for Communicable Diseases to develop a detailed plan for saving lives and the economy: https:\/\/covidpathforward.com\/. I'll see you all at 1 PM ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"fr4x48h","c_root_id_B":"fr4swql","created_at_utc_A":1589898536,"created_at_utc_B":1589896225,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Thank you for being here with us today. This is not a field I think many of us think of even though it's incredibly important to our day to day lives.  What made you go into this field? How is Covid-19 changing the way you view things moving forward?","human_ref_B":"How likely is it that we get another worldwide pandemic like this in the future? will it be man-made or not? how did you get into Harvard\/work for them","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2311.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"gmota8","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: My name is Dr. Joseph Allen, and I am an Assistant Professor of exposure assessment science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and Director of Harvard\u2019s Healthy Buildings Program. Ask me anything about COVID-19 and the future of the built environment, AMA! I am an Assistant Professor of Exposure Assessment Science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and the founding director of the Healthy Buildings Program. I also have a new book, out last month: *Healthy Buildings*. In March 2020, I became co-chair of the International Well Building Institute\u2019s Coronavirus Task Force.  For several years in private industry before joining the faculty at Harvard, I led teams of scientists and engineers investigating, and resolving, hundreds of indoor environmental quality issues, from'sick buildings' to cancer clusters to all types of chemical\/radiological\/biological hazards. I learned two important facts: 1) too often we are responding to issues after there is a problem, and 2) we cannot solve these problems without a multidisciplinary approach. I have an interest in the dynamic interplay between the indoor environment and health and am continuing this line of research at Harvard, with a focus on optimizing indoor environments for health benefits. A natural extension of my research on buildings and the indoor environment is the consideration of the products we use in those environments, and how those influence our exposure and health.  I believe that we have to force a collision between these two disciplines: building science and health science. The indoor built environment (homes, offices, schools, hospitals, airplanes, laboratories) plays a critical role in our overall health, both due to the amount of time we spend indoors (~90%) and the ability of the buildings to positively and negatively influence our exposure. The goal is to improve the health of all people, in all buildings, everywhere, every day.  The pandemic spawned by the novel coronavirus has given us a heightened awareness of the role our buildings play in our health and wellbeing. I'm on the record back in early February advocating for healthy buildings strategies, like air filtration and increased ventilation, to reduce the spread of the virus indoors. Since then, I've written several articles about what we can do to reduce our exposure to the virus, including in grocery stores, public parks, and cars\/ride shares.  I've also joined forces with my colleagues at Harvard's Center for Communicable Diseases to develop a detailed plan for saving lives and the economy: https:\/\/covidpathforward.com\/. I'll see you all at 1 PM ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"fr4tmwu","c_root_id_B":"fr4x48h","created_at_utc_A":1589896636,"created_at_utc_B":1589898536,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Thanks for being here.    What about elevators?  Seems to me their efficiency just went down by an order of magnitude.","human_ref_B":"Thank you for being here with us today. This is not a field I think many of us think of even though it's incredibly important to our day to day lives.  What made you go into this field? How is Covid-19 changing the way you view things moving forward?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1900.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"gmota8","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: My name is Dr. Joseph Allen, and I am an Assistant Professor of exposure assessment science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and Director of Harvard\u2019s Healthy Buildings Program. Ask me anything about COVID-19 and the future of the built environment, AMA! I am an Assistant Professor of Exposure Assessment Science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and the founding director of the Healthy Buildings Program. I also have a new book, out last month: *Healthy Buildings*. In March 2020, I became co-chair of the International Well Building Institute\u2019s Coronavirus Task Force.  For several years in private industry before joining the faculty at Harvard, I led teams of scientists and engineers investigating, and resolving, hundreds of indoor environmental quality issues, from'sick buildings' to cancer clusters to all types of chemical\/radiological\/biological hazards. I learned two important facts: 1) too often we are responding to issues after there is a problem, and 2) we cannot solve these problems without a multidisciplinary approach. I have an interest in the dynamic interplay between the indoor environment and health and am continuing this line of research at Harvard, with a focus on optimizing indoor environments for health benefits. A natural extension of my research on buildings and the indoor environment is the consideration of the products we use in those environments, and how those influence our exposure and health.  I believe that we have to force a collision between these two disciplines: building science and health science. The indoor built environment (homes, offices, schools, hospitals, airplanes, laboratories) plays a critical role in our overall health, both due to the amount of time we spend indoors (~90%) and the ability of the buildings to positively and negatively influence our exposure. The goal is to improve the health of all people, in all buildings, everywhere, every day.  The pandemic spawned by the novel coronavirus has given us a heightened awareness of the role our buildings play in our health and wellbeing. I'm on the record back in early February advocating for healthy buildings strategies, like air filtration and increased ventilation, to reduce the spread of the virus indoors. Since then, I've written several articles about what we can do to reduce our exposure to the virus, including in grocery stores, public parks, and cars\/ride shares.  I've also joined forces with my colleagues at Harvard's Center for Communicable Diseases to develop a detailed plan for saving lives and the economy: https:\/\/covidpathforward.com\/. I'll see you all at 1 PM ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"fr4wlu7","c_root_id_B":"fr4x48h","created_at_utc_A":1589898258,"created_at_utc_B":1589898536,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Long term, without a vaccine, in a few years will 95% of the world of had Covid-19?  Would there be any other way to stop eventual exposure other than a vaccine?  Can social measures drive the infection rate low enough to extinguish any residual population?  Are there projections showing how long it would take to reach saturation or extinction?","human_ref_B":"Thank you for being here with us today. This is not a field I think many of us think of even though it's incredibly important to our day to day lives.  What made you go into this field? How is Covid-19 changing the way you view things moving forward?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":278.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"gmota8","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: My name is Dr. Joseph Allen, and I am an Assistant Professor of exposure assessment science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and Director of Harvard\u2019s Healthy Buildings Program. Ask me anything about COVID-19 and the future of the built environment, AMA! I am an Assistant Professor of Exposure Assessment Science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and the founding director of the Healthy Buildings Program. I also have a new book, out last month: *Healthy Buildings*. In March 2020, I became co-chair of the International Well Building Institute\u2019s Coronavirus Task Force.  For several years in private industry before joining the faculty at Harvard, I led teams of scientists and engineers investigating, and resolving, hundreds of indoor environmental quality issues, from'sick buildings' to cancer clusters to all types of chemical\/radiological\/biological hazards. I learned two important facts: 1) too often we are responding to issues after there is a problem, and 2) we cannot solve these problems without a multidisciplinary approach. I have an interest in the dynamic interplay between the indoor environment and health and am continuing this line of research at Harvard, with a focus on optimizing indoor environments for health benefits. A natural extension of my research on buildings and the indoor environment is the consideration of the products we use in those environments, and how those influence our exposure and health.  I believe that we have to force a collision between these two disciplines: building science and health science. The indoor built environment (homes, offices, schools, hospitals, airplanes, laboratories) plays a critical role in our overall health, both due to the amount of time we spend indoors (~90%) and the ability of the buildings to positively and negatively influence our exposure. The goal is to improve the health of all people, in all buildings, everywhere, every day.  The pandemic spawned by the novel coronavirus has given us a heightened awareness of the role our buildings play in our health and wellbeing. I'm on the record back in early February advocating for healthy buildings strategies, like air filtration and increased ventilation, to reduce the spread of the virus indoors. Since then, I've written several articles about what we can do to reduce our exposure to the virus, including in grocery stores, public parks, and cars\/ride shares.  I've also joined forces with my colleagues at Harvard's Center for Communicable Diseases to develop a detailed plan for saving lives and the economy: https:\/\/covidpathforward.com\/. I'll see you all at 1 PM ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"fr4swql","c_root_id_B":"fr52yfv","created_at_utc_A":1589896225,"created_at_utc_B":1589901564,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"How likely is it that we get another worldwide pandemic like this in the future? will it be man-made or not? how did you get into Harvard\/work for them","human_ref_B":"What is the REAL benefit of home made masks?  Is there a measurable reduction of other people getting my infection if I wear a cotton mask? If you wear a cotton mask and I wear a cotton mask - how much does that reduce the spread?     I saw a doctor recommended creating masks out of sterilization wrap (Halyard 600) - do you think that offers any benefit?  Would it be effective if we both wore \"better masks\"?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5339.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"gmota8","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: My name is Dr. Joseph Allen, and I am an Assistant Professor of exposure assessment science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and Director of Harvard\u2019s Healthy Buildings Program. Ask me anything about COVID-19 and the future of the built environment, AMA! I am an Assistant Professor of Exposure Assessment Science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and the founding director of the Healthy Buildings Program. I also have a new book, out last month: *Healthy Buildings*. In March 2020, I became co-chair of the International Well Building Institute\u2019s Coronavirus Task Force.  For several years in private industry before joining the faculty at Harvard, I led teams of scientists and engineers investigating, and resolving, hundreds of indoor environmental quality issues, from'sick buildings' to cancer clusters to all types of chemical\/radiological\/biological hazards. I learned two important facts: 1) too often we are responding to issues after there is a problem, and 2) we cannot solve these problems without a multidisciplinary approach. I have an interest in the dynamic interplay between the indoor environment and health and am continuing this line of research at Harvard, with a focus on optimizing indoor environments for health benefits. A natural extension of my research on buildings and the indoor environment is the consideration of the products we use in those environments, and how those influence our exposure and health.  I believe that we have to force a collision between these two disciplines: building science and health science. The indoor built environment (homes, offices, schools, hospitals, airplanes, laboratories) plays a critical role in our overall health, both due to the amount of time we spend indoors (~90%) and the ability of the buildings to positively and negatively influence our exposure. The goal is to improve the health of all people, in all buildings, everywhere, every day.  The pandemic spawned by the novel coronavirus has given us a heightened awareness of the role our buildings play in our health and wellbeing. I'm on the record back in early February advocating for healthy buildings strategies, like air filtration and increased ventilation, to reduce the spread of the virus indoors. Since then, I've written several articles about what we can do to reduce our exposure to the virus, including in grocery stores, public parks, and cars\/ride shares.  I've also joined forces with my colleagues at Harvard's Center for Communicable Diseases to develop a detailed plan for saving lives and the economy: https:\/\/covidpathforward.com\/. I'll see you all at 1 PM ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"fr4tmwu","c_root_id_B":"fr52yfv","created_at_utc_A":1589896636,"created_at_utc_B":1589901564,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Thanks for being here.    What about elevators?  Seems to me their efficiency just went down by an order of magnitude.","human_ref_B":"What is the REAL benefit of home made masks?  Is there a measurable reduction of other people getting my infection if I wear a cotton mask? If you wear a cotton mask and I wear a cotton mask - how much does that reduce the spread?     I saw a doctor recommended creating masks out of sterilization wrap (Halyard 600) - do you think that offers any benefit?  Would it be effective if we both wore \"better masks\"?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4928.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"gmota8","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: My name is Dr. Joseph Allen, and I am an Assistant Professor of exposure assessment science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and Director of Harvard\u2019s Healthy Buildings Program. Ask me anything about COVID-19 and the future of the built environment, AMA! I am an Assistant Professor of Exposure Assessment Science at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and the founding director of the Healthy Buildings Program. I also have a new book, out last month: *Healthy Buildings*. In March 2020, I became co-chair of the International Well Building Institute\u2019s Coronavirus Task Force.  For several years in private industry before joining the faculty at Harvard, I led teams of scientists and engineers investigating, and resolving, hundreds of indoor environmental quality issues, from'sick buildings' to cancer clusters to all types of chemical\/radiological\/biological hazards. I learned two important facts: 1) too often we are responding to issues after there is a problem, and 2) we cannot solve these problems without a multidisciplinary approach. I have an interest in the dynamic interplay between the indoor environment and health and am continuing this line of research at Harvard, with a focus on optimizing indoor environments for health benefits. A natural extension of my research on buildings and the indoor environment is the consideration of the products we use in those environments, and how those influence our exposure and health.  I believe that we have to force a collision between these two disciplines: building science and health science. The indoor built environment (homes, offices, schools, hospitals, airplanes, laboratories) plays a critical role in our overall health, both due to the amount of time we spend indoors (~90%) and the ability of the buildings to positively and negatively influence our exposure. The goal is to improve the health of all people, in all buildings, everywhere, every day.  The pandemic spawned by the novel coronavirus has given us a heightened awareness of the role our buildings play in our health and wellbeing. I'm on the record back in early February advocating for healthy buildings strategies, like air filtration and increased ventilation, to reduce the spread of the virus indoors. Since then, I've written several articles about what we can do to reduce our exposure to the virus, including in grocery stores, public parks, and cars\/ride shares.  I've also joined forces with my colleagues at Harvard's Center for Communicable Diseases to develop a detailed plan for saving lives and the economy: https:\/\/covidpathforward.com\/. I'll see you all at 1 PM ET (17 UT), AMA!","c_root_id_A":"fr52yfv","c_root_id_B":"fr4wlu7","created_at_utc_A":1589901564,"created_at_utc_B":1589898258,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"What is the REAL benefit of home made masks?  Is there a measurable reduction of other people getting my infection if I wear a cotton mask? If you wear a cotton mask and I wear a cotton mask - how much does that reduce the spread?     I saw a doctor recommended creating masks out of sterilization wrap (Halyard 600) - do you think that offers any benefit?  Would it be effective if we both wore \"better masks\"?","human_ref_B":"Long term, without a vaccine, in a few years will 95% of the world of had Covid-19?  Would there be any other way to stop eventual exposure other than a vaccine?  Can social measures drive the infection rate low enough to extinguish any residual population?  Are there projections showing how long it would take to reach saturation or extinction?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3306.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"r73i6d","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"What are the current COVID tests in use that are capable of determining the exact variant being detected as present? How do they do it? With the recent discovery of Omicron and it\u2019s apparent rapid transmission and positive identification across the globe, how do current COVID tests determine which variant is being detected as present? Which tests have this capability? I have only ever seen tests that detect the presence of a coronavirus, but not the exact variant.   If the Omicron variant was just discovered days ago in South Africa, how would tests already in use in Europe, USA and Asia be able to not only detect the presence of  but also positively determine which variant was detected, especially when that variant was not known to exist until this week?","c_root_id_A":"hmx6wiy","c_root_id_B":"hmx4x3y","created_at_utc_A":1638446107,"created_at_utc_B":1638444664,"score_A":208,"score_B":10,"human_ref_A":"The main one is the Thermo Fisher Scientific TaqPath\u2122 COVID-19 Combo Kit diagnostic assay. It's explained in this Health Advisory Network release from the CDC:  >Some SARS-CoV-2 variants, including the Omicron variant, have \u039469-70 deletion in the spike (S) gene. This particular mutation leads to failure of one of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targets (sometimes called S-gene target failure (SGTF)) when the virus is tested with assays that include an S gene target, including the Thermo Fisher Scientific TaqPath\u2122 COVID-19 Combo Kit diagnostic assay4. TaqPath\u2122 tests for three proteins of SARS-CoV-2 so will still detect the virus but will fail to detect the S gene protein specifically. Such assays can be used as a screen to presumptively identify SARS-CoV-2 variants that have the \u039469-70 deletion, including the Omicron variant. Delta, currently the predominant variant in the United States, does not have this \u039469-70 deletion; therefore, infections due to Delta variant would not produce a SGTF profile.  --New SARS-CoV-2 Variant of Concern Identified: Omicron (B.1.1.529) Variant","human_ref_B":"AFAIK there are no rapid tests capable of differentiating between variants (I used to work at a testing center).  What happens is that sometimes people are tested on arrival at the airport, those who are tested positive are detained and taken to a separate lab for further examination to determine the variant. They do this by way of rapid genome sequencing which in current days are able to give very fast and accurate result.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1443.0,"score_ratio":20.8}
{"post_id":"r73i6d","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"What are the current COVID tests in use that are capable of determining the exact variant being detected as present? How do they do it? With the recent discovery of Omicron and it\u2019s apparent rapid transmission and positive identification across the globe, how do current COVID tests determine which variant is being detected as present? Which tests have this capability? I have only ever seen tests that detect the presence of a coronavirus, but not the exact variant.   If the Omicron variant was just discovered days ago in South Africa, how would tests already in use in Europe, USA and Asia be able to not only detect the presence of  but also positively determine which variant was detected, especially when that variant was not known to exist until this week?","c_root_id_A":"hmxc4kf","c_root_id_B":"hmxrsw5","created_at_utc_A":1638449471,"created_at_utc_B":1638457162,"score_A":10,"score_B":66,"human_ref_A":"In practice, they only know by sequencing the genome. A properly equipped lab can sequence hundreds or thousands of samples a day, if set up to. In many states, departments of public health have a goal of sequencing a certain percentage of test samples (maybe 10%).  In technical terms, we could easily make assays to rapidly and in expensively identify specific variants. We don\u2019t simply because it\u2019s not practical to make so many, and you\u2019d be constantly updating you repertoire of assays.","human_ref_B":"This thread has a lot of misinformation, so I need to clear things up a little.  In abstract it is generally hard to identify new variants of a virus, as you need to sequence the entire genome and look for changes vs sequences of that virus in a reference database (and then decide if the changes are meaningful for viral efficacy).  That is expensive and relatively slow, so you don't do it for every viral sample you collect.  When you do \"rapid tests\" like antigen or PCR tests, you are using some smart technology that flags up when a subsequence of proteins (antigen) or RNA (PCR) has been found in a sample (so the trick in making one of these tests is to find a protein or RNA sequence that is unique to the virus and consistently present in the virus)  Therefore, **the vast majority of the time, a rapid test gets exactly the same result regardless of variant and therefore we only know that you have COVID, not what kind of COVID you have**.  **However, Omicron is a special case** and it has a LOT of new mutations.  To get into the weeds a little bit, the predominant PCR test looks for three distinct RNA sequences to identify COVID and one of those three sequences is mutated in Omicron.  (Extra detail: the mutated bit is called S-gene and this error is SGTF, S-Gene Transcription Failure).  Therefore **Omicron has a unique signature in COVID PCR tests**, where you will test positive for two-of-three COVID RNA marker.  Therefore we can track Omicron very well with PCR tests.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7691.0,"score_ratio":6.6}
{"post_id":"r73i6d","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"What are the current COVID tests in use that are capable of determining the exact variant being detected as present? How do they do it? With the recent discovery of Omicron and it\u2019s apparent rapid transmission and positive identification across the globe, how do current COVID tests determine which variant is being detected as present? Which tests have this capability? I have only ever seen tests that detect the presence of a coronavirus, but not the exact variant.   If the Omicron variant was just discovered days ago in South Africa, how would tests already in use in Europe, USA and Asia be able to not only detect the presence of  but also positively determine which variant was detected, especially when that variant was not known to exist until this week?","c_root_id_A":"hmx4x3y","c_root_id_B":"hmxrsw5","created_at_utc_A":1638444664,"created_at_utc_B":1638457162,"score_A":10,"score_B":66,"human_ref_A":"AFAIK there are no rapid tests capable of differentiating between variants (I used to work at a testing center).  What happens is that sometimes people are tested on arrival at the airport, those who are tested positive are detained and taken to a separate lab for further examination to determine the variant. They do this by way of rapid genome sequencing which in current days are able to give very fast and accurate result.","human_ref_B":"This thread has a lot of misinformation, so I need to clear things up a little.  In abstract it is generally hard to identify new variants of a virus, as you need to sequence the entire genome and look for changes vs sequences of that virus in a reference database (and then decide if the changes are meaningful for viral efficacy).  That is expensive and relatively slow, so you don't do it for every viral sample you collect.  When you do \"rapid tests\" like antigen or PCR tests, you are using some smart technology that flags up when a subsequence of proteins (antigen) or RNA (PCR) has been found in a sample (so the trick in making one of these tests is to find a protein or RNA sequence that is unique to the virus and consistently present in the virus)  Therefore, **the vast majority of the time, a rapid test gets exactly the same result regardless of variant and therefore we only know that you have COVID, not what kind of COVID you have**.  **However, Omicron is a special case** and it has a LOT of new mutations.  To get into the weeds a little bit, the predominant PCR test looks for three distinct RNA sequences to identify COVID and one of those three sequences is mutated in Omicron.  (Extra detail: the mutated bit is called S-gene and this error is SGTF, S-Gene Transcription Failure).  Therefore **Omicron has a unique signature in COVID PCR tests**, where you will test positive for two-of-three COVID RNA marker.  Therefore we can track Omicron very well with PCR tests.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12498.0,"score_ratio":6.6}
{"post_id":"r73i6d","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"What are the current COVID tests in use that are capable of determining the exact variant being detected as present? How do they do it? With the recent discovery of Omicron and it\u2019s apparent rapid transmission and positive identification across the globe, how do current COVID tests determine which variant is being detected as present? Which tests have this capability? I have only ever seen tests that detect the presence of a coronavirus, but not the exact variant.   If the Omicron variant was just discovered days ago in South Africa, how would tests already in use in Europe, USA and Asia be able to not only detect the presence of  but also positively determine which variant was detected, especially when that variant was not known to exist until this week?","c_root_id_A":"hmxrpjr","c_root_id_B":"hmxrsw5","created_at_utc_A":1638457123,"created_at_utc_B":1638457162,"score_A":5,"score_B":66,"human_ref_A":"I worked for a while doing Covid testing in mobile Covid labs in the UK deployed to outbreak areas. We were testing using RT-LAMP rather than PCR, people got a result within 4 hours (all positives were repeated for confirmation). At the end of each shift, all positives were retained and sent for sequencing.","human_ref_B":"This thread has a lot of misinformation, so I need to clear things up a little.  In abstract it is generally hard to identify new variants of a virus, as you need to sequence the entire genome and look for changes vs sequences of that virus in a reference database (and then decide if the changes are meaningful for viral efficacy).  That is expensive and relatively slow, so you don't do it for every viral sample you collect.  When you do \"rapid tests\" like antigen or PCR tests, you are using some smart technology that flags up when a subsequence of proteins (antigen) or RNA (PCR) has been found in a sample (so the trick in making one of these tests is to find a protein or RNA sequence that is unique to the virus and consistently present in the virus)  Therefore, **the vast majority of the time, a rapid test gets exactly the same result regardless of variant and therefore we only know that you have COVID, not what kind of COVID you have**.  **However, Omicron is a special case** and it has a LOT of new mutations.  To get into the weeds a little bit, the predominant PCR test looks for three distinct RNA sequences to identify COVID and one of those three sequences is mutated in Omicron.  (Extra detail: the mutated bit is called S-gene and this error is SGTF, S-Gene Transcription Failure).  Therefore **Omicron has a unique signature in COVID PCR tests**, where you will test positive for two-of-three COVID RNA marker.  Therefore we can track Omicron very well with PCR tests.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":39.0,"score_ratio":13.2}
{"post_id":"r73i6d","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"What are the current COVID tests in use that are capable of determining the exact variant being detected as present? How do they do it? With the recent discovery of Omicron and it\u2019s apparent rapid transmission and positive identification across the globe, how do current COVID tests determine which variant is being detected as present? Which tests have this capability? I have only ever seen tests that detect the presence of a coronavirus, but not the exact variant.   If the Omicron variant was just discovered days ago in South Africa, how would tests already in use in Europe, USA and Asia be able to not only detect the presence of  but also positively determine which variant was detected, especially when that variant was not known to exist until this week?","c_root_id_A":"hmxrsw5","c_root_id_B":"hmxbk8z","created_at_utc_A":1638457162,"created_at_utc_B":1638449140,"score_A":66,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"This thread has a lot of misinformation, so I need to clear things up a little.  In abstract it is generally hard to identify new variants of a virus, as you need to sequence the entire genome and look for changes vs sequences of that virus in a reference database (and then decide if the changes are meaningful for viral efficacy).  That is expensive and relatively slow, so you don't do it for every viral sample you collect.  When you do \"rapid tests\" like antigen or PCR tests, you are using some smart technology that flags up when a subsequence of proteins (antigen) or RNA (PCR) has been found in a sample (so the trick in making one of these tests is to find a protein or RNA sequence that is unique to the virus and consistently present in the virus)  Therefore, **the vast majority of the time, a rapid test gets exactly the same result regardless of variant and therefore we only know that you have COVID, not what kind of COVID you have**.  **However, Omicron is a special case** and it has a LOT of new mutations.  To get into the weeds a little bit, the predominant PCR test looks for three distinct RNA sequences to identify COVID and one of those three sequences is mutated in Omicron.  (Extra detail: the mutated bit is called S-gene and this error is SGTF, S-Gene Transcription Failure).  Therefore **Omicron has a unique signature in COVID PCR tests**, where you will test positive for two-of-three COVID RNA marker.  Therefore we can track Omicron very well with PCR tests.","human_ref_B":"Not a test but a genome analysis. Done by more specialised people and places.  They also trace variants by slight mutations, determining which countries they most likely originated from based on first reports of the mutation, amount of cases etc. This could also be used to identify common origins of infections etc.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8022.0,"score_ratio":16.5}
{"post_id":"r73i6d","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"What are the current COVID tests in use that are capable of determining the exact variant being detected as present? How do they do it? With the recent discovery of Omicron and it\u2019s apparent rapid transmission and positive identification across the globe, how do current COVID tests determine which variant is being detected as present? Which tests have this capability? I have only ever seen tests that detect the presence of a coronavirus, but not the exact variant.   If the Omicron variant was just discovered days ago in South Africa, how would tests already in use in Europe, USA and Asia be able to not only detect the presence of  but also positively determine which variant was detected, especially when that variant was not known to exist until this week?","c_root_id_A":"hmxc4kf","c_root_id_B":"hmxbk8z","created_at_utc_A":1638449471,"created_at_utc_B":1638449140,"score_A":10,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"In practice, they only know by sequencing the genome. A properly equipped lab can sequence hundreds or thousands of samples a day, if set up to. In many states, departments of public health have a goal of sequencing a certain percentage of test samples (maybe 10%).  In technical terms, we could easily make assays to rapidly and in expensively identify specific variants. We don\u2019t simply because it\u2019s not practical to make so many, and you\u2019d be constantly updating you repertoire of assays.","human_ref_B":"Not a test but a genome analysis. Done by more specialised people and places.  They also trace variants by slight mutations, determining which countries they most likely originated from based on first reports of the mutation, amount of cases etc. This could also be used to identify common origins of infections etc.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":331.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"r73i6d","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"What are the current COVID tests in use that are capable of determining the exact variant being detected as present? How do they do it? With the recent discovery of Omicron and it\u2019s apparent rapid transmission and positive identification across the globe, how do current COVID tests determine which variant is being detected as present? Which tests have this capability? I have only ever seen tests that detect the presence of a coronavirus, but not the exact variant.   If the Omicron variant was just discovered days ago in South Africa, how would tests already in use in Europe, USA and Asia be able to not only detect the presence of  but also positively determine which variant was detected, especially when that variant was not known to exist until this week?","c_root_id_A":"hmxxtsn","c_root_id_B":"hmxrpjr","created_at_utc_A":1638459698,"created_at_utc_B":1638457123,"score_A":6,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"There are usually two steps to this process. First step - you get swabbed and get your results in from a PCR test. This does not show you the variant. But, as someone else mentioned - there are labs set up by the government (or other entities) which are performing COVID surveillance to identify variants. They take groups of samples identified as COVID positive - then put those samples through a genome sequencing process to identify the exact mutations.","human_ref_B":"I worked for a while doing Covid testing in mobile Covid labs in the UK deployed to outbreak areas. We were testing using RT-LAMP rather than PCR, people got a result within 4 hours (all positives were repeated for confirmation). At the end of each shift, all positives were retained and sent for sequencing.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2575.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"r73i6d","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"What are the current COVID tests in use that are capable of determining the exact variant being detected as present? How do they do it? With the recent discovery of Omicron and it\u2019s apparent rapid transmission and positive identification across the globe, how do current COVID tests determine which variant is being detected as present? Which tests have this capability? I have only ever seen tests that detect the presence of a coronavirus, but not the exact variant.   If the Omicron variant was just discovered days ago in South Africa, how would tests already in use in Europe, USA and Asia be able to not only detect the presence of  but also positively determine which variant was detected, especially when that variant was not known to exist until this week?","c_root_id_A":"hmxwpzi","c_root_id_B":"hmxxtsn","created_at_utc_A":1638459242,"created_at_utc_B":1638459698,"score_A":5,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":">With the recent discovery of Omicron and it\u2019s apparent rapid transmission and positive identification across the globe, how do current COVID tests determine which variant is being detected as present?  We extract the COVID nucleotides from infected patients and then perform some kind of sequencing. Regular sequencing surveillance allows us to detect and catalog COVID variants. We've identified thousands of variants so far.  >If the Omicron variant was just discovered days ago in South Africa, how would tests already in use in Europe, USA and Asia be able to not only detect the presence of but also positively determine which variant was detected, especially when that variant was not known to exist until this week?  It does not matter what the variants are, we can still sequence the entire SARS-CoV-2 genome. All we need is a small set of primers (or just short reads, no primer needed). Those primers are easily obtained and nearly all labs around the world have them. They can also be easily synthesized.  Source: I am a scientist the has sequenced thousands of patients alongside their SARS-CoV-2 virus.","human_ref_B":"There are usually two steps to this process. First step - you get swabbed and get your results in from a PCR test. This does not show you the variant. But, as someone else mentioned - there are labs set up by the government (or other entities) which are performing COVID surveillance to identify variants. They take groups of samples identified as COVID positive - then put those samples through a genome sequencing process to identify the exact mutations.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":456.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"r73i6d","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"What are the current COVID tests in use that are capable of determining the exact variant being detected as present? How do they do it? With the recent discovery of Omicron and it\u2019s apparent rapid transmission and positive identification across the globe, how do current COVID tests determine which variant is being detected as present? Which tests have this capability? I have only ever seen tests that detect the presence of a coronavirus, but not the exact variant.   If the Omicron variant was just discovered days ago in South Africa, how would tests already in use in Europe, USA and Asia be able to not only detect the presence of  but also positively determine which variant was detected, especially when that variant was not known to exist until this week?","c_root_id_A":"hmxxtsn","c_root_id_B":"hmxbk8z","created_at_utc_A":1638459698,"created_at_utc_B":1638449140,"score_A":6,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"There are usually two steps to this process. First step - you get swabbed and get your results in from a PCR test. This does not show you the variant. But, as someone else mentioned - there are labs set up by the government (or other entities) which are performing COVID surveillance to identify variants. They take groups of samples identified as COVID positive - then put those samples through a genome sequencing process to identify the exact mutations.","human_ref_B":"Not a test but a genome analysis. Done by more specialised people and places.  They also trace variants by slight mutations, determining which countries they most likely originated from based on first reports of the mutation, amount of cases etc. This could also be used to identify common origins of infections etc.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":10558.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"r73i6d","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"What are the current COVID tests in use that are capable of determining the exact variant being detected as present? How do they do it? With the recent discovery of Omicron and it\u2019s apparent rapid transmission and positive identification across the globe, how do current COVID tests determine which variant is being detected as present? Which tests have this capability? I have only ever seen tests that detect the presence of a coronavirus, but not the exact variant.   If the Omicron variant was just discovered days ago in South Africa, how would tests already in use in Europe, USA and Asia be able to not only detect the presence of  but also positively determine which variant was detected, especially when that variant was not known to exist until this week?","c_root_id_A":"hmxbk8z","c_root_id_B":"hmxrpjr","created_at_utc_A":1638449140,"created_at_utc_B":1638457123,"score_A":4,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Not a test but a genome analysis. Done by more specialised people and places.  They also trace variants by slight mutations, determining which countries they most likely originated from based on first reports of the mutation, amount of cases etc. This could also be used to identify common origins of infections etc.","human_ref_B":"I worked for a while doing Covid testing in mobile Covid labs in the UK deployed to outbreak areas. We were testing using RT-LAMP rather than PCR, people got a result within 4 hours (all positives were repeated for confirmation). At the end of each shift, all positives were retained and sent for sequencing.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7983.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"r73i6d","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"What are the current COVID tests in use that are capable of determining the exact variant being detected as present? How do they do it? With the recent discovery of Omicron and it\u2019s apparent rapid transmission and positive identification across the globe, how do current COVID tests determine which variant is being detected as present? Which tests have this capability? I have only ever seen tests that detect the presence of a coronavirus, but not the exact variant.   If the Omicron variant was just discovered days ago in South Africa, how would tests already in use in Europe, USA and Asia be able to not only detect the presence of  but also positively determine which variant was detected, especially when that variant was not known to exist until this week?","c_root_id_A":"hmxwpzi","c_root_id_B":"hmxbk8z","created_at_utc_A":1638459242,"created_at_utc_B":1638449140,"score_A":5,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":">With the recent discovery of Omicron and it\u2019s apparent rapid transmission and positive identification across the globe, how do current COVID tests determine which variant is being detected as present?  We extract the COVID nucleotides from infected patients and then perform some kind of sequencing. Regular sequencing surveillance allows us to detect and catalog COVID variants. We've identified thousands of variants so far.  >If the Omicron variant was just discovered days ago in South Africa, how would tests already in use in Europe, USA and Asia be able to not only detect the presence of but also positively determine which variant was detected, especially when that variant was not known to exist until this week?  It does not matter what the variants are, we can still sequence the entire SARS-CoV-2 genome. All we need is a small set of primers (or just short reads, no primer needed). Those primers are easily obtained and nearly all labs around the world have them. They can also be easily synthesized.  Source: I am a scientist the has sequenced thousands of patients alongside their SARS-CoV-2 virus.","human_ref_B":"Not a test but a genome analysis. Done by more specialised people and places.  They also trace variants by slight mutations, determining which countries they most likely originated from based on first reports of the mutation, amount of cases etc. This could also be used to identify common origins of infections etc.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":10102.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"dqf3za","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Humans use titanium dioxide for so many things, what will happen when we run out of it? From my research it doesn't seem like it's a renewable resource, at least not at the rate we use it? Aren't we going to run out of it at some point?","c_root_id_A":"f65e1og","c_root_id_B":"f6448lr","created_at_utc_A":1572701431,"created_at_utc_B":1572687939,"score_A":171,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"It is very unlikely we could ever deplete the supply of titanium.  https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Titanium  Titanium is the ninth-most abundant element in Earth's crust (0.63% by mass)[22] and the seventh-most abundant metal. It is present as oxides in most igneous rocks, in sediments derived from them, in living things, and natural bodies of water.[5][6] Of the 801 types of igneous rocks analyzed by the United States Geological Survey, 784 contained titanium. Its proportion in soils is approximately 0.5 to 1.5%.[22]","human_ref_B":"I can speak for the FnB industry in some measure where substitutes are being sought and used. My hunch is that if other industries find substitutes, running out of TiO2 wouldn't affect as much. Further, thanks to the current slowdown and the US China trade standoff, the overall TiO2 market seems to be headed for a slowdown, postponing the depletion.  Essentially, substitution (and\/or process modifications) would be key to offsetting any after-effects of TiO2 depletion.  For what's being done by at least one player in FnB, check here: https:\/\/sensientfoodcolors.com\/en-us\/research-development\/two-new-solutions-replace-titanium-dioxide\/   Hope this helps.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":13492.0,"score_ratio":4.3846153846}
{"post_id":"dqf3za","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Humans use titanium dioxide for so many things, what will happen when we run out of it? From my research it doesn't seem like it's a renewable resource, at least not at the rate we use it? Aren't we going to run out of it at some point?","c_root_id_A":"f65e1og","c_root_id_B":"f64xcno","created_at_utc_A":1572701431,"created_at_utc_B":1572697009,"score_A":171,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"It is very unlikely we could ever deplete the supply of titanium.  https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Titanium  Titanium is the ninth-most abundant element in Earth's crust (0.63% by mass)[22] and the seventh-most abundant metal. It is present as oxides in most igneous rocks, in sediments derived from them, in living things, and natural bodies of water.[5][6] Of the 801 types of igneous rocks analyzed by the United States Geological Survey, 784 contained titanium. Its proportion in soils is approximately 0.5 to 1.5%.[22]","human_ref_B":"If we come close to depletion and the price rises dramatically--and no suitable substitutes or recycling schemes are found--then the price may become enough to justify extraction from the moon, which appears to have quite significant supplies of it.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4422.0,"score_ratio":19.0}
{"post_id":"dqf3za","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Humans use titanium dioxide for so many things, what will happen when we run out of it? From my research it doesn't seem like it's a renewable resource, at least not at the rate we use it? Aren't we going to run out of it at some point?","c_root_id_A":"f66e1d6","c_root_id_B":"f6448lr","created_at_utc_A":1572709942,"created_at_utc_B":1572687939,"score_A":45,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"Unless we send it into outerspace, it is still there, somewhere.  It's simply going to become more and more expensive until it is cheaper to recycle the one we dump rather than digging into a rather conveniently high concentration mineral deposit.","human_ref_B":"I can speak for the FnB industry in some measure where substitutes are being sought and used. My hunch is that if other industries find substitutes, running out of TiO2 wouldn't affect as much. Further, thanks to the current slowdown and the US China trade standoff, the overall TiO2 market seems to be headed for a slowdown, postponing the depletion.  Essentially, substitution (and\/or process modifications) would be key to offsetting any after-effects of TiO2 depletion.  For what's being done by at least one player in FnB, check here: https:\/\/sensientfoodcolors.com\/en-us\/research-development\/two-new-solutions-replace-titanium-dioxide\/   Hope this helps.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":22003.0,"score_ratio":1.1538461538}
{"post_id":"dqf3za","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Humans use titanium dioxide for so many things, what will happen when we run out of it? From my research it doesn't seem like it's a renewable resource, at least not at the rate we use it? Aren't we going to run out of it at some point?","c_root_id_A":"f66e1d6","c_root_id_B":"f64xcno","created_at_utc_A":1572709942,"created_at_utc_B":1572697009,"score_A":45,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"Unless we send it into outerspace, it is still there, somewhere.  It's simply going to become more and more expensive until it is cheaper to recycle the one we dump rather than digging into a rather conveniently high concentration mineral deposit.","human_ref_B":"If we come close to depletion and the price rises dramatically--and no suitable substitutes or recycling schemes are found--then the price may become enough to justify extraction from the moon, which appears to have quite significant supplies of it.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":12933.0,"score_ratio":5.0}
{"post_id":"17fnz0","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.69,"history":"Why do electrons orbit the nucleus? And why don't the molecules touch each other? Why would electrons orbit around the atom's nucleus since they are oppositely charged, shouldn't the electrons move to nucleus?  Also, when the molecules attract each other (van der waal) why don't they touch each other? What is the force that prevents them from touching? I think its the kinetic energy they have, so is that kinetic energy converted to work done against the attraction? If so won't the temperature decrease?   Thanks for the help :)","c_root_id_A":"c851mkp","c_root_id_B":"c851oqq","created_at_utc_A":1359391509,"created_at_utc_B":1359391714,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"First of all, an electron is not actually a point particle that orbits the nucleus, this is a simplification. But to answer your question as if they did: it would be similar to a planet orbiting the Sun: the attract each other, but the angular moment keeps the planet from actually failing into the Sun.  The electrons may not orbit the nucleus, but they are present around the nucleus, like a shell, so the outside of a molecule is always negatively charged. Negative charge repulses negative charge, so once the molecules get close enough that the electron shells start repulsing each other, they can't pass through each other.","human_ref_B":"In classical electrodynamics that indeed would be the case, and that was the problem Niels Bohr encountered - if electrons orbit nucleus, then they should emit photons, and spiral towards nucleus. But it is not the case. To explain this, Bohr devised stationary states - basically, those are orbits, at which electron can orbit the nucleus without emitting any energy. Instead, it does so when jumping from one stationary state to another.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":205.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"389wdg","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"If the Internet could be wholly redesigned from the ground up, what standards, protocols etc. would be implemented differently?","c_root_id_A":"crtvf86","c_root_id_B":"crtrest","created_at_utc_A":1433309439,"created_at_utc_B":1433300334,"score_A":22,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"If we were starting from scratch, we would almost certainly skip IPv4 entirely and go straight to IPv6 or some variant with an equally large address space.  4 billion IP addresses must have seemed like an endless supply back in the 80's, but in the last few years we've finally started running out, and the demand for addresses is only going to get worse from here. At the rate things are going now, it's going to be years before it's viable to run a public site solely on IPv6.","human_ref_B":"We'd build in connection level encryption for a start.  SMTP would have authentication.  DNS would be fixed to prevent spoofing.  HTTP(S) is an amazing success that works astoundingly well, so I hope we'd keep that.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9105.0,"score_ratio":1.4666666667}
{"post_id":"389wdg","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"If the Internet could be wholly redesigned from the ground up, what standards, protocols etc. would be implemented differently?","c_root_id_A":"crtqtt6","c_root_id_B":"crtvf86","created_at_utc_A":1433299227,"created_at_utc_B":1433309439,"score_A":13,"score_B":22,"human_ref_A":"I imagine the standard in-browser language would be less terrible than javascript.","human_ref_B":"If we were starting from scratch, we would almost certainly skip IPv4 entirely and go straight to IPv6 or some variant with an equally large address space.  4 billion IP addresses must have seemed like an endless supply back in the 80's, but in the last few years we've finally started running out, and the demand for addresses is only going to get worse from here. At the rate things are going now, it's going to be years before it's viable to run a public site solely on IPv6.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":10212.0,"score_ratio":1.6923076923}
{"post_id":"389wdg","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"If the Internet could be wholly redesigned from the ground up, what standards, protocols etc. would be implemented differently?","c_root_id_A":"crtqtt6","c_root_id_B":"crtrest","created_at_utc_A":1433299227,"created_at_utc_B":1433300334,"score_A":13,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"I imagine the standard in-browser language would be less terrible than javascript.","human_ref_B":"We'd build in connection level encryption for a start.  SMTP would have authentication.  DNS would be fixed to prevent spoofing.  HTTP(S) is an amazing success that works astoundingly well, so I hope we'd keep that.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1107.0,"score_ratio":1.1538461538}
{"post_id":"nhvqv","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.71,"history":"What is happening in your brain when you listen to music?  What makes some music pleasurable and other music painful?  Why do we get tired of music and always search for new music?","c_root_id_A":"c399o2f","c_root_id_B":"c3990k1","created_at_utc_A":1324268063,"created_at_utc_B":1324263938,"score_A":5,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"If you're interested, there's also \/r\/musiccognition","human_ref_B":"Some studies suggest music is parsed partially by the language center, which would explain why we find certain patterns pleasing, versus static.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4125.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"nqtqw","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.82,"history":"How\/why do dog's have a sweet spot that makes their legs shake when you scratch them at just the right spot?","c_root_id_A":"c3b8io5","c_root_id_B":"c3b8ekb","created_at_utc_A":1324883202,"created_at_utc_B":1324882089,"score_A":28,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"Sorry to bandwagon onto this, but if it's at all related, why do cats have a spot right by their tail that makes them seriosuly stretch their hind legs when you scratch it?","human_ref_B":"This has been asked on \/r\/explainlikeimfive","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1113.0,"score_ratio":2.1538461538}
{"post_id":"q6qlhe","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"When thermal energy, and kinetic energy, is transfered, is there a particle that actually moves between substances? Does it have a name, like how Light is made up of photons?","c_root_id_A":"hgdstxe","c_root_id_B":"hgdr48u","created_at_utc_A":1634062463,"created_at_utc_B":1634061745,"score_A":537,"score_B":125,"human_ref_A":"There is in fact an analogous 'quasiparticle' involved with the transfer of thermal energy through a material, called a 'phonon'. It is not a real particle. It represents the collective movement of atoms in a neat arrangement of atoms such as a crystal lattice.","human_ref_B":"For something like kinetic energy when objects collide, there is no particle moving between objects.  They repel each other through the electromagnetic field, and may *emit* photons as a consequence of the collision, but they don't repel due to an exchange of photons or anything like that, and electromagnetic attraction\/repulsion in general doesn't involve an exchange of photons.  This is often a point of confusion regarding \"virtual particles\" which are sometimes said to be responsible for field effects, but virtual particles are not real particles \u2014 they are just abstract parts of a certain mathematical technique for calculating the effects of interactions due to fields (perturbation theory) and they do not show up in other approaches to quantum field theory (like lattice gauge theory, or non-perturbative solutions in general).  As for thermal energy, there are three ways that heat is transferred between systems:  convection, conduction, and radiation.  Convection involves the bulk motion of matter \u2014 something like an air or water current gets warmer because warmer air or water is moving; nothing is being exchanged between substances, it's just that the substances themselves are moving.  Conduction involves heat moving from particle\/object to particle\/object through direct interactions \u2014 basically collisions between particles, though it's a bit more complicated and as I understand it collisions between particles alone isn't always a great model for conduction.  Likewise with the kinetic energy situation, this doesn't involve any kind of real \"carrier\" particle or anything, it's just particles interacting directly with each other.  The last way to transfer heat is through thermal radiation.  Thermal radiation is made up of photons (usually but not necessarily concentrated in the infrared range of electromagnetic radiation), so heat transfer by thermal radiation is carried by real photons that move between the objects.  There is no fundamental difference between other kinds of electromagnetic radiation and thermal radiation; visible light can also be responsible for heat transfer (which is why if you're wearing a dark colored shirt in the Sun you may warm up faster than if you're wearing a light colored shirt; it all depends on exactly what range of all the frequencies put out by the Sun are absorbed by your shirt), as can radio waves, microwaves, ultraviolet light, and even things like x-rays or gamma rays (though those tend to be so energetic that rather than warm objects up, they tend to break bonds and ionize objects).  Hope that helps,","labels":1,"seconds_difference":718.0,"score_ratio":4.296}
{"post_id":"h3j5u","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.97,"history":"Is there any truth to the idea that being dirty will \"strengthen\" your immune system? I've heard people claim they don't wash their hands often, or that they eat raw egg and handle raw chicken. When asked about it, they say that it's strengthening their immune systems. Is there any scientific credibility to this?","c_root_id_A":"c1sb5sb","c_root_id_B":"c1sc85e","created_at_utc_A":1304471262,"created_at_utc_B":1304483423,"score_A":5,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"If by \"dirty\" you mean not excessively trying to rid yourself or your environment of microbes or antigens, then yes. This is because first time exposure to an antigen initiates a primary immune response, and consequently leads to development of immunological memory, i.e. memory B\/T cells. These cells are superior to naive B\/T cells, i.e. those which have never encountered their antigen, because they need less stimulus for activation and have a greater binding affinity for the pathogen, ensuring faster clearing of it from the body.   That said, I would advise against eating raw things excessively or not washing hands after handling them, simply because you cannot control the dose of pathogens that can enter the body by doing this; if the dose is significant, this can result in the person getting sick.   Conversely, people who don't allow exposure to \"dirtiness\" can have a relatively undeveloped immune repertoire, and that's why it's usually said that a little dirt is good for you. This relates to the hygiene hypothesis, which states that a reduced exposure to antigens can lead to hypersensitivity.","human_ref_B":"Polio is a good example of this, albeit in a strange way.      Page 621, Microbiology 10th edition by Tortora, Funke, and Case:      >Why  did  this  disease  appear  so  suddenly?  The  answer  is paradoxical- probably  because  of  improved  sanitation.  Polioviruses  can  remain  infectious for  relatively  long periods in  water and food. The primary mode of transmission  is  ingestion  of  water  contaminated  with  feces  containing  the  virus.  Improved  sanitation  delayed  exposure  to  polioviruses  in  feces  until after  the protection  provided  by maternal antibodies had  waned. At  one  time  (and  today in  parts of  the world  with  poor sanitation),  exposure  to  the  poliovirus  was  frequent.  Infants  were  usually  exposed  to  poliovirus  while  still  protected by  maternal  antibodies.  The  result  was  usually  an  asymptomatic  case  of the disease and a  lifelong  immunity. When  infection  is  delayed  until adolescence or early adulthood, the paralytic form  of  the disease appears more frequently.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12161.0,"score_ratio":2.8}
{"post_id":"h3j5u","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.97,"history":"Is there any truth to the idea that being dirty will \"strengthen\" your immune system? I've heard people claim they don't wash their hands often, or that they eat raw egg and handle raw chicken. When asked about it, they say that it's strengthening their immune systems. Is there any scientific credibility to this?","c_root_id_A":"c1sdizl","c_root_id_B":"c1scwpy","created_at_utc_A":1304511800,"created_at_utc_B":1304494246,"score_A":8,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"(Psychoneuroimmunology researcher here)  All of this is related to the Hygiene Hypothesis which is primarily about how allergies are formed as opposed to health per say.  http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hygiene_hypothesis TLDR if you aren't exposed to enough dirt and stuff when you are a kid & a baby (when your immune system is learning) you are more likely to develop allergies and other autoimmune diseases (e.g., asthma) then a kid who grew up on a farm, in the country.  Think about how the typical city dweller grows up: Filtered air, no parks, most of their time inside on a computer. Your body doesn't learn that grass and tree pollen aren't \"dangerous\".  It turns out that people in third world countries don't get allergies & asthma nearly as often as we do.  The key here is that most of this is happening when you are young.  As far as the claim on raw chicken & dirt strengthening your immune system, our immune systems pretty much start working less effectively at age 30 and it's all downhill from there.  Kids have REALLY strong immune systems so while a little bacteria and dirt might be easily handled by their bods, we might not be so lucky.","human_ref_B":"One of my professors had told me a story about a study that was done in New Zealand where they took a survey of kids in college who grew up with dishwashers and those who did not.  Those who did not seemed to get sick less often.  I presume this was because the dishwashers were getting the plates and such cleaner, leaving less for the immune system to become acquainted with.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":17554.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"h3j5u","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.97,"history":"Is there any truth to the idea that being dirty will \"strengthen\" your immune system? I've heard people claim they don't wash their hands often, or that they eat raw egg and handle raw chicken. When asked about it, they say that it's strengthening their immune systems. Is there any scientific credibility to this?","c_root_id_A":"c1scwpy","c_root_id_B":"c1sb5sb","created_at_utc_A":1304494246,"created_at_utc_B":1304471262,"score_A":6,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"One of my professors had told me a story about a study that was done in New Zealand where they took a survey of kids in college who grew up with dishwashers and those who did not.  Those who did not seemed to get sick less often.  I presume this was because the dishwashers were getting the plates and such cleaner, leaving less for the immune system to become acquainted with.","human_ref_B":"If by \"dirty\" you mean not excessively trying to rid yourself or your environment of microbes or antigens, then yes. This is because first time exposure to an antigen initiates a primary immune response, and consequently leads to development of immunological memory, i.e. memory B\/T cells. These cells are superior to naive B\/T cells, i.e. those which have never encountered their antigen, because they need less stimulus for activation and have a greater binding affinity for the pathogen, ensuring faster clearing of it from the body.   That said, I would advise against eating raw things excessively or not washing hands after handling them, simply because you cannot control the dose of pathogens that can enter the body by doing this; if the dose is significant, this can result in the person getting sick.   Conversely, people who don't allow exposure to \"dirtiness\" can have a relatively undeveloped immune repertoire, and that's why it's usually said that a little dirt is good for you. This relates to the hygiene hypothesis, which states that a reduced exposure to antigens can lead to hypersensitivity.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":22984.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"h3j5u","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.97,"history":"Is there any truth to the idea that being dirty will \"strengthen\" your immune system? I've heard people claim they don't wash their hands often, or that they eat raw egg and handle raw chicken. When asked about it, they say that it's strengthening their immune systems. Is there any scientific credibility to this?","c_root_id_A":"c1sdizl","c_root_id_B":"c1sb5sb","created_at_utc_A":1304511800,"created_at_utc_B":1304471262,"score_A":8,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"(Psychoneuroimmunology researcher here)  All of this is related to the Hygiene Hypothesis which is primarily about how allergies are formed as opposed to health per say.  http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hygiene_hypothesis TLDR if you aren't exposed to enough dirt and stuff when you are a kid & a baby (when your immune system is learning) you are more likely to develop allergies and other autoimmune diseases (e.g., asthma) then a kid who grew up on a farm, in the country.  Think about how the typical city dweller grows up: Filtered air, no parks, most of their time inside on a computer. Your body doesn't learn that grass and tree pollen aren't \"dangerous\".  It turns out that people in third world countries don't get allergies & asthma nearly as often as we do.  The key here is that most of this is happening when you are young.  As far as the claim on raw chicken & dirt strengthening your immune system, our immune systems pretty much start working less effectively at age 30 and it's all downhill from there.  Kids have REALLY strong immune systems so while a little bacteria and dirt might be easily handled by their bods, we might not be so lucky.","human_ref_B":"If by \"dirty\" you mean not excessively trying to rid yourself or your environment of microbes or antigens, then yes. This is because first time exposure to an antigen initiates a primary immune response, and consequently leads to development of immunological memory, i.e. memory B\/T cells. These cells are superior to naive B\/T cells, i.e. those which have never encountered their antigen, because they need less stimulus for activation and have a greater binding affinity for the pathogen, ensuring faster clearing of it from the body.   That said, I would advise against eating raw things excessively or not washing hands after handling them, simply because you cannot control the dose of pathogens that can enter the body by doing this; if the dose is significant, this can result in the person getting sick.   Conversely, people who don't allow exposure to \"dirtiness\" can have a relatively undeveloped immune repertoire, and that's why it's usually said that a little dirt is good for you. This relates to the hygiene hypothesis, which states that a reduced exposure to antigens can lead to hypersensitivity.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":40538.0,"score_ratio":1.6}
{"post_id":"h3j5u","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.97,"history":"Is there any truth to the idea that being dirty will \"strengthen\" your immune system? I've heard people claim they don't wash their hands often, or that they eat raw egg and handle raw chicken. When asked about it, they say that it's strengthening their immune systems. Is there any scientific credibility to this?","c_root_id_A":"c1sdizl","c_root_id_B":"c1scy2v","created_at_utc_A":1304511800,"created_at_utc_B":1304495042,"score_A":8,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"(Psychoneuroimmunology researcher here)  All of this is related to the Hygiene Hypothesis which is primarily about how allergies are formed as opposed to health per say.  http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hygiene_hypothesis TLDR if you aren't exposed to enough dirt and stuff when you are a kid & a baby (when your immune system is learning) you are more likely to develop allergies and other autoimmune diseases (e.g., asthma) then a kid who grew up on a farm, in the country.  Think about how the typical city dweller grows up: Filtered air, no parks, most of their time inside on a computer. Your body doesn't learn that grass and tree pollen aren't \"dangerous\".  It turns out that people in third world countries don't get allergies & asthma nearly as often as we do.  The key here is that most of this is happening when you are young.  As far as the claim on raw chicken & dirt strengthening your immune system, our immune systems pretty much start working less effectively at age 30 and it's all downhill from there.  Kids have REALLY strong immune systems so while a little bacteria and dirt might be easily handled by their bods, we might not be so lucky.","human_ref_B":"Yes there is, there are studies done on mice and fish reared in environments with no microbes at all, these animals have 'incomplete' development of things such as their immune system and their GI tract. There was a paper last year that suggested that a certain bacteria made you smarter","labels":1,"seconds_difference":16758.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"h3j5u","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.97,"history":"Is there any truth to the idea that being dirty will \"strengthen\" your immune system? I've heard people claim they don't wash their hands often, or that they eat raw egg and handle raw chicken. When asked about it, they say that it's strengthening their immune systems. Is there any scientific credibility to this?","c_root_id_A":"c1sda3l","c_root_id_B":"c1sdizl","created_at_utc_A":1304504961,"created_at_utc_B":1304511800,"score_A":2,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Layman here. I once heard a lecture by an allergologist, who was very convinced that being dirty protects you from developing allergies. This is because allergies are often a result of underutilized immune system going haywire on substances that are not actually dangerous. He showed many studies which have confirmed this. It's not exactly what you asked for, but another possible benefit from being dirty.","human_ref_B":"(Psychoneuroimmunology researcher here)  All of this is related to the Hygiene Hypothesis which is primarily about how allergies are formed as opposed to health per say.  http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hygiene_hypothesis TLDR if you aren't exposed to enough dirt and stuff when you are a kid & a baby (when your immune system is learning) you are more likely to develop allergies and other autoimmune diseases (e.g., asthma) then a kid who grew up on a farm, in the country.  Think about how the typical city dweller grows up: Filtered air, no parks, most of their time inside on a computer. Your body doesn't learn that grass and tree pollen aren't \"dangerous\".  It turns out that people in third world countries don't get allergies & asthma nearly as often as we do.  The key here is that most of this is happening when you are young.  As far as the claim on raw chicken & dirt strengthening your immune system, our immune systems pretty much start working less effectively at age 30 and it's all downhill from there.  Kids have REALLY strong immune systems so while a little bacteria and dirt might be easily handled by their bods, we might not be so lucky.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6839.0,"score_ratio":4.0}
{"post_id":"r9d7cv","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do plants maintain a characteristic \"body temperature\" and if so, how is this temperature regulated?","c_root_id_A":"hnbqsx1","c_root_id_B":"hnbss6x","created_at_utc_A":1638714370,"created_at_utc_B":1638715377,"score_A":17,"score_B":123,"human_ref_A":"They use the same technique as we when we sweat to cool off their leaves for example. All the enzymes that are needed for photosynthesis have an optimum, just like the enzymes in our body. To prevent the leaves from overheating in the sun, they can open their stromate - small openings in the leaf - where water can transpire through. This transpiration effect cools the leaf down.","human_ref_B":"Plants are typically ectothermic, with limited regulation of internal temperature. They can still employ clever tricks like orienting their leaves to collect less light at noon to prevent overheating, but without any strict regulation of their temperature.  Some plants, however, do regulate their temperature more strictly. Some are merely thermogenic, ie. generating more internal heat than would otherwise be expected, but others display proper thermoregulation. The lotus plant is one example, maintaining its flowers at a temperature of 30-35C.  Because respiration is generally slower in plants than animals, just burning sugars for energy isn't a great way for them to generate a lot of heat. Instead, they can use alternative oxidase (AOX) and\/or uncoupling proteins (UCP).  AOX just oxidizes substrates in the mitochondrial membrane without transferring the electrons to oxygen, thus uncoupling from the usual generation of ATP.  UCPs allow protons to leak back through the mitochondrial membrane, wasting some of the concentration gradient built up in respiration and instead just generating heat. UCPs are made in animals too, to varying extents, and chemical uncouplers exist too - dinitrophenol (DNP) is a notorious example, people have attempted to use it for weight loss (which is quite dangerous).  As for how plants sense temperature (a necessary prerequisite to regulation of temperature), that's a bigger topic because all plants do this; they react to temperature cues to know when to flower, when to protect themselves from elevated temperatures, and lots of other things. This review goes through various thermosensory mechanisms employed by plants.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1007.0,"score_ratio":7.2352941176}
{"post_id":"233p63","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Does our \"Lunar Eclipse\" from the perspective of the Moon, look like a version of our \"Solar\" Eclipse? It sounds like a similar concept, just from a different perspective. Have we been able to take any pictures from that perspective?","c_root_id_A":"cgt4frz","c_root_id_B":"cgt4oww","created_at_utc_A":1397581059,"created_at_utc_B":1397581563,"score_A":5,"score_B":530,"human_ref_A":"The Earth is bigger than the sun from the moon's perspective, so it just disappears behind the Earth.","human_ref_B":"This picture was recently linked from the recent NASA lunar eclipse AMA showing exactly what this looks like.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":504.0,"score_ratio":106.0}
{"post_id":"233p63","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Does our \"Lunar Eclipse\" from the perspective of the Moon, look like a version of our \"Solar\" Eclipse? It sounds like a similar concept, just from a different perspective. Have we been able to take any pictures from that perspective?","c_root_id_A":"cgt4frz","c_root_id_B":"cgtbm3m","created_at_utc_A":1397581059,"created_at_utc_B":1397594855,"score_A":5,"score_B":33,"human_ref_A":"The Earth is bigger than the sun from the moon's perspective, so it just disappears behind the Earth.","human_ref_B":"It looks like a bright ring around a black circle, Jaxa got a pic in February 2009:  >Japan's Kaguya lunar orbiter has beamed home a spectacular movie of Earth eclipsing the sun as seen from the moon. Kaguya caught the stunning sight on Feb. 10 and used its high definition camera to record the moment when the Earth looked like a diamond ring. >This HDTV moment in time and space came when a penumbral lunar eclipse occurred and the view of the sun from the Kaguya was mostly covered by the Earth, thus the Earth looked like a diamond ring. The moon?s limb, hidden by darkness, obscures part of the lower portion of the ring.  Here is another link.  Here are the pictures:","labels":0,"seconds_difference":13796.0,"score_ratio":6.6}
{"post_id":"233p63","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Does our \"Lunar Eclipse\" from the perspective of the Moon, look like a version of our \"Solar\" Eclipse? It sounds like a similar concept, just from a different perspective. Have we been able to take any pictures from that perspective?","c_root_id_A":"cgt4frz","c_root_id_B":"cgtgybs","created_at_utc_A":1397581059,"created_at_utc_B":1397606094,"score_A":5,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"The Earth is bigger than the sun from the moon's perspective, so it just disappears behind the Earth.","human_ref_B":"Not exactly. The image posted by NASA that was taken from the Moon does appear similar to pictures of solar eclipses. However, in person a solar eclipse is quite a unique and spectacular phenomenon that can't be adequately photographed. The reason for this is that the Sun and Moon appear to be almost exactly the same size from Earth, so when the Moon just barely covers the Sun there are amazing visual effects. However, from the Moon, an eclipse would be comparatively boring to look at because the Earth is so large it blots out the Sun by too wide a margin.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":25035.0,"score_ratio":2.8}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivv9yi","c_root_id_B":"hivqxjj","created_at_utc_A":1635775531,"created_at_utc_B":1635773360,"score_A":116,"score_B":51,"human_ref_A":"Are there any new or emerging STIs from the last five or ten years that sexually-active people should know about.","human_ref_B":"What percentage of Americans will have an STI at some point during their life? Has this increased or decreased over time?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2171.0,"score_ratio":2.2745098039}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivv9yi","c_root_id_B":"hivp06t","created_at_utc_A":1635775531,"created_at_utc_B":1635772337,"score_A":116,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Are there any new or emerging STIs from the last five or ten years that sexually-active people should know about.","human_ref_B":"How come these are still a thing? Do you think that culturally, it is possible to increase awareness even more?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3194.0,"score_ratio":7.7333333333}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw0e1j","c_root_id_B":"hivyli6","created_at_utc_A":1635777885,"created_at_utc_B":1635777075,"score_A":87,"score_B":85,"human_ref_A":"What are the long-term health concerns for carrying either hsv1 or hsv2? And why do you have to specifically request these (additional) tests when getting an STI test?","human_ref_B":"Will the new mRNA vaccines enable cures for stubborn herpes viruses? Or enable proper vaccination against some of these STIs?   (I assume if a specific and unique immunization target was possible  on HIV, it would already have a successful vaccine?)","labels":1,"seconds_difference":810.0,"score_ratio":1.0235294118}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivqxjj","c_root_id_B":"hiw0e1j","created_at_utc_A":1635773360,"created_at_utc_B":1635777885,"score_A":51,"score_B":87,"human_ref_A":"What percentage of Americans will have an STI at some point during their life? Has this increased or decreased over time?","human_ref_B":"What are the long-term health concerns for carrying either hsv1 or hsv2? And why do you have to specifically request these (additional) tests when getting an STI test?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4525.0,"score_ratio":1.7058823529}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw0e1j","c_root_id_B":"hivvhte","created_at_utc_A":1635777885,"created_at_utc_B":1635775637,"score_A":87,"score_B":50,"human_ref_A":"What are the long-term health concerns for carrying either hsv1 or hsv2? And why do you have to specifically request these (additional) tests when getting an STI test?","human_ref_B":"Is HPV curable?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2248.0,"score_ratio":1.74}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw0e1j","c_root_id_B":"hivzbwi","created_at_utc_A":1635777885,"created_at_utc_B":1635777409,"score_A":87,"score_B":41,"human_ref_A":"What are the long-term health concerns for carrying either hsv1 or hsv2? And why do you have to specifically request these (additional) tests when getting an STI test?","human_ref_B":"How worried should we be about symptomless STIs?   Are they particularly common?  If we're infected will we show other symptoms? Fatigue? Fever? Swollen lymph nodes?   Or will we feel completely fine while still being able to transmit the infection?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":476.0,"score_ratio":2.1219512195}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw0e1j","c_root_id_B":"hivyqrz","created_at_utc_A":1635777885,"created_at_utc_B":1635777143,"score_A":87,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"What are the long-term health concerns for carrying either hsv1 or hsv2? And why do you have to specifically request these (additional) tests when getting an STI test?","human_ref_B":"What are the worst and more common STIs transmitted through oral sex?   Is it more risky for the \"performers\" or for the ones \"performed on\"?  What has more chance to carry the worst diseases and risks: penis or vagina?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":742.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw0e1j","c_root_id_B":"hivxj0t","created_at_utc_A":1635777885,"created_at_utc_B":1635776591,"score_A":87,"score_B":20,"human_ref_A":"What are the long-term health concerns for carrying either hsv1 or hsv2? And why do you have to specifically request these (additional) tests when getting an STI test?","human_ref_B":"What are the most common STIs in the (southern) US to get tested for, in order to confidently tell sexual partners that I'm safe?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1294.0,"score_ratio":4.35}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw0e1j","c_root_id_B":"hivp06t","created_at_utc_A":1635777885,"created_at_utc_B":1635772337,"score_A":87,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"What are the long-term health concerns for carrying either hsv1 or hsv2? And why do you have to specifically request these (additional) tests when getting an STI test?","human_ref_B":"How come these are still a thing? Do you think that culturally, it is possible to increase awareness even more?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5548.0,"score_ratio":5.8}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivqxjj","c_root_id_B":"hivyli6","created_at_utc_A":1635773360,"created_at_utc_B":1635777075,"score_A":51,"score_B":85,"human_ref_A":"What percentage of Americans will have an STI at some point during their life? Has this increased or decreased over time?","human_ref_B":"Will the new mRNA vaccines enable cures for stubborn herpes viruses? Or enable proper vaccination against some of these STIs?   (I assume if a specific and unique immunization target was possible  on HIV, it would already have a successful vaccine?)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3715.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivvhte","c_root_id_B":"hivyli6","created_at_utc_A":1635775637,"created_at_utc_B":1635777075,"score_A":50,"score_B":85,"human_ref_A":"Is HPV curable?","human_ref_B":"Will the new mRNA vaccines enable cures for stubborn herpes viruses? Or enable proper vaccination against some of these STIs?   (I assume if a specific and unique immunization target was possible  on HIV, it would already have a successful vaccine?)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1438.0,"score_ratio":1.7}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivyli6","c_root_id_B":"hivxj0t","created_at_utc_A":1635777075,"created_at_utc_B":1635776591,"score_A":85,"score_B":20,"human_ref_A":"Will the new mRNA vaccines enable cures for stubborn herpes viruses? Or enable proper vaccination against some of these STIs?   (I assume if a specific and unique immunization target was possible  on HIV, it would already have a successful vaccine?)","human_ref_B":"What are the most common STIs in the (southern) US to get tested for, in order to confidently tell sexual partners that I'm safe?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":484.0,"score_ratio":4.25}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivyli6","c_root_id_B":"hivp06t","created_at_utc_A":1635777075,"created_at_utc_B":1635772337,"score_A":85,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Will the new mRNA vaccines enable cures for stubborn herpes viruses? Or enable proper vaccination against some of these STIs?   (I assume if a specific and unique immunization target was possible  on HIV, it would already have a successful vaccine?)","human_ref_B":"How come these are still a thing? Do you think that culturally, it is possible to increase awareness even more?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4738.0,"score_ratio":5.6666666667}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivqxjj","c_root_id_B":"hiw8unf","created_at_utc_A":1635773360,"created_at_utc_B":1635781675,"score_A":51,"score_B":60,"human_ref_A":"What percentage of Americans will have an STI at some point during their life? Has this increased or decreased over time?","human_ref_B":"Why does it seem like the STD's that can spread while still wearing a condom, are also the ones least often tested for during standard tests?  If people are wearing protection surely these are most likely the ones they are to have without knowing","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8315.0,"score_ratio":1.1764705882}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivvhte","c_root_id_B":"hiw8unf","created_at_utc_A":1635775637,"created_at_utc_B":1635781675,"score_A":50,"score_B":60,"human_ref_A":"Is HPV curable?","human_ref_B":"Why does it seem like the STD's that can spread while still wearing a condom, are also the ones least often tested for during standard tests?  If people are wearing protection surely these are most likely the ones they are to have without knowing","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6038.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw5mz8","c_root_id_B":"hiw8unf","created_at_utc_A":1635780262,"created_at_utc_B":1635781675,"score_A":42,"score_B":60,"human_ref_A":"In my experience, gay culture in big cities unfortunately prefers unsafe sex over using a condom, as such I can only imagine there\u2019s a large number of guys out there who need antibiotic treatments rather frequently.   Are there long term implications \u2014 not just for individual patients but for the population as a whole \u2014 for the reliance on antibiotic treatments rather than protected sex when it comes to \u201cmaintaining\u201d sexual health?   I ask this because I\u2019ve heard acquaintances say \u201cwhat\u2019s the big deal, I\u2019m on prep, and a Z-Pack will take care of the rest\u201d and found that extremely disconcerting.","human_ref_B":"Why does it seem like the STD's that can spread while still wearing a condom, are also the ones least often tested for during standard tests?  If people are wearing protection surely these are most likely the ones they are to have without knowing","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1413.0,"score_ratio":1.4285714286}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw8unf","c_root_id_B":"hivzbwi","created_at_utc_A":1635781675,"created_at_utc_B":1635777409,"score_A":60,"score_B":41,"human_ref_A":"Why does it seem like the STD's that can spread while still wearing a condom, are also the ones least often tested for during standard tests?  If people are wearing protection surely these are most likely the ones they are to have without knowing","human_ref_B":"How worried should we be about symptomless STIs?   Are they particularly common?  If we're infected will we show other symptoms? Fatigue? Fever? Swollen lymph nodes?   Or will we feel completely fine while still being able to transmit the infection?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4266.0,"score_ratio":1.4634146341}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw6ark","c_root_id_B":"hiw8unf","created_at_utc_A":1635780556,"created_at_utc_B":1635781675,"score_A":38,"score_B":60,"human_ref_A":"Perhaps trivial, but serious question: when I was growing up, they were called STDs. Now they're called STIs. Why the name change?","human_ref_B":"Why does it seem like the STD's that can spread while still wearing a condom, are also the ones least often tested for during standard tests?  If people are wearing protection surely these are most likely the ones they are to have without knowing","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1119.0,"score_ratio":1.5789473684}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw8unf","c_root_id_B":"hivyqrz","created_at_utc_A":1635781675,"created_at_utc_B":1635777143,"score_A":60,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"Why does it seem like the STD's that can spread while still wearing a condom, are also the ones least often tested for during standard tests?  If people are wearing protection surely these are most likely the ones they are to have without knowing","human_ref_B":"What are the worst and more common STIs transmitted through oral sex?   Is it more risky for the \"performers\" or for the ones \"performed on\"?  What has more chance to carry the worst diseases and risks: penis or vagina?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4532.0,"score_ratio":2.0689655172}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw8unf","c_root_id_B":"hiw1bs3","created_at_utc_A":1635781675,"created_at_utc_B":1635778309,"score_A":60,"score_B":27,"human_ref_A":"Why does it seem like the STD's that can spread while still wearing a condom, are also the ones least often tested for during standard tests?  If people are wearing protection surely these are most likely the ones they are to have without knowing","human_ref_B":"I have the question on whether we should be testing for urogenital Mycoplasma hominis, Ureaplasma parvum and Ureaplasma urealyticum and why exactly? as is done it seems quite frequently with routine PGR, and then treating these asymptomatic patients? I have read the European Academy does not recommend this but it seems the norm in private clinics?  Thanks","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3366.0,"score_ratio":2.2222222222}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivxj0t","c_root_id_B":"hiw8unf","created_at_utc_A":1635776591,"created_at_utc_B":1635781675,"score_A":20,"score_B":60,"human_ref_A":"What are the most common STIs in the (southern) US to get tested for, in order to confidently tell sexual partners that I'm safe?","human_ref_B":"Why does it seem like the STD's that can spread while still wearing a condom, are also the ones least often tested for during standard tests?  If people are wearing protection surely these are most likely the ones they are to have without knowing","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5084.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivp06t","c_root_id_B":"hiw8unf","created_at_utc_A":1635772337,"created_at_utc_B":1635781675,"score_A":15,"score_B":60,"human_ref_A":"How come these are still a thing? Do you think that culturally, it is possible to increase awareness even more?","human_ref_B":"Why does it seem like the STD's that can spread while still wearing a condom, are also the ones least often tested for during standard tests?  If people are wearing protection surely these are most likely the ones they are to have without knowing","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9338.0,"score_ratio":4.0}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw8unf","c_root_id_B":"hiw3knr","created_at_utc_A":1635781675,"created_at_utc_B":1635779336,"score_A":60,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Why does it seem like the STD's that can spread while still wearing a condom, are also the ones least often tested for during standard tests?  If people are wearing protection surely these are most likely the ones they are to have without knowing","human_ref_B":"An HIV+ friend was telling me that even having unprotected sex with someone carries about only a 10% chance of actual transfer and infection into the partner.  Wondering how true that is giving it's prevalence and world wide epidemic status..","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2339.0,"score_ratio":4.0}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivqxjj","c_root_id_B":"hivp06t","created_at_utc_A":1635773360,"created_at_utc_B":1635772337,"score_A":51,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"What percentage of Americans will have an STI at some point during their life? Has this increased or decreased over time?","human_ref_B":"How come these are still a thing? Do you think that culturally, it is possible to increase awareness even more?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1023.0,"score_ratio":3.4}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiwdeun","c_root_id_B":"hiw9efv","created_at_utc_A":1635783666,"created_at_utc_B":1635781914,"score_A":50,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"What prevents us from being able to test for HPV in men?  Is it accepted as a biological impossibility?  Is there any recent or current research to indicate that it could one day be possible?","human_ref_B":"In the past few years Kaiser healthcare changed it's policy to not recommend testing of hsv1 and hsv2 if the patient is not showing active symptoms.  They say this:   \"This is because there is no reliable blood test to see if you currently have Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV). The current blood test we have will only show a previous infection of HSV but cannot tell you if you have a current infection.  A majority of people who have been exposed to HSV completely clear the virus, do not have outbreaks and are never able to transmit it after the initial infection but can still test positive on the blood test. Most of those who do not clear the virus can only transmit it when there is an active outbreak or if they are feeling symptoms of an outbreak and the chances of transmission without any symptoms is very low. The best way to test for a current HSV infection is if we swab an active skin outbreak and test directly for HSV. This will give us a definitive diagnosis but otherwise we typically can't diagnosis a current HSV infection using just blood tests. \"   Do they have legitimate reasons for refraining or should they be testing when people ask for these tests?  What are your views on this matter?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1752.0,"score_ratio":1.0869565217}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw5mz8","c_root_id_B":"hiwdeun","created_at_utc_A":1635780262,"created_at_utc_B":1635783666,"score_A":42,"score_B":50,"human_ref_A":"In my experience, gay culture in big cities unfortunately prefers unsafe sex over using a condom, as such I can only imagine there\u2019s a large number of guys out there who need antibiotic treatments rather frequently.   Are there long term implications \u2014 not just for individual patients but for the population as a whole \u2014 for the reliance on antibiotic treatments rather than protected sex when it comes to \u201cmaintaining\u201d sexual health?   I ask this because I\u2019ve heard acquaintances say \u201cwhat\u2019s the big deal, I\u2019m on prep, and a Z-Pack will take care of the rest\u201d and found that extremely disconcerting.","human_ref_B":"What prevents us from being able to test for HPV in men?  Is it accepted as a biological impossibility?  Is there any recent or current research to indicate that it could one day be possible?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3404.0,"score_ratio":1.1904761905}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiwdeun","c_root_id_B":"hivzbwi","created_at_utc_A":1635783666,"created_at_utc_B":1635777409,"score_A":50,"score_B":41,"human_ref_A":"What prevents us from being able to test for HPV in men?  Is it accepted as a biological impossibility?  Is there any recent or current research to indicate that it could one day be possible?","human_ref_B":"How worried should we be about symptomless STIs?   Are they particularly common?  If we're infected will we show other symptoms? Fatigue? Fever? Swollen lymph nodes?   Or will we feel completely fine while still being able to transmit the infection?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6257.0,"score_ratio":1.2195121951}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiwdeun","c_root_id_B":"hiw6ark","created_at_utc_A":1635783666,"created_at_utc_B":1635780556,"score_A":50,"score_B":38,"human_ref_A":"What prevents us from being able to test for HPV in men?  Is it accepted as a biological impossibility?  Is there any recent or current research to indicate that it could one day be possible?","human_ref_B":"Perhaps trivial, but serious question: when I was growing up, they were called STDs. Now they're called STIs. Why the name change?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3110.0,"score_ratio":1.3157894737}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiwdeun","c_root_id_B":"hivyqrz","created_at_utc_A":1635783666,"created_at_utc_B":1635777143,"score_A":50,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"What prevents us from being able to test for HPV in men?  Is it accepted as a biological impossibility?  Is there any recent or current research to indicate that it could one day be possible?","human_ref_B":"What are the worst and more common STIs transmitted through oral sex?   Is it more risky for the \"performers\" or for the ones \"performed on\"?  What has more chance to carry the worst diseases and risks: penis or vagina?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6523.0,"score_ratio":1.724137931}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiwdeun","c_root_id_B":"hiw1bs3","created_at_utc_A":1635783666,"created_at_utc_B":1635778309,"score_A":50,"score_B":27,"human_ref_A":"What prevents us from being able to test for HPV in men?  Is it accepted as a biological impossibility?  Is there any recent or current research to indicate that it could one day be possible?","human_ref_B":"I have the question on whether we should be testing for urogenital Mycoplasma hominis, Ureaplasma parvum and Ureaplasma urealyticum and why exactly? as is done it seems quite frequently with routine PGR, and then treating these asymptomatic patients? I have read the European Academy does not recommend this but it seems the norm in private clinics?  Thanks","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5357.0,"score_ratio":1.8518518519}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiwbqfv","c_root_id_B":"hiwdeun","created_at_utc_A":1635782934,"created_at_utc_B":1635783666,"score_A":29,"score_B":50,"human_ref_A":"Hello - how common is it for HPV that affects the hands and feet (Verrucae\/Warts) to be transmitted to partners sexual organs?","human_ref_B":"What prevents us from being able to test for HPV in men?  Is it accepted as a biological impossibility?  Is there any recent or current research to indicate that it could one day be possible?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":732.0,"score_ratio":1.724137931}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiwdeun","c_root_id_B":"hivxj0t","created_at_utc_A":1635783666,"created_at_utc_B":1635776591,"score_A":50,"score_B":20,"human_ref_A":"What prevents us from being able to test for HPV in men?  Is it accepted as a biological impossibility?  Is there any recent or current research to indicate that it could one day be possible?","human_ref_B":"What are the most common STIs in the (southern) US to get tested for, in order to confidently tell sexual partners that I'm safe?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7075.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivp06t","c_root_id_B":"hiwdeun","created_at_utc_A":1635772337,"created_at_utc_B":1635783666,"score_A":15,"score_B":50,"human_ref_A":"How come these are still a thing? Do you think that culturally, it is possible to increase awareness even more?","human_ref_B":"What prevents us from being able to test for HPV in men?  Is it accepted as a biological impossibility?  Is there any recent or current research to indicate that it could one day be possible?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":11329.0,"score_ratio":3.3333333333}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiwdeun","c_root_id_B":"hiw3knr","created_at_utc_A":1635783666,"created_at_utc_B":1635779336,"score_A":50,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"What prevents us from being able to test for HPV in men?  Is it accepted as a biological impossibility?  Is there any recent or current research to indicate that it could one day be possible?","human_ref_B":"An HIV+ friend was telling me that even having unprotected sex with someone carries about only a 10% chance of actual transfer and infection into the partner.  Wondering how true that is giving it's prevalence and world wide epidemic status..","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4330.0,"score_ratio":3.3333333333}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivp06t","c_root_id_B":"hivvhte","created_at_utc_A":1635772337,"created_at_utc_B":1635775637,"score_A":15,"score_B":50,"human_ref_A":"How come these are still a thing? Do you think that culturally, it is possible to increase awareness even more?","human_ref_B":"Is HPV curable?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3300.0,"score_ratio":3.3333333333}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw5mz8","c_root_id_B":"hiw9efv","created_at_utc_A":1635780262,"created_at_utc_B":1635781914,"score_A":42,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"In my experience, gay culture in big cities unfortunately prefers unsafe sex over using a condom, as such I can only imagine there\u2019s a large number of guys out there who need antibiotic treatments rather frequently.   Are there long term implications \u2014 not just for individual patients but for the population as a whole \u2014 for the reliance on antibiotic treatments rather than protected sex when it comes to \u201cmaintaining\u201d sexual health?   I ask this because I\u2019ve heard acquaintances say \u201cwhat\u2019s the big deal, I\u2019m on prep, and a Z-Pack will take care of the rest\u201d and found that extremely disconcerting.","human_ref_B":"In the past few years Kaiser healthcare changed it's policy to not recommend testing of hsv1 and hsv2 if the patient is not showing active symptoms.  They say this:   \"This is because there is no reliable blood test to see if you currently have Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV). The current blood test we have will only show a previous infection of HSV but cannot tell you if you have a current infection.  A majority of people who have been exposed to HSV completely clear the virus, do not have outbreaks and are never able to transmit it after the initial infection but can still test positive on the blood test. Most of those who do not clear the virus can only transmit it when there is an active outbreak or if they are feeling symptoms of an outbreak and the chances of transmission without any symptoms is very low. The best way to test for a current HSV infection is if we swab an active skin outbreak and test directly for HSV. This will give us a definitive diagnosis but otherwise we typically can't diagnosis a current HSV infection using just blood tests. \"   Do they have legitimate reasons for refraining or should they be testing when people ask for these tests?  What are your views on this matter?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1652.0,"score_ratio":1.0952380952}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw9efv","c_root_id_B":"hivzbwi","created_at_utc_A":1635781914,"created_at_utc_B":1635777409,"score_A":46,"score_B":41,"human_ref_A":"In the past few years Kaiser healthcare changed it's policy to not recommend testing of hsv1 and hsv2 if the patient is not showing active symptoms.  They say this:   \"This is because there is no reliable blood test to see if you currently have Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV). The current blood test we have will only show a previous infection of HSV but cannot tell you if you have a current infection.  A majority of people who have been exposed to HSV completely clear the virus, do not have outbreaks and are never able to transmit it after the initial infection but can still test positive on the blood test. Most of those who do not clear the virus can only transmit it when there is an active outbreak or if they are feeling symptoms of an outbreak and the chances of transmission without any symptoms is very low. The best way to test for a current HSV infection is if we swab an active skin outbreak and test directly for HSV. This will give us a definitive diagnosis but otherwise we typically can't diagnosis a current HSV infection using just blood tests. \"   Do they have legitimate reasons for refraining or should they be testing when people ask for these tests?  What are your views on this matter?","human_ref_B":"How worried should we be about symptomless STIs?   Are they particularly common?  If we're infected will we show other symptoms? Fatigue? Fever? Swollen lymph nodes?   Or will we feel completely fine while still being able to transmit the infection?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4505.0,"score_ratio":1.1219512195}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw9efv","c_root_id_B":"hiw6ark","created_at_utc_A":1635781914,"created_at_utc_B":1635780556,"score_A":46,"score_B":38,"human_ref_A":"In the past few years Kaiser healthcare changed it's policy to not recommend testing of hsv1 and hsv2 if the patient is not showing active symptoms.  They say this:   \"This is because there is no reliable blood test to see if you currently have Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV). The current blood test we have will only show a previous infection of HSV but cannot tell you if you have a current infection.  A majority of people who have been exposed to HSV completely clear the virus, do not have outbreaks and are never able to transmit it after the initial infection but can still test positive on the blood test. Most of those who do not clear the virus can only transmit it when there is an active outbreak or if they are feeling symptoms of an outbreak and the chances of transmission without any symptoms is very low. The best way to test for a current HSV infection is if we swab an active skin outbreak and test directly for HSV. This will give us a definitive diagnosis but otherwise we typically can't diagnosis a current HSV infection using just blood tests. \"   Do they have legitimate reasons for refraining or should they be testing when people ask for these tests?  What are your views on this matter?","human_ref_B":"Perhaps trivial, but serious question: when I was growing up, they were called STDs. Now they're called STIs. Why the name change?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1358.0,"score_ratio":1.2105263158}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivyqrz","c_root_id_B":"hiw9efv","created_at_utc_A":1635777143,"created_at_utc_B":1635781914,"score_A":29,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"What are the worst and more common STIs transmitted through oral sex?   Is it more risky for the \"performers\" or for the ones \"performed on\"?  What has more chance to carry the worst diseases and risks: penis or vagina?","human_ref_B":"In the past few years Kaiser healthcare changed it's policy to not recommend testing of hsv1 and hsv2 if the patient is not showing active symptoms.  They say this:   \"This is because there is no reliable blood test to see if you currently have Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV). The current blood test we have will only show a previous infection of HSV but cannot tell you if you have a current infection.  A majority of people who have been exposed to HSV completely clear the virus, do not have outbreaks and are never able to transmit it after the initial infection but can still test positive on the blood test. Most of those who do not clear the virus can only transmit it when there is an active outbreak or if they are feeling symptoms of an outbreak and the chances of transmission without any symptoms is very low. The best way to test for a current HSV infection is if we swab an active skin outbreak and test directly for HSV. This will give us a definitive diagnosis but otherwise we typically can't diagnosis a current HSV infection using just blood tests. \"   Do they have legitimate reasons for refraining or should they be testing when people ask for these tests?  What are your views on this matter?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4771.0,"score_ratio":1.5862068966}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw1bs3","c_root_id_B":"hiw9efv","created_at_utc_A":1635778309,"created_at_utc_B":1635781914,"score_A":27,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"I have the question on whether we should be testing for urogenital Mycoplasma hominis, Ureaplasma parvum and Ureaplasma urealyticum and why exactly? as is done it seems quite frequently with routine PGR, and then treating these asymptomatic patients? I have read the European Academy does not recommend this but it seems the norm in private clinics?  Thanks","human_ref_B":"In the past few years Kaiser healthcare changed it's policy to not recommend testing of hsv1 and hsv2 if the patient is not showing active symptoms.  They say this:   \"This is because there is no reliable blood test to see if you currently have Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV). The current blood test we have will only show a previous infection of HSV but cannot tell you if you have a current infection.  A majority of people who have been exposed to HSV completely clear the virus, do not have outbreaks and are never able to transmit it after the initial infection but can still test positive on the blood test. Most of those who do not clear the virus can only transmit it when there is an active outbreak or if they are feeling symptoms of an outbreak and the chances of transmission without any symptoms is very low. The best way to test for a current HSV infection is if we swab an active skin outbreak and test directly for HSV. This will give us a definitive diagnosis but otherwise we typically can't diagnosis a current HSV infection using just blood tests. \"   Do they have legitimate reasons for refraining or should they be testing when people ask for these tests?  What are your views on this matter?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3605.0,"score_ratio":1.7037037037}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivxj0t","c_root_id_B":"hiw9efv","created_at_utc_A":1635776591,"created_at_utc_B":1635781914,"score_A":20,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"What are the most common STIs in the (southern) US to get tested for, in order to confidently tell sexual partners that I'm safe?","human_ref_B":"In the past few years Kaiser healthcare changed it's policy to not recommend testing of hsv1 and hsv2 if the patient is not showing active symptoms.  They say this:   \"This is because there is no reliable blood test to see if you currently have Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV). The current blood test we have will only show a previous infection of HSV but cannot tell you if you have a current infection.  A majority of people who have been exposed to HSV completely clear the virus, do not have outbreaks and are never able to transmit it after the initial infection but can still test positive on the blood test. Most of those who do not clear the virus can only transmit it when there is an active outbreak or if they are feeling symptoms of an outbreak and the chances of transmission without any symptoms is very low. The best way to test for a current HSV infection is if we swab an active skin outbreak and test directly for HSV. This will give us a definitive diagnosis but otherwise we typically can't diagnosis a current HSV infection using just blood tests. \"   Do they have legitimate reasons for refraining or should they be testing when people ask for these tests?  What are your views on this matter?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5323.0,"score_ratio":2.3}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivp06t","c_root_id_B":"hiw9efv","created_at_utc_A":1635772337,"created_at_utc_B":1635781914,"score_A":15,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"How come these are still a thing? Do you think that culturally, it is possible to increase awareness even more?","human_ref_B":"In the past few years Kaiser healthcare changed it's policy to not recommend testing of hsv1 and hsv2 if the patient is not showing active symptoms.  They say this:   \"This is because there is no reliable blood test to see if you currently have Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV). The current blood test we have will only show a previous infection of HSV but cannot tell you if you have a current infection.  A majority of people who have been exposed to HSV completely clear the virus, do not have outbreaks and are never able to transmit it after the initial infection but can still test positive on the blood test. Most of those who do not clear the virus can only transmit it when there is an active outbreak or if they are feeling symptoms of an outbreak and the chances of transmission without any symptoms is very low. The best way to test for a current HSV infection is if we swab an active skin outbreak and test directly for HSV. This will give us a definitive diagnosis but otherwise we typically can't diagnosis a current HSV infection using just blood tests. \"   Do they have legitimate reasons for refraining or should they be testing when people ask for these tests?  What are your views on this matter?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9577.0,"score_ratio":3.0666666667}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw3knr","c_root_id_B":"hiw9efv","created_at_utc_A":1635779336,"created_at_utc_B":1635781914,"score_A":15,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"An HIV+ friend was telling me that even having unprotected sex with someone carries about only a 10% chance of actual transfer and infection into the partner.  Wondering how true that is giving it's prevalence and world wide epidemic status..","human_ref_B":"In the past few years Kaiser healthcare changed it's policy to not recommend testing of hsv1 and hsv2 if the patient is not showing active symptoms.  They say this:   \"This is because there is no reliable blood test to see if you currently have Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV). The current blood test we have will only show a previous infection of HSV but cannot tell you if you have a current infection.  A majority of people who have been exposed to HSV completely clear the virus, do not have outbreaks and are never able to transmit it after the initial infection but can still test positive on the blood test. Most of those who do not clear the virus can only transmit it when there is an active outbreak or if they are feeling symptoms of an outbreak and the chances of transmission without any symptoms is very low. The best way to test for a current HSV infection is if we swab an active skin outbreak and test directly for HSV. This will give us a definitive diagnosis but otherwise we typically can't diagnosis a current HSV infection using just blood tests. \"   Do they have legitimate reasons for refraining or should they be testing when people ask for these tests?  What are your views on this matter?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2578.0,"score_ratio":3.0666666667}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivzbwi","c_root_id_B":"hiw5mz8","created_at_utc_A":1635777409,"created_at_utc_B":1635780262,"score_A":41,"score_B":42,"human_ref_A":"How worried should we be about symptomless STIs?   Are they particularly common?  If we're infected will we show other symptoms? Fatigue? Fever? Swollen lymph nodes?   Or will we feel completely fine while still being able to transmit the infection?","human_ref_B":"In my experience, gay culture in big cities unfortunately prefers unsafe sex over using a condom, as such I can only imagine there\u2019s a large number of guys out there who need antibiotic treatments rather frequently.   Are there long term implications \u2014 not just for individual patients but for the population as a whole \u2014 for the reliance on antibiotic treatments rather than protected sex when it comes to \u201cmaintaining\u201d sexual health?   I ask this because I\u2019ve heard acquaintances say \u201cwhat\u2019s the big deal, I\u2019m on prep, and a Z-Pack will take care of the rest\u201d and found that extremely disconcerting.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2853.0,"score_ratio":1.0243902439}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivyqrz","c_root_id_B":"hiw5mz8","created_at_utc_A":1635777143,"created_at_utc_B":1635780262,"score_A":29,"score_B":42,"human_ref_A":"What are the worst and more common STIs transmitted through oral sex?   Is it more risky for the \"performers\" or for the ones \"performed on\"?  What has more chance to carry the worst diseases and risks: penis or vagina?","human_ref_B":"In my experience, gay culture in big cities unfortunately prefers unsafe sex over using a condom, as such I can only imagine there\u2019s a large number of guys out there who need antibiotic treatments rather frequently.   Are there long term implications \u2014 not just for individual patients but for the population as a whole \u2014 for the reliance on antibiotic treatments rather than protected sex when it comes to \u201cmaintaining\u201d sexual health?   I ask this because I\u2019ve heard acquaintances say \u201cwhat\u2019s the big deal, I\u2019m on prep, and a Z-Pack will take care of the rest\u201d and found that extremely disconcerting.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3119.0,"score_ratio":1.4482758621}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw5mz8","c_root_id_B":"hiw1bs3","created_at_utc_A":1635780262,"created_at_utc_B":1635778309,"score_A":42,"score_B":27,"human_ref_A":"In my experience, gay culture in big cities unfortunately prefers unsafe sex over using a condom, as such I can only imagine there\u2019s a large number of guys out there who need antibiotic treatments rather frequently.   Are there long term implications \u2014 not just for individual patients but for the population as a whole \u2014 for the reliance on antibiotic treatments rather than protected sex when it comes to \u201cmaintaining\u201d sexual health?   I ask this because I\u2019ve heard acquaintances say \u201cwhat\u2019s the big deal, I\u2019m on prep, and a Z-Pack will take care of the rest\u201d and found that extremely disconcerting.","human_ref_B":"I have the question on whether we should be testing for urogenital Mycoplasma hominis, Ureaplasma parvum and Ureaplasma urealyticum and why exactly? as is done it seems quite frequently with routine PGR, and then treating these asymptomatic patients? I have read the European Academy does not recommend this but it seems the norm in private clinics?  Thanks","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1953.0,"score_ratio":1.5555555556}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivxj0t","c_root_id_B":"hiw5mz8","created_at_utc_A":1635776591,"created_at_utc_B":1635780262,"score_A":20,"score_B":42,"human_ref_A":"What are the most common STIs in the (southern) US to get tested for, in order to confidently tell sexual partners that I'm safe?","human_ref_B":"In my experience, gay culture in big cities unfortunately prefers unsafe sex over using a condom, as such I can only imagine there\u2019s a large number of guys out there who need antibiotic treatments rather frequently.   Are there long term implications \u2014 not just for individual patients but for the population as a whole \u2014 for the reliance on antibiotic treatments rather than protected sex when it comes to \u201cmaintaining\u201d sexual health?   I ask this because I\u2019ve heard acquaintances say \u201cwhat\u2019s the big deal, I\u2019m on prep, and a Z-Pack will take care of the rest\u201d and found that extremely disconcerting.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3671.0,"score_ratio":2.1}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw5mz8","c_root_id_B":"hivp06t","created_at_utc_A":1635780262,"created_at_utc_B":1635772337,"score_A":42,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"In my experience, gay culture in big cities unfortunately prefers unsafe sex over using a condom, as such I can only imagine there\u2019s a large number of guys out there who need antibiotic treatments rather frequently.   Are there long term implications \u2014 not just for individual patients but for the population as a whole \u2014 for the reliance on antibiotic treatments rather than protected sex when it comes to \u201cmaintaining\u201d sexual health?   I ask this because I\u2019ve heard acquaintances say \u201cwhat\u2019s the big deal, I\u2019m on prep, and a Z-Pack will take care of the rest\u201d and found that extremely disconcerting.","human_ref_B":"How come these are still a thing? Do you think that culturally, it is possible to increase awareness even more?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7925.0,"score_ratio":2.8}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw5mz8","c_root_id_B":"hiw3knr","created_at_utc_A":1635780262,"created_at_utc_B":1635779336,"score_A":42,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"In my experience, gay culture in big cities unfortunately prefers unsafe sex over using a condom, as such I can only imagine there\u2019s a large number of guys out there who need antibiotic treatments rather frequently.   Are there long term implications \u2014 not just for individual patients but for the population as a whole \u2014 for the reliance on antibiotic treatments rather than protected sex when it comes to \u201cmaintaining\u201d sexual health?   I ask this because I\u2019ve heard acquaintances say \u201cwhat\u2019s the big deal, I\u2019m on prep, and a Z-Pack will take care of the rest\u201d and found that extremely disconcerting.","human_ref_B":"An HIV+ friend was telling me that even having unprotected sex with someone carries about only a 10% chance of actual transfer and infection into the partner.  Wondering how true that is giving it's prevalence and world wide epidemic status..","labels":1,"seconds_difference":926.0,"score_ratio":2.8}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivzbwi","c_root_id_B":"hivyqrz","created_at_utc_A":1635777409,"created_at_utc_B":1635777143,"score_A":41,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"How worried should we be about symptomless STIs?   Are they particularly common?  If we're infected will we show other symptoms? Fatigue? Fever? Swollen lymph nodes?   Or will we feel completely fine while still being able to transmit the infection?","human_ref_B":"What are the worst and more common STIs transmitted through oral sex?   Is it more risky for the \"performers\" or for the ones \"performed on\"?  What has more chance to carry the worst diseases and risks: penis or vagina?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":266.0,"score_ratio":1.4137931034}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivxj0t","c_root_id_B":"hivzbwi","created_at_utc_A":1635776591,"created_at_utc_B":1635777409,"score_A":20,"score_B":41,"human_ref_A":"What are the most common STIs in the (southern) US to get tested for, in order to confidently tell sexual partners that I'm safe?","human_ref_B":"How worried should we be about symptomless STIs?   Are they particularly common?  If we're infected will we show other symptoms? Fatigue? Fever? Swollen lymph nodes?   Or will we feel completely fine while still being able to transmit the infection?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":818.0,"score_ratio":2.05}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivp06t","c_root_id_B":"hivzbwi","created_at_utc_A":1635772337,"created_at_utc_B":1635777409,"score_A":15,"score_B":41,"human_ref_A":"How come these are still a thing? Do you think that culturally, it is possible to increase awareness even more?","human_ref_B":"How worried should we be about symptomless STIs?   Are they particularly common?  If we're infected will we show other symptoms? Fatigue? Fever? Swollen lymph nodes?   Or will we feel completely fine while still being able to transmit the infection?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5072.0,"score_ratio":2.7333333333}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw6ark","c_root_id_B":"hivyqrz","created_at_utc_A":1635780556,"created_at_utc_B":1635777143,"score_A":38,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"Perhaps trivial, but serious question: when I was growing up, they were called STDs. Now they're called STIs. Why the name change?","human_ref_B":"What are the worst and more common STIs transmitted through oral sex?   Is it more risky for the \"performers\" or for the ones \"performed on\"?  What has more chance to carry the worst diseases and risks: penis or vagina?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3413.0,"score_ratio":1.3103448276}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw6ark","c_root_id_B":"hiw1bs3","created_at_utc_A":1635780556,"created_at_utc_B":1635778309,"score_A":38,"score_B":27,"human_ref_A":"Perhaps trivial, but serious question: when I was growing up, they were called STDs. Now they're called STIs. Why the name change?","human_ref_B":"I have the question on whether we should be testing for urogenital Mycoplasma hominis, Ureaplasma parvum and Ureaplasma urealyticum and why exactly? as is done it seems quite frequently with routine PGR, and then treating these asymptomatic patients? I have read the European Academy does not recommend this but it seems the norm in private clinics?  Thanks","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2247.0,"score_ratio":1.4074074074}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw6ark","c_root_id_B":"hivxj0t","created_at_utc_A":1635780556,"created_at_utc_B":1635776591,"score_A":38,"score_B":20,"human_ref_A":"Perhaps trivial, but serious question: when I was growing up, they were called STDs. Now they're called STIs. Why the name change?","human_ref_B":"What are the most common STIs in the (southern) US to get tested for, in order to confidently tell sexual partners that I'm safe?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3965.0,"score_ratio":1.9}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw6ark","c_root_id_B":"hivp06t","created_at_utc_A":1635780556,"created_at_utc_B":1635772337,"score_A":38,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Perhaps trivial, but serious question: when I was growing up, they were called STDs. Now they're called STIs. Why the name change?","human_ref_B":"How come these are still a thing? Do you think that culturally, it is possible to increase awareness even more?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8219.0,"score_ratio":2.5333333333}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw3knr","c_root_id_B":"hiw6ark","created_at_utc_A":1635779336,"created_at_utc_B":1635780556,"score_A":15,"score_B":38,"human_ref_A":"An HIV+ friend was telling me that even having unprotected sex with someone carries about only a 10% chance of actual transfer and infection into the partner.  Wondering how true that is giving it's prevalence and world wide epidemic status..","human_ref_B":"Perhaps trivial, but serious question: when I was growing up, they were called STDs. Now they're called STIs. Why the name change?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1220.0,"score_ratio":2.5333333333}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivyqrz","c_root_id_B":"hivxj0t","created_at_utc_A":1635777143,"created_at_utc_B":1635776591,"score_A":29,"score_B":20,"human_ref_A":"What are the worst and more common STIs transmitted through oral sex?   Is it more risky for the \"performers\" or for the ones \"performed on\"?  What has more chance to carry the worst diseases and risks: penis or vagina?","human_ref_B":"What are the most common STIs in the (southern) US to get tested for, in order to confidently tell sexual partners that I'm safe?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":552.0,"score_ratio":1.45}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivyqrz","c_root_id_B":"hivp06t","created_at_utc_A":1635777143,"created_at_utc_B":1635772337,"score_A":29,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"What are the worst and more common STIs transmitted through oral sex?   Is it more risky for the \"performers\" or for the ones \"performed on\"?  What has more chance to carry the worst diseases and risks: penis or vagina?","human_ref_B":"How come these are still a thing? Do you think that culturally, it is possible to increase awareness even more?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4806.0,"score_ratio":1.9333333333}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiwbqfv","c_root_id_B":"hiw1bs3","created_at_utc_A":1635782934,"created_at_utc_B":1635778309,"score_A":29,"score_B":27,"human_ref_A":"Hello - how common is it for HPV that affects the hands and feet (Verrucae\/Warts) to be transmitted to partners sexual organs?","human_ref_B":"I have the question on whether we should be testing for urogenital Mycoplasma hominis, Ureaplasma parvum and Ureaplasma urealyticum and why exactly? as is done it seems quite frequently with routine PGR, and then treating these asymptomatic patients? I have read the European Academy does not recommend this but it seems the norm in private clinics?  Thanks","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4625.0,"score_ratio":1.0740740741}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw1bs3","c_root_id_B":"hivxj0t","created_at_utc_A":1635778309,"created_at_utc_B":1635776591,"score_A":27,"score_B":20,"human_ref_A":"I have the question on whether we should be testing for urogenital Mycoplasma hominis, Ureaplasma parvum and Ureaplasma urealyticum and why exactly? as is done it seems quite frequently with routine PGR, and then treating these asymptomatic patients? I have read the European Academy does not recommend this but it seems the norm in private clinics?  Thanks","human_ref_B":"What are the most common STIs in the (southern) US to get tested for, in order to confidently tell sexual partners that I'm safe?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1718.0,"score_ratio":1.35}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivp06t","c_root_id_B":"hiw1bs3","created_at_utc_A":1635772337,"created_at_utc_B":1635778309,"score_A":15,"score_B":27,"human_ref_A":"How come these are still a thing? Do you think that culturally, it is possible to increase awareness even more?","human_ref_B":"I have the question on whether we should be testing for urogenital Mycoplasma hominis, Ureaplasma parvum and Ureaplasma urealyticum and why exactly? as is done it seems quite frequently with routine PGR, and then treating these asymptomatic patients? I have read the European Academy does not recommend this but it seems the norm in private clinics?  Thanks","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5972.0,"score_ratio":1.8}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivxj0t","c_root_id_B":"hiwbqfv","created_at_utc_A":1635776591,"created_at_utc_B":1635782934,"score_A":20,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"What are the most common STIs in the (southern) US to get tested for, in order to confidently tell sexual partners that I'm safe?","human_ref_B":"Hello - how common is it for HPV that affects the hands and feet (Verrucae\/Warts) to be transmitted to partners sexual organs?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6343.0,"score_ratio":1.45}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiwbqfv","c_root_id_B":"hivp06t","created_at_utc_A":1635782934,"created_at_utc_B":1635772337,"score_A":29,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Hello - how common is it for HPV that affects the hands and feet (Verrucae\/Warts) to be transmitted to partners sexual organs?","human_ref_B":"How come these are still a thing? Do you think that culturally, it is possible to increase awareness even more?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":10597.0,"score_ratio":1.9333333333}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiwbqfv","c_root_id_B":"hiw3knr","created_at_utc_A":1635782934,"created_at_utc_B":1635779336,"score_A":29,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Hello - how common is it for HPV that affects the hands and feet (Verrucae\/Warts) to be transmitted to partners sexual organs?","human_ref_B":"An HIV+ friend was telling me that even having unprotected sex with someone carries about only a 10% chance of actual transfer and infection into the partner.  Wondering how true that is giving it's prevalence and world wide epidemic status..","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3598.0,"score_ratio":1.9333333333}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivxj0t","c_root_id_B":"hiwqjec","created_at_utc_A":1635776591,"created_at_utc_B":1635789133,"score_A":20,"score_B":22,"human_ref_A":"What are the most common STIs in the (southern) US to get tested for, in order to confidently tell sexual partners that I'm safe?","human_ref_B":"Is there a health safety issue with receiving the HPV vaccine too late in life or are doctors just assuming I have all HPV's at this point and it's pointless to give it to me?  I've been told after 30 it's not safe. But that's all they say.   Thanks","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12542.0,"score_ratio":1.1}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiwesec","c_root_id_B":"hiwqjec","created_at_utc_A":1635784257,"created_at_utc_B":1635789133,"score_A":17,"score_B":22,"human_ref_A":"Are they ever going to make testing or at least vaccinating men for hpv common? Men are almost never tested for it (I think because a tissue sample is currently required which is much more difficult than drawing blood?) and then they give it to women thinking they don\u2019t have it or any other sti because they got \u201cfully\u201d tested for all the ones they can. And if the problem really is the more difficult testing, is simpler testing being devised or attempted? Or is there something else we can do like vaccinate everyone?","human_ref_B":"Is there a health safety issue with receiving the HPV vaccine too late in life or are doctors just assuming I have all HPV's at this point and it's pointless to give it to me?  I've been told after 30 it's not safe. But that's all they say.   Thanks","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4876.0,"score_ratio":1.2941176471}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivp06t","c_root_id_B":"hiwqjec","created_at_utc_A":1635772337,"created_at_utc_B":1635789133,"score_A":15,"score_B":22,"human_ref_A":"How come these are still a thing? Do you think that culturally, it is possible to increase awareness even more?","human_ref_B":"Is there a health safety issue with receiving the HPV vaccine too late in life or are doctors just assuming I have all HPV's at this point and it's pointless to give it to me?  I've been told after 30 it's not safe. But that's all they say.   Thanks","labels":0,"seconds_difference":16796.0,"score_ratio":1.4666666667}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiwqjec","c_root_id_B":"hiwoqoo","created_at_utc_A":1635789133,"created_at_utc_B":1635788396,"score_A":22,"score_B":17,"human_ref_A":"Is there a health safety issue with receiving the HPV vaccine too late in life or are doctors just assuming I have all HPV's at this point and it's pointless to give it to me?  I've been told after 30 it's not safe. But that's all they say.   Thanks","human_ref_B":"Has the pandemic response affected STI rates in any way?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":737.0,"score_ratio":1.2941176471}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw3knr","c_root_id_B":"hiwqjec","created_at_utc_A":1635779336,"created_at_utc_B":1635789133,"score_A":15,"score_B":22,"human_ref_A":"An HIV+ friend was telling me that even having unprotected sex with someone carries about only a 10% chance of actual transfer and infection into the partner.  Wondering how true that is giving it's prevalence and world wide epidemic status..","human_ref_B":"Is there a health safety issue with receiving the HPV vaccine too late in life or are doctors just assuming I have all HPV's at this point and it's pointless to give it to me?  I've been told after 30 it's not safe. But that's all they say.   Thanks","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9797.0,"score_ratio":1.4666666667}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivxj0t","c_root_id_B":"hivp06t","created_at_utc_A":1635776591,"created_at_utc_B":1635772337,"score_A":20,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"What are the most common STIs in the (southern) US to get tested for, in order to confidently tell sexual partners that I'm safe?","human_ref_B":"How come these are still a thing? Do you think that culturally, it is possible to increase awareness even more?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4254.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiwesec","c_root_id_B":"hivp06t","created_at_utc_A":1635784257,"created_at_utc_B":1635772337,"score_A":17,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Are they ever going to make testing or at least vaccinating men for hpv common? Men are almost never tested for it (I think because a tissue sample is currently required which is much more difficult than drawing blood?) and then they give it to women thinking they don\u2019t have it or any other sti because they got \u201cfully\u201d tested for all the ones they can. And if the problem really is the more difficult testing, is simpler testing being devised or attempted? Or is there something else we can do like vaccinate everyone?","human_ref_B":"How come these are still a thing? Do you think that culturally, it is possible to increase awareness even more?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11920.0,"score_ratio":1.1333333333}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw3knr","c_root_id_B":"hiwesec","created_at_utc_A":1635779336,"created_at_utc_B":1635784257,"score_A":15,"score_B":17,"human_ref_A":"An HIV+ friend was telling me that even having unprotected sex with someone carries about only a 10% chance of actual transfer and infection into the partner.  Wondering how true that is giving it's prevalence and world wide epidemic status..","human_ref_B":"Are they ever going to make testing or at least vaccinating men for hpv common? Men are almost never tested for it (I think because a tissue sample is currently required which is much more difficult than drawing blood?) and then they give it to women thinking they don\u2019t have it or any other sti because they got \u201cfully\u201d tested for all the ones they can. And if the problem really is the more difficult testing, is simpler testing being devised or attempted? Or is there something else we can do like vaccinate everyone?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4921.0,"score_ratio":1.1333333333}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hivp06t","c_root_id_B":"hiwoqoo","created_at_utc_A":1635772337,"created_at_utc_B":1635788396,"score_A":15,"score_B":17,"human_ref_A":"How come these are still a thing? Do you think that culturally, it is possible to increase awareness even more?","human_ref_B":"Has the pandemic response affected STI rates in any way?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":16059.0,"score_ratio":1.1333333333}
{"post_id":"qkdhcy","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're Experts Here to Discuss Sexually Transmitted Infections. AUA! Let's talk about sex(ually transmitted infections STIs])! We'll be here today at 2 PM ET for a discussion, organized by the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), about the present and future of STIs.  STIs are an enormous health issue. According to the [World Health Organization, there are approximately 1 million new infections daily worldwide, resulting in 2.3 million deaths every year. In the United States, half of new STIs occur among those ages 15-24. Meanwhile, increases in antimicrobial resistance are making it harder to treat and cure infections. STIs also represent a massive burden to the economy- in the United States alone, $16 billion is spent annually on STI-related health care costs.  But it's not all bad news! Screening programs are increasing around the world, mother to child transmission rates of diseases such as chlamydia, syphilis and HIV are decreasing, and effective treatments are continuing to be developed and delivered to patients in need. Even better, new technologies, some of which were created rapidly as part of the national COVID-19 response effort, are making it easier for people to access routine sexual health maintenance services.  We're here to answer your questions and discuss causes and cures, as well as opportunities for improvements in diagnoses and prevention strategies. We'll also discuss the emergence of new diseases and how they can be contained.  PLEASE NOTE- WE WILL NOT BE MAKING PERSONAL DIAGNOSES OR RECOMMENDING TREATMENTS.  With us today are:  + Srishti Baid (u\/SB313_ScienceNerd)- Doctoral Student, University of Kansas + Dr. Jose Bazan, D.O. (u\/US-Nm-UClade_2015)- Infectious Diseases Physician, Associate Professor of Clinical Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine + Dr. Megan Crumpler, Ph.D., HCLD (u\/Meganthemicro)- Laboratory Director, Orange County Public Health Laboratory + Dr. Miguel E. Qui\u00f1ones-Mateu, Ph.D. (u\/MQM-Reddit)- Professor, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, University of Otago + Dr. Barbara Van Der Pol, Ph.D., M.P.H. (u\/BVDP59)- Professor of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham  Links:  + https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-05-2021-new-report-highlights-global-progress-on-reducing-hiv-viral-hepatitis-and-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-signals-need-for-renewed-efforts-to-reach-2030-targets + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchhstp\/newsroom\/docs\/factsheets\/2018-STI-incidence-prevalence-factsheet.pdf + https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2021\/July\/Pandemic-Lab-Woes-and-Patient-Fears-Affect-Other-I + https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/default.htm","c_root_id_A":"hiw3knr","c_root_id_B":"hiwoqoo","created_at_utc_A":1635779336,"created_at_utc_B":1635788396,"score_A":15,"score_B":17,"human_ref_A":"An HIV+ friend was telling me that even having unprotected sex with someone carries about only a 10% chance of actual transfer and infection into the partner.  Wondering how true that is giving it's prevalence and world wide epidemic status..","human_ref_B":"Has the pandemic response affected STI rates in any way?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9060.0,"score_ratio":1.1333333333}
{"post_id":"jooto","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"If helium raises the pitch of our voice because it is less dense, they why don't our voices get higher as we ascend tall mountains (or anything else at altitude).","c_root_id_A":"c2dur1r","c_root_id_B":"c2duu3q","created_at_utc_A":1313826767,"created_at_utc_B":1313828301,"score_A":10,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"The density of helium gas is 0.1635 kg\/m^3. The density of air at sea level is 1.225 kg\/m^3. Huge difference, right? Well, the density of air at 15,000 ft (4572m) is 0.7712 kg\/m^3, still not nearly as less dense as helium, especially considering most people don't live that high. Even 8,000 ft (2438m), the density of air is still 0.9631 kg\/m^3.  Source: WolframAlpha (for numbers)  EDIT: johnmedgla's explanation is\/might be more correct if it's the molecular weight of the gas that's important.","human_ref_B":"that is very interesting point that you just made.  yes, the density is important. but the speed of sound also depends on pressure and adiabatic index. on wikipedia you can find this formula for speed of sound in ideal gas: [c=\\sqrt{ \\gamma * p \/ \\rho}] in high altitude, the density decreases, but only because the pressure decreases too. that means no change to the speed of sound.  the helium can have smaller density at the same pressure (because it has smaller atomic mass and there is the ideal gas equation: PV=NkT). also, it has adiabatic index [\\gamma] 5\/3 (monoatomic gas) as opposed to 7\/3 for air (diatomic nitrogen and oxygen).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1534.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"m5pjtf","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"In the way that gravity is based on mass, and electromagnetism is based on charge, are there analogous properties for the weak\/strong nuclear forces? Gravity and electromagnetism seem quite similar in that they are forces based on the mass and charge, respectively, of the objects involved. Do the strong and weak nuclear forces have similar properties that the interactions are based around?","c_root_id_A":"gr3mjtw","c_root_id_B":"gr3a42e","created_at_utc_A":1615879984,"created_at_utc_B":1615869131,"score_A":11,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"The strong force is based on \"colour\". Google \"Quantum Chromodynamics\" if you wanna learn more about it.  The weak force is based on \"flavour\". Google \"Quantum Flavourdynamics\" or \"Electroweak theory\" if you wanna learn more about it.","human_ref_B":"Is gravity actually a pulling force or result of acceleration of a mass?  There is a PBS video about Einstein did not believe gravity was actually force pushing down, but the result of acceleration like the earth is pushing up on everything. Could a larger mass, which creates more gravity, actually be result of higher acceleration? All the way to a black hole being mass accelerating to the speed of light?  Sorry, just following a thread of thoughts.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":10853.0,"score_ratio":2.2}
{"post_id":"5vhrb5","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Are human the only animals that can use ketone bodies to fuel the brain? I recently heard that humans are the only animals that can use ketone bodies (B-hydroxybutyrate) to fuel their brains and I was wondering if this was true. Are other primates capable of doing this? If yes, which ones? In either case, is there any understanding of when this mutation appeared in humans\/primates? It seems like the ability to maintain mental acuity in a fasted\/starved state would certainly be a useful at whatever point in our history we became meat eating hunters.","c_root_id_A":"de2pwmt","c_root_id_B":"de302aa","created_at_utc_A":1487787658,"created_at_utc_B":1487798617,"score_A":5,"score_B":20,"human_ref_A":"I have my bachelors degree in neuroscience and I'm working on my PhD studying medical potential of snake venom proteins (I enjoy working with the animals so I've shied away from a neuro only degree).  I have always been taught that the human brain can only use glucose as an energy source, hence the rapid brain death when deprived of oxygen.  I thought this also meant gluconeogenesis did not occur in neurons.  Also that ketones could not be used as an energy source in the brain as in other tissues.  Do you happen to have the source for the research showing neural tissue using ketones as an energy source?  I'm very curious as I've been taught otherwise for years.  Thanks!","human_ref_B":"My thirteen year old daughter has been running on ketones all her life. She has a rare neurological condition called Glucose Transporter Deficiency Syndrome - which means Glucose cannot pass through her brain barrier. She's been in ketosis for 12 years now. Ketones are the business for some - a far better option then a multitude of epilepsy drugs.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":10959.0,"score_ratio":4.0}
{"post_id":"5vhrb5","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Are human the only animals that can use ketone bodies to fuel the brain? I recently heard that humans are the only animals that can use ketone bodies (B-hydroxybutyrate) to fuel their brains and I was wondering if this was true. Are other primates capable of doing this? If yes, which ones? In either case, is there any understanding of when this mutation appeared in humans\/primates? It seems like the ability to maintain mental acuity in a fasted\/starved state would certainly be a useful at whatever point in our history we became meat eating hunters.","c_root_id_A":"de32vr6","c_root_id_B":"de2pwmt","created_at_utc_A":1487801787,"created_at_utc_B":1487787658,"score_A":7,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"FYI, under normal conditions the brain almost exclusively uses glucose for energy  >Glucose is the only fuel normally used by brain cells. Because neurons cannot store glucose, they depend on the bloodstream to deliver a constant supply of this fuel. Fatty acids do not serve as fuel for the brain, because they are bound to albumin in plasma and so do not traverse the blood-brain barrier. In starvation, ketone bodies generated by the liver partly replace glucose as fuel for the brain.   All cells in the human body can use glucose, FFA and ketones for energy, the brain however almost exclusively uses glucose.  During a fed state the brain will use 20-25% of total body glucose   During starvation and ketosis that number will jump up to 70% of total body glucose is used by the brain.","human_ref_B":"I have my bachelors degree in neuroscience and I'm working on my PhD studying medical potential of snake venom proteins (I enjoy working with the animals so I've shied away from a neuro only degree).  I have always been taught that the human brain can only use glucose as an energy source, hence the rapid brain death when deprived of oxygen.  I thought this also meant gluconeogenesis did not occur in neurons.  Also that ketones could not be used as an energy source in the brain as in other tissues.  Do you happen to have the source for the research showing neural tissue using ketones as an energy source?  I'm very curious as I've been taught otherwise for years.  Thanks!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":14129.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"tpikl5","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"When an electron and positron annihilate, they give off two gamma rays - is it always exactly two? Might it be more? And what if a proton and an antiproton annihilate? Will that also usually be two gamma rays?","c_root_id_A":"i2ceba1","c_root_id_B":"i2cqkq2","created_at_utc_A":1648406402,"created_at_utc_B":1648411686,"score_A":21,"score_B":31,"human_ref_A":"If the kinetic energy of the electron-positron pair, as seen in their mutual center of mass  frame, is big enough (bigger than the rest energy of other particles) then all sorts of fireworks can happen in the annihilation-many particles can be emitted, not just gamma rays.  This sort of thing is studied in accelerators-- eg. LEP at Cern.","human_ref_B":"Not only energy and momentum have to be conserved, spin also has to be. Electron and positron have both spin 1\/2 and in usual, lower energy case, when their spins are antiparallel, these cancel out and you get 2 photons (spin = 1) with spins in opposite directions. But when spins of electron and positron are parallel, this adds up to 1 and in this case you get 3 photons (as you can't get single photon, minimum is 3) (I'm talking about rather low energies). Decay with two additional photons in either case is about million times less likely.  https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Positronium","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5284.0,"score_ratio":1.4761904762}
{"post_id":"45oq26","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Why does dopamine and other \"feel good\" chemicals actually feel good? Why is our brain happy when it experiences these chemicals?","c_root_id_A":"czzenf3","c_root_id_B":"czzda4z","created_at_utc_A":1455440521,"created_at_utc_B":1455435642,"score_A":97,"score_B":17,"human_ref_A":"Dopamine is not really a \"feel-good chemical\". Opioids, endocannbinoids, and GABA fit that description better. Dopamine is used in the brain to help you exploit the resources in your environment. It does this by coding for reward expectations (\"I expect a small reward for opening the fridge\"). When an event deviates from baseline expectations (for better or for worse) dopamine responds strongly, in order to update your expectations. It thus acts as an indicator of progress. If you prevented dopamine signals from occurring in a rat, it wouldn't be motivated to seek out an available source of food. But if you put the food in its mouth, it would happily eat it.  If you want to get all technical, then we could say that our brains are (probably) Bayesian and that they are trying to avoid unexpected states by building mental models and making predictions about the future so they won't be surprised. Surprise, in this case, is bad. It means something is beyond your control. Things being beyond your control is dangerous. Dopamine is used to predict outcomes so that you will have an edge.  So the reason why some things \"feel good\" is that you are evolutionarily incentivized to exploit the resources of your environment. When something registers as such, it's going to feel good.  You are roaming around the world improving your mental model of your surroundings with the biologically prepared goal of extracting rewards and avoiding terrors and to hopefully create a copy of yourself who can do the same.  \"Feel-good chemicals\" are steering you toward desirable states.","human_ref_B":"Dopamine in particular is a neurotransmitter - it's a chemical message that neurons send to each other when they make computations. Happiness, as with all of your experiences, is a computation in your brain; your brain is integrating a bunch of inputs and saying that those inputs are good, and you experience this as happiness. Since happiness is just computation, and computation requires neurotransmission, happiness also requires neurotransmission.  Not all neurotransmitters are interchangeable. Some neurotransmitters send one message, some send another, and some send different messages based on the context of their transmission. In addition, different neurons have different preferences for different neurotransmitters. Put all this together and you end up finding that some neurotransmitters are associated with particular kinds of computation, and in this way dopamine is associated with happiness.  So it's not that dopamine makes you happy, it's that dopamine is an essential part of what happiness actually is, as a physical process in the brain.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4879.0,"score_ratio":5.7058823529}
{"post_id":"39g2op","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Is there a nuclear decay process that yields an isotope of Au? If so, could we say we've solved the old alchemical quest of deriving precious from nonprecious metals?","c_root_id_A":"cs3rbbz","c_root_id_B":"cs3xukp","created_at_utc_A":1434072696,"created_at_utc_B":1434085672,"score_A":2,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"Also, I always found it interesting how with nuclear fusion we can create any elements we want, but I learned that any elements heavier than the Fe-55 isotope (I think?) actually takes more energy to create than it releases. So creating gold from fusion will never be feasible because it's just a huge waste of energy. (Assuming we master nuclear fusion)","human_ref_B":"I had a professor in university, Dr. Norm Halden - specialized in crystallography. He used synchrotron radiation to bombard crystals in order to reveal details about their structure. He was also easy to get into story telling mode during lectures.   One day, while off on a story telling tangent, he tells us he can make gold. We all sit up a little in our chairs and someone asks how. He goes: 'Well, first you start with platinum, and add some high energy x-rays...'","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12976.0,"score_ratio":4.5}
{"post_id":"ejr7v9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"If skin from one area of the body is used to repair a wound elsewhere, what happens to the area where the skin was taken from? Sorry for the confusing wording, but I was just reading about a man who had skin cancer removed from his back, and skin from his thigh was used to repair the area on his back. Which made me wonder, then what happens to his thigh? Doesn\u2019t that just leave a similar wound in a different place?","c_root_id_A":"fd0hawi","c_root_id_B":"fd0hudd","created_at_utc_A":1578118783,"created_at_utc_B":1578119019,"score_A":120,"score_B":2982,"human_ref_A":"This is a very common procedure in plastic surgery to cover clean, non-infected wounds that are too large to heal quickly on their own. Generally, we now only take split thickness skin grafts. This means that not all layers of the skin are taken. It essentially is like a large scrape, and skin from underneath and around can generate new skin cells to grow in. The area that the skin is taken from heals like a scraped knee. Looks bad at first, but it looks a lot better a couple of months to year later. Some people heal so well that you can\u2019t even tell where the skin graft came from!","human_ref_B":"Surgeon here. \u201cSplit thickness skin grafts\u201d are partial thickness slices of your skin. The donor site will heal the skin because there is still a partial layer of skin left behind that includes hair follicles and sweat glands, which is where new skin cells come from.  \u201cFull thickness skin grafts\u201d are what they sound like: full thickness. The skin cannot heal upwards from the bottom and would need to heal inwards from the sides. So when surgeons take full thickness skin, they suture the wound edges together. Then it heals like any surgical incision or cut you get.  Split thickness is more common because you can take very large grafts and the skin will heal. You can\u2019t take large full thickness grafts because you wouldn\u2019t be able to sew the edges together with a wound so large. Also full thickness skin grafts have a more difficult time \u201ctaking.\u201d  You may be asking regarding split thickness skin grafts: why make a new wound just to cover an existing wound? Because the kinds of existing wound we do this for won\u2019t heal well by itself. If you put a skin graft on it, the existing wound will heal well, and the new wound will heal well.  Edit: since a lot of people are mentioning meshing I thought I\u2019d add a blurb about it too. We often mesh split thickness skin grafts. This serves two purposes: 1) the graft can cover a larger surface area, and 2) fluid that would otherwise build up under the skin graft has a place to escape. If that fluid stayed there the graft would not stick and it would die. Meshing the graft does cause more scarring and contracture when it heals, and so it\u2019s not well suited for cosmetic areas like the face or mobile joints like the hand. If we don\u2019t mesh the graft I have to stick a syringe in it every so often to suck out the fluid that builds up underneath.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":236.0,"score_ratio":24.85}
{"post_id":"ejr7v9","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"If skin from one area of the body is used to repair a wound elsewhere, what happens to the area where the skin was taken from? Sorry for the confusing wording, but I was just reading about a man who had skin cancer removed from his back, and skin from his thigh was used to repair the area on his back. Which made me wonder, then what happens to his thigh? Doesn\u2019t that just leave a similar wound in a different place?","c_root_id_A":"fd4tmv7","c_root_id_B":"fd0icbu","created_at_utc_A":1578170979,"created_at_utc_B":1578119221,"score_A":34,"score_B":20,"human_ref_A":"Burn ICU nurse here. Not really related to OP\u2019s original question but we recently had a case where the surgeons harvested two small skin samples (each about the size of a postage stamp) and sent them off to a lab to have sheets of skin grown. It took about 2-3 weeks for the sheets to grow and then they were packaged and shipped back to our facility. They were able to grow enough skin to cover an entire adult\u2019s leg and half of his abdomen. Many patients with large burns end up dying from infection because there is only a small area of skin left to harvest donor sites from and it can take months of surgeries to fully close the skin. This new lab technology (the brand was called Epicell) allowed us to close about 20% of a 70% burn with just one surgery. Pretty amazing to be a part of.","human_ref_B":"Broadly there\u2019s two types of skin grafts - full thickness and split thickness. Full thickness means you\u2019ve harvested the entire dermis and skin can only grow back from the edges of the wound and so these are almost always closed primarily (the edges sutured together to close the wound which is only possible when you have sufficient laxity).  What you\u2019re alluding to is a split thickness graft which takes the entire epidermis and a variable amount of dermis. Because some dermis is left behind the skin can regenerate across the area from where you\u2019ve harvested the graft. The thickness is generally between 10-18\/1000ths of an inch - back skin is thicker than the skin on the back of your hand for instance.   Split thickness donor sites still do leave scarring - looks like road rash because really that\u2019s in essence what it is. As mentioned in other comments, grafts are often fenestrated or meshed to allow for greater coverage with a smaller graft and to reduced hematoma\/seroma formation which can cause graft failure.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":51758.0,"score_ratio":1.7}
{"post_id":"qkqppj","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Are people who have already had covid or been vaccinated, more likely to be asymptomatic?","c_root_id_A":"hiyn1sw","c_root_id_B":"hj03kx4","created_at_utc_A":1635818296,"created_at_utc_B":1635855411,"score_A":34,"score_B":83,"human_ref_A":"The short answer is yes, any source of (partial) immunity decreases severity, including as low as asymptomatic.  It's hard to find good research comparing immunity from vaccination vs prior infection, but I was able to find a recent-ish (2012-08-24) preprint (i.e., a study which hasn't passed peer review and may be subject to significant revision when and if it's published) which claims that immunity after catching covid is somewhat better than immunity from vaccination (with the Pfizer mRNA vaccine), but getting the vaccine after infection provides even better immunity. https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2021.08.24.21262415v1.full  Hopefully someone more knowledgeable in statistics and immunology can comment on the study's quality.","human_ref_B":"Absolutely. But more importantly, we are engaging in a bit of bias with our testing samples across the US. Unvaccinated people are going to be tested far more frequently than the vaccinated. In fact, at the beginning of 2021, people were so set on the vaccine being a silver bullet (we said it reduces your chance of INFECTION by 90%) that the vaccinated wouldn't even have to get tests to enter hospitals (as opposed to all the unvaccinated). One could argue that a if a population is tested more often (we can say 3x, 5x, 10x, whatever you feel is correct) they will be more likely to find a positive result (even if the person is asymptomatic).  Now, to be fair, natural immunity does wane over time. They say that your natural immunity will likely wane within 16 months. However, you'll also note that the pandemic has been around for a similar amount of time. And natural immunity seems to give you a broader base immunity against COVID, variants, and even SARS toward the Delta variant than the vaccine. And of course, to keep up your immunity with the vaccine, you'll need that booster every 6-8 months.      Side Note: Does anyone else find it weird that the boosters were given resistance at first when Pfizer and Moderna were pretty clear at the outset that boosters would absolutely be needed at the 6 month mark? Like, we all knew that several months before the vaccine was even out, and then we all pretended to be shocked.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":37115.0,"score_ratio":2.4411764706}
{"post_id":"qkqppj","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Are people who have already had covid or been vaccinated, more likely to be asymptomatic?","c_root_id_A":"hj13szw","c_root_id_B":"hj1kxp3","created_at_utc_A":1635871548,"created_at_utc_B":1635878303,"score_A":4,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"That certainly seems to be the case.  From an inpatient services provider, I can say that the VAST majority of patients that present even symptomatic from subsequent infection even after vaccination do very well. I've seen quite a few stay 1-2 days and we send them home without oxygen (there are some that need to go home with a touch, usually my older pts with COPD, OSA [obstructive sleep apnea], etc.).  Subsequent infection after natural recovery (without vaccination) also tend to do well within a set time period, however duration since illness and variant that you are infected with both plays a large role.","human_ref_B":"The short answer to your question is yes.  There is a lot of misinformation going on in these top comments.  The CDC is recommending vaccination over natural immunity (edit: mainly because they don't know how natural immunity might fare out--whereas vaccines seem pretty good, and some indication in controlled settings gives vaccines the edge, but observations show the opposite trends).  Here is the science report from last week. There they also cite all the relevant studies.   Please anyone saying natural immunity might be wholly better, read this report. You are spreading misinformation and also amplifying what antivaxxers are trying to say.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6755.0,"score_ratio":2.25}
{"post_id":"xz2esu","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.83,"history":"What is the limiting factor on hydraulic cylinder size? Could you lift a house with a sufficiently large hydraulic cylinder and a small hydraulic pump? If hydraulic force is just pressure times surface area of the cylinder, what happens as you increase the size of the cylinder? Does that put more force back on the pump until it breaks?","c_root_id_A":"irk9l1n","c_root_id_B":"irkbrj8","created_at_utc_A":1665266908,"created_at_utc_B":1665267950,"score_A":8,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"In principle, you could.  The force on the pump only depends on the pressure (for the pump of a given size), so that is fine.  Larger piston just means you have to pump large volume of fluid, so you have to be patient.  Of course making a sufficiently large hydraulic cylinder and putting it under your house might turn out to be impractical.","human_ref_B":"Note that for a piston to sit securely in a cylinder without tipping, it has to be sufficiently long compared to the diameter of the cylinder.  If you start making huge diameter pistons, you'll need them to be long, too.  The volume of the piston would become huge, and it would be heavy and expensive.  And hard to fit where you need it.    That might mean that you'd want many moderate size pistons instead of one giant one to lift a house.  You could pipe them all the the same pump, and you wouldn't need any extra pressure because of the many pistons connected, assuming they are plumbed in parallel. You'd just need many pump strokes to move them a significant distance.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1042.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"xz2esu","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.83,"history":"What is the limiting factor on hydraulic cylinder size? Could you lift a house with a sufficiently large hydraulic cylinder and a small hydraulic pump? If hydraulic force is just pressure times surface area of the cylinder, what happens as you increase the size of the cylinder? Does that put more force back on the pump until it breaks?","c_root_id_A":"irk9l1n","c_root_id_B":"irkrosk","created_at_utc_A":1665266908,"created_at_utc_B":1665275670,"score_A":8,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"In principle, you could.  The force on the pump only depends on the pressure (for the pump of a given size), so that is fine.  Larger piston just means you have to pump large volume of fluid, so you have to be patient.  Of course making a sufficiently large hydraulic cylinder and putting it under your house might turn out to be impractical.","human_ref_B":"Laplace's Law - the greater the radius of a cylinder, the greater the wall stress.  More formally, stress = Pressure \u00d7 radius \/ thickness as long as thickness is less than 10% of radius.  To generate a very high force, you would need very high pressure and radius, which in turn means you either need very thick walls or very strong material to prevent failure.  Neither is impossible but both are expensive.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8762.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"14ypgx","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Is molten iron still attracted to a magnet? I was wondering if appropriately calibrated electromagnets could suspend a ball of molten iron.","c_root_id_A":"c7hnj9x","c_root_id_B":"c7hniuh","created_at_utc_A":1355701780,"created_at_utc_B":1355701738,"score_A":107,"score_B":50,"human_ref_A":"Iron's Curie temperature is 768 \u00b0C and its melting point is 1538 \u00b0C. Molten iron is not magnetic.","human_ref_B":"You'll probably find this enlightening.  http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Curie_temperature","labels":1,"seconds_difference":42.0,"score_ratio":2.14}
{"post_id":"14ypgx","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Is molten iron still attracted to a magnet? I was wondering if appropriately calibrated electromagnets could suspend a ball of molten iron.","c_root_id_A":"c7hovfj","c_root_id_B":"c7hrmud","created_at_utc_A":1355706715,"created_at_utc_B":1355715851,"score_A":23,"score_B":28,"human_ref_A":"This has been well answered but i wanted to add that blacksmiths sometimes use a magnet to determine the temperature of steel. It loses magnetic attraction at a useful temperature.","human_ref_B":"Molten iron will be in a paramagnetic state while liquid (or rather while it is above the Curie Temperature.) This means it will experience magnetization proportional to the applied field. However, it will not retain this magnetization if you remove said field. Read this for more info: http:\/\/hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu\/hbase\/hframe.html  Similarly, if you cool the material below its Curie point while under a strong applied field, you will get a a chuck of iron that is more ferromagnetic ordered than what occurs naturally.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9136.0,"score_ratio":1.2173913043}
{"post_id":"14ypgx","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Is molten iron still attracted to a magnet? I was wondering if appropriately calibrated electromagnets could suspend a ball of molten iron.","c_root_id_A":"c7hov43","c_root_id_B":"c7hrmud","created_at_utc_A":1355706684,"created_at_utc_B":1355715851,"score_A":14,"score_B":28,"human_ref_A":">Is molten iron still attracted to a magnet?  Attracted, no (as has already been answered)  >I was wondering if appropriately calibrated electromagnets could suspend a ball of molten iron.  This, OTOH, is a different matter. Molten iron is still conductive, which means that it is repelled by a changing magnetic field. One of the fundamental principles of electromagnetism is that changing electric fields create a magnetic field, and changing magnetic fields produce an electric field. When a conductive material is exposed to a changing magnetic field, a current is induced that produces a magnetic field opposite to the field that created it. This results in a repulsive force between electromagnet and conductor.  So, in this case, while you couldn't suspend the molten iron by pulling it off the ground, you could suspend it by pushing it up into the air.","human_ref_B":"Molten iron will be in a paramagnetic state while liquid (or rather while it is above the Curie Temperature.) This means it will experience magnetization proportional to the applied field. However, it will not retain this magnetization if you remove said field. Read this for more info: http:\/\/hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu\/hbase\/hframe.html  Similarly, if you cool the material below its Curie point while under a strong applied field, you will get a a chuck of iron that is more ferromagnetic ordered than what occurs naturally.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9167.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"14ypgx","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Is molten iron still attracted to a magnet? I was wondering if appropriately calibrated electromagnets could suspend a ball of molten iron.","c_root_id_A":"c7hqknt","c_root_id_B":"c7hrmud","created_at_utc_A":1355712440,"created_at_utc_B":1355715851,"score_A":6,"score_B":28,"human_ref_A":"Like everyone else said, no. However apparently you can suspend molten aluminum.","human_ref_B":"Molten iron will be in a paramagnetic state while liquid (or rather while it is above the Curie Temperature.) This means it will experience magnetization proportional to the applied field. However, it will not retain this magnetization if you remove said field. Read this for more info: http:\/\/hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu\/hbase\/hframe.html  Similarly, if you cool the material below its Curie point while under a strong applied field, you will get a a chuck of iron that is more ferromagnetic ordered than what occurs naturally.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3411.0,"score_ratio":4.6666666667}
{"post_id":"14ypgx","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Is molten iron still attracted to a magnet? I was wondering if appropriately calibrated electromagnets could suspend a ball of molten iron.","c_root_id_A":"c7hov43","c_root_id_B":"c7hovfj","created_at_utc_A":1355706684,"created_at_utc_B":1355706715,"score_A":14,"score_B":23,"human_ref_A":">Is molten iron still attracted to a magnet?  Attracted, no (as has already been answered)  >I was wondering if appropriately calibrated electromagnets could suspend a ball of molten iron.  This, OTOH, is a different matter. Molten iron is still conductive, which means that it is repelled by a changing magnetic field. One of the fundamental principles of electromagnetism is that changing electric fields create a magnetic field, and changing magnetic fields produce an electric field. When a conductive material is exposed to a changing magnetic field, a current is induced that produces a magnetic field opposite to the field that created it. This results in a repulsive force between electromagnet and conductor.  So, in this case, while you couldn't suspend the molten iron by pulling it off the ground, you could suspend it by pushing it up into the air.","human_ref_B":"This has been well answered but i wanted to add that blacksmiths sometimes use a magnet to determine the temperature of steel. It loses magnetic attraction at a useful temperature.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":31.0,"score_ratio":1.6428571429}
{"post_id":"14ypgx","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Is molten iron still attracted to a magnet? I was wondering if appropriately calibrated electromagnets could suspend a ball of molten iron.","c_root_id_A":"c7hqknt","c_root_id_B":"c7hwvo0","created_at_utc_A":1355712440,"created_at_utc_B":1355744674,"score_A":6,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"Like everyone else said, no. However apparently you can suspend molten aluminum.","human_ref_B":"Molten iron is paramagnetic and thus is *weakly* attracted to a magnetic field. It is not ferromagnetic and so isn't what a layperson would call \"magnetic\" itself. However, despite several comments in this thread, the lack of ferromagnetism in molten iron has little to do with the lack of a crystal structure. Amorphous magnets are well known and widely used; they are ferromagnetic despite having no crystal structure. On the other hand, even solid (crystalline) iron is paramagnetic and not ferromagnetic near the melting point because it is above its Curie temperature. So the lack of a crystal structure is really quite irrelevant.  To answer your other question: Electromagnetic levitation is a common technique for levitating conducting materials of all kinds. A material does not have to be ferromagnetic to be levitated in this way.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":32234.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"ztl28g","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"What is a Lobster's Theoretical Maximum Size? Since lobsters don't die of old age but of external factors, what if we put one in a big, controlled and well-maintained aquarium, and feed it well. Can it reach the size of a car, or will physics or any other factor eventually limit its growth?","c_root_id_A":"j1e14x1","c_root_id_B":"j1evp8g","created_at_utc_A":1671814012,"created_at_utc_B":1671826485,"score_A":1309,"score_B":3165,"human_ref_A":"The limitation of it's growth is the energy requirement to moult and regrow it's shell. At a certain point the lobsters body cannot store enough calories and minerals to make it through. And they can't grow larger to hold more because the old shell is constraining them.  So they don't die of old age exactly, but they are limited to a maximum shell size that is survivable.  This size is right about the size of the biggest lobster you have seen. They just don't get freak 6 foot lobsters","human_ref_B":"The largest one on record was 20 kg (44 lbs) and about 1.2 m (4 ft) from claw tip to tail tip (about half that length is claw and arm).  There are reports of larger lobsters from the colonial era, but it's unclear exactly how reliable they were.  Lobsters continue growing for as long as they are healthy, but molting becomes more difficult as they age, and molting lobsters are more vulnerable to predators.  I suspect maximum lobster is a bit bigger than the biggest known...if one was kept in idea environment with no predators, the best in lobster healthcare, and plenty of food, it ought to be able to successfully molt at larger sizes than wild lobsters.  But how much bigger, it's hard to say for sure.  It probably wouldn't be a huge difference, certainly not car sized.  But I wouldn't be shocked if it was possible to get one up past, say, 1.5 m total length.  If you have a hundred years and a really nice marine lab, you should do this research.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12473.0,"score_ratio":2.4178762414}
{"post_id":"ztl28g","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"What is a Lobster's Theoretical Maximum Size? Since lobsters don't die of old age but of external factors, what if we put one in a big, controlled and well-maintained aquarium, and feed it well. Can it reach the size of a car, or will physics or any other factor eventually limit its growth?","c_root_id_A":"j1e1tax","c_root_id_B":"j1evp8g","created_at_utc_A":1671814277,"created_at_utc_B":1671826485,"score_A":97,"score_B":3165,"human_ref_A":"The limitation is its age - most lobster experts age lobsters by its size & vice versa. The general equation is weight multiplied by 4 plus 3 years (for age). A lobster must be at least 7 years old to harvest. It\u2019s estimated that most lobsters live to be max 100 years old (25 lbs).","human_ref_B":"The largest one on record was 20 kg (44 lbs) and about 1.2 m (4 ft) from claw tip to tail tip (about half that length is claw and arm).  There are reports of larger lobsters from the colonial era, but it's unclear exactly how reliable they were.  Lobsters continue growing for as long as they are healthy, but molting becomes more difficult as they age, and molting lobsters are more vulnerable to predators.  I suspect maximum lobster is a bit bigger than the biggest known...if one was kept in idea environment with no predators, the best in lobster healthcare, and plenty of food, it ought to be able to successfully molt at larger sizes than wild lobsters.  But how much bigger, it's hard to say for sure.  It probably wouldn't be a huge difference, certainly not car sized.  But I wouldn't be shocked if it was possible to get one up past, say, 1.5 m total length.  If you have a hundred years and a really nice marine lab, you should do this research.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12208.0,"score_ratio":32.6288659794}
{"post_id":"pglvry","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"How do lungs heal after quitting smoking, especially with regards to timelines and partial-quit? Hi all, just trying to get a sense of something here. If I'm a smoker and I quit, the Internet tells me it takes 1 month for my lungs to start healing if I totally quit. I assume the lungs are healing bit by bit every day after quitting and it takes a month to rebuild lung health enough to categorize the lung as in-recovery. My question is, is my understanding correct?  If that understanding is correct, if I reduce smoking to once a week will the cumulative effects of lung regeneration overcome smoke inhalation? To further explain my thought, let's assume I'm starting with 0% lung health. If I don't smoke, the next day maybe my lung health is at 1%. After a week, I'm at 7%. If I smoke on the last day, let's say I take an impact of 5%. Next day I'm starting at 2%, then by the end of the week I'm at 9%. Of course these numbers are made up nonsense, just trying to get a more concrete understanding (preferably gamified :)) .  I'm actually not a smoker, but I'm just curious to how this whole process works. I assume it's akin to getting a wound, but maybe organ health works differently? I've never been very good at biology or chemistry, so I'm turning to you \/r\/askscience!","c_root_id_A":"hbcrn7f","c_root_id_B":"hbd9vu1","created_at_utc_A":1630610913,"created_at_utc_B":1630618355,"score_A":480,"score_B":2219,"human_ref_A":"To put it briefly, as other posters have mentioned, there is a timeline for recovery. However, its important to know that if a former smoker\u2019s lung function is tracked over time, they will see recovery, but it is impossible for the lungs to recover to the same functional level they were at prior to the onset of smoking.","human_ref_B":"https:\/\/www.bmj.com\/content\/bmj\/336\/7644\/598\/F1.large.jpg  The above graph shows the effect of smoking on lung function over time.   For lung function they use forced expiratory volume in 1 second I.e. the volume of air your lung can breathe out in 1 second when you push out hard.   In the graph it shows 25yrs old as a peak age for FEV1 and as you get older that value gradually decreases. If you smoke the rate of decrease is significantly faster.  If you stop smoking, the functionality doesn't recover, but the rate of function decline decreases to normal levels meaning that it'll be much sooner before you get symptoms such as Chronic Obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).   So to answer the question: your lungs sadly don't recover from smoking but quitting smoking will still stop you from dying sooner.  There are other elements but these arent really \"healing\" it's more mechanical things like clearing all the tar and other things that have built up over time. Removing that will make you feel better (and help you breathe better) but your actual function of your lungs won't improve.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7442.0,"score_ratio":4.6229166667}
{"post_id":"pglvry","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"How do lungs heal after quitting smoking, especially with regards to timelines and partial-quit? Hi all, just trying to get a sense of something here. If I'm a smoker and I quit, the Internet tells me it takes 1 month for my lungs to start healing if I totally quit. I assume the lungs are healing bit by bit every day after quitting and it takes a month to rebuild lung health enough to categorize the lung as in-recovery. My question is, is my understanding correct?  If that understanding is correct, if I reduce smoking to once a week will the cumulative effects of lung regeneration overcome smoke inhalation? To further explain my thought, let's assume I'm starting with 0% lung health. If I don't smoke, the next day maybe my lung health is at 1%. After a week, I'm at 7%. If I smoke on the last day, let's say I take an impact of 5%. Next day I'm starting at 2%, then by the end of the week I'm at 9%. Of course these numbers are made up nonsense, just trying to get a more concrete understanding (preferably gamified :)) .  I'm actually not a smoker, but I'm just curious to how this whole process works. I assume it's akin to getting a wound, but maybe organ health works differently? I've never been very good at biology or chemistry, so I'm turning to you \/r\/askscience!","c_root_id_A":"hbd9vu1","c_root_id_B":"hbd42kd","created_at_utc_A":1630618355,"created_at_utc_B":1630615820,"score_A":2219,"score_B":278,"human_ref_A":"https:\/\/www.bmj.com\/content\/bmj\/336\/7644\/598\/F1.large.jpg  The above graph shows the effect of smoking on lung function over time.   For lung function they use forced expiratory volume in 1 second I.e. the volume of air your lung can breathe out in 1 second when you push out hard.   In the graph it shows 25yrs old as a peak age for FEV1 and as you get older that value gradually decreases. If you smoke the rate of decrease is significantly faster.  If you stop smoking, the functionality doesn't recover, but the rate of function decline decreases to normal levels meaning that it'll be much sooner before you get symptoms such as Chronic Obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).   So to answer the question: your lungs sadly don't recover from smoking but quitting smoking will still stop you from dying sooner.  There are other elements but these arent really \"healing\" it's more mechanical things like clearing all the tar and other things that have built up over time. Removing that will make you feel better (and help you breathe better) but your actual function of your lungs won't improve.","human_ref_B":"It seems that even if you are a light or occasional smoker, there are still significant risks for your health. Sure, it's a bit better than keep on being a heavy smoker, but it's far from being close to quitting in terms of benefits.  I'm having a hard time finding links to scientific papers from my phone right now, but for the time being, this blog entry from Harvard Medical School seems relevant and easy to read: https:\/\/www.health.harvard.edu\/newsletter_article\/light-and-social-smoking-carry-cardiovascular-risks","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2535.0,"score_ratio":7.9820143885}
{"post_id":"pglvry","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"How do lungs heal after quitting smoking, especially with regards to timelines and partial-quit? Hi all, just trying to get a sense of something here. If I'm a smoker and I quit, the Internet tells me it takes 1 month for my lungs to start healing if I totally quit. I assume the lungs are healing bit by bit every day after quitting and it takes a month to rebuild lung health enough to categorize the lung as in-recovery. My question is, is my understanding correct?  If that understanding is correct, if I reduce smoking to once a week will the cumulative effects of lung regeneration overcome smoke inhalation? To further explain my thought, let's assume I'm starting with 0% lung health. If I don't smoke, the next day maybe my lung health is at 1%. After a week, I'm at 7%. If I smoke on the last day, let's say I take an impact of 5%. Next day I'm starting at 2%, then by the end of the week I'm at 9%. Of course these numbers are made up nonsense, just trying to get a more concrete understanding (preferably gamified :)) .  I'm actually not a smoker, but I'm just curious to how this whole process works. I assume it's akin to getting a wound, but maybe organ health works differently? I've never been very good at biology or chemistry, so I'm turning to you \/r\/askscience!","c_root_id_A":"hbcrn7f","c_root_id_B":"hbeyl2e","created_at_utc_A":1630610913,"created_at_utc_B":1630649116,"score_A":480,"score_B":500,"human_ref_A":"To put it briefly, as other posters have mentioned, there is a timeline for recovery. However, its important to know that if a former smoker\u2019s lung function is tracked over time, they will see recovery, but it is impossible for the lungs to recover to the same functional level they were at prior to the onset of smoking.","human_ref_B":"One of the most important changes is the removal of carbon monoxide from your blood. This will occur less than a day after quitting. Carbon monoxide binds to your red blood cells several times better than oxygen thereby decreasing oxygen carrying capacity. Another is the expulsion of tar and ash from your lungs. Depending on how damaged the lungs are, this might take many days as the cilia have to heal first in order for this to happen.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":38203.0,"score_ratio":1.0416666667}
{"post_id":"pglvry","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"How do lungs heal after quitting smoking, especially with regards to timelines and partial-quit? Hi all, just trying to get a sense of something here. If I'm a smoker and I quit, the Internet tells me it takes 1 month for my lungs to start healing if I totally quit. I assume the lungs are healing bit by bit every day after quitting and it takes a month to rebuild lung health enough to categorize the lung as in-recovery. My question is, is my understanding correct?  If that understanding is correct, if I reduce smoking to once a week will the cumulative effects of lung regeneration overcome smoke inhalation? To further explain my thought, let's assume I'm starting with 0% lung health. If I don't smoke, the next day maybe my lung health is at 1%. After a week, I'm at 7%. If I smoke on the last day, let's say I take an impact of 5%. Next day I'm starting at 2%, then by the end of the week I'm at 9%. Of course these numbers are made up nonsense, just trying to get a more concrete understanding (preferably gamified :)) .  I'm actually not a smoker, but I'm just curious to how this whole process works. I assume it's akin to getting a wound, but maybe organ health works differently? I've never been very good at biology or chemistry, so I'm turning to you \/r\/askscience!","c_root_id_A":"hbeyl2e","c_root_id_B":"hbd42kd","created_at_utc_A":1630649116,"created_at_utc_B":1630615820,"score_A":500,"score_B":278,"human_ref_A":"One of the most important changes is the removal of carbon monoxide from your blood. This will occur less than a day after quitting. Carbon monoxide binds to your red blood cells several times better than oxygen thereby decreasing oxygen carrying capacity. Another is the expulsion of tar and ash from your lungs. Depending on how damaged the lungs are, this might take many days as the cilia have to heal first in order for this to happen.","human_ref_B":"It seems that even if you are a light or occasional smoker, there are still significant risks for your health. Sure, it's a bit better than keep on being a heavy smoker, but it's far from being close to quitting in terms of benefits.  I'm having a hard time finding links to scientific papers from my phone right now, but for the time being, this blog entry from Harvard Medical School seems relevant and easy to read: https:\/\/www.health.harvard.edu\/newsletter_article\/light-and-social-smoking-carry-cardiovascular-risks","labels":1,"seconds_difference":33296.0,"score_ratio":1.7985611511}
{"post_id":"pglvry","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"How do lungs heal after quitting smoking, especially with regards to timelines and partial-quit? Hi all, just trying to get a sense of something here. If I'm a smoker and I quit, the Internet tells me it takes 1 month for my lungs to start healing if I totally quit. I assume the lungs are healing bit by bit every day after quitting and it takes a month to rebuild lung health enough to categorize the lung as in-recovery. My question is, is my understanding correct?  If that understanding is correct, if I reduce smoking to once a week will the cumulative effects of lung regeneration overcome smoke inhalation? To further explain my thought, let's assume I'm starting with 0% lung health. If I don't smoke, the next day maybe my lung health is at 1%. After a week, I'm at 7%. If I smoke on the last day, let's say I take an impact of 5%. Next day I'm starting at 2%, then by the end of the week I'm at 9%. Of course these numbers are made up nonsense, just trying to get a more concrete understanding (preferably gamified :)) .  I'm actually not a smoker, but I'm just curious to how this whole process works. I assume it's akin to getting a wound, but maybe organ health works differently? I've never been very good at biology or chemistry, so I'm turning to you \/r\/askscience!","c_root_id_A":"hbeyl2e","c_root_id_B":"hbdmfv2","created_at_utc_A":1630649116,"created_at_utc_B":1630624222,"score_A":500,"score_B":78,"human_ref_A":"One of the most important changes is the removal of carbon monoxide from your blood. This will occur less than a day after quitting. Carbon monoxide binds to your red blood cells several times better than oxygen thereby decreasing oxygen carrying capacity. Another is the expulsion of tar and ash from your lungs. Depending on how damaged the lungs are, this might take many days as the cilia have to heal first in order for this to happen.","human_ref_B":"A 20-year large scale study proved that people who start smoking at 15 will have tracheas starting to solidify, stiffen, and lose elasticity already at 17. After twenty years of smoking they will have stiff windpipes and lungs that look like a boiled rat.  Coincidentally, the same 20-year study also had a control group of people who smoked only cannabis for 20 years. After review, their lungs and tracheas were as healthy as before they started.  The last group, who smoked both cigarettes and weed for 20 years had the same lung damage as the only-tobacco group.  Source: https:\/\/jamanetwork.com\/journals\/jama\/fullarticle\/1104848  Article summarizing: https:\/\/gothamist.com\/news\/duh-20-year-study-shows-marijuana-doesnt-harm-your-lungs  Edit: my reason for posting the above is thst OP asked how lungs heal. The article discusses lung damage. The answer is they don't. They collect damage.  The Polonium-137 and Lead-137 radioactive isotopes that exists in every single pull of tobacco (but not in weed) stays with you long enough to eventually give you lung cancer.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":24894.0,"score_ratio":6.4102564103}
{"post_id":"8nqm8y","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Why is the brain divided? * A search doesn't reveal anything that answers this question specifically.  * Yes, I know that many of the left brain\/right brain claims are false.  * Essentially I'm asking about the cerebrum's longitudinal fissure--why would such a feature be selected for? Doesn't it waste space that could be used for more brain? Is there a benefit from inhibited interhemispheric communication?  * And what about non-human animals--are their brains divided too? How long ago did this feature arise?","c_root_id_A":"dzxoz8h","c_root_id_B":"dzxom0d","created_at_utc_A":1527854944,"created_at_utc_B":1527854421,"score_A":2300,"score_B":389,"human_ref_A":"Trying to explain this from a human-centered perspective won't work, as paired ganglia forming a cord is a common feature of bilateria. And no, it isn't just your brain, your ENTIRE nervous system has a left and right side that are mirror images.   And don't believe the forebrain was a single mass that was selected to split. Remember, the chordate nervous system originates as a hollow tube which closes at the tips (if it doesn't close, you get Spina Bifida or anacephaly), then the walls keep growing in thickness. And this is the embryonic brain  However, remember, the tip of the neural tube is not the frontal lobe of the brain, but the lamina terminalis, which is pretty much in the center of the head, just above the optic chiasm. The hemispheres are LATERAL outgrowths, they are the left and right side of the tube, which grow on their own to the point they cover the remaining parts (in birds and mammals pretty much tho). But lateralization IS the ancestral condition. The longitudinal fissure wasn't selected for, it was a remainder of when worms had left and right ganglia. The thing that was selected for was the Corpum Callossum.","human_ref_B":"A lot of people have answered the bilateral aspect of body development, so I'll answer the last question. Yes, all animals with brains have bilateral structures. Even animals like worms and insects that we don't necessarily refer to as having \"brains\" but rather collections of neurons known as ganglia have bilaterality of their neurons.   Look up images of comparisons of brains across the different animal groups. There are clear differences, but overall a lot of similarities in the overall structures present.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":523.0,"score_ratio":5.912596401}
{"post_id":"8nqm8y","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Why is the brain divided? * A search doesn't reveal anything that answers this question specifically.  * Yes, I know that many of the left brain\/right brain claims are false.  * Essentially I'm asking about the cerebrum's longitudinal fissure--why would such a feature be selected for? Doesn't it waste space that could be used for more brain? Is there a benefit from inhibited interhemispheric communication?  * And what about non-human animals--are their brains divided too? How long ago did this feature arise?","c_root_id_A":"dzxoz8h","c_root_id_B":"dzxogq0","created_at_utc_A":1527854944,"created_at_utc_B":1527854211,"score_A":2300,"score_B":49,"human_ref_A":"Trying to explain this from a human-centered perspective won't work, as paired ganglia forming a cord is a common feature of bilateria. And no, it isn't just your brain, your ENTIRE nervous system has a left and right side that are mirror images.   And don't believe the forebrain was a single mass that was selected to split. Remember, the chordate nervous system originates as a hollow tube which closes at the tips (if it doesn't close, you get Spina Bifida or anacephaly), then the walls keep growing in thickness. And this is the embryonic brain  However, remember, the tip of the neural tube is not the frontal lobe of the brain, but the lamina terminalis, which is pretty much in the center of the head, just above the optic chiasm. The hemispheres are LATERAL outgrowths, they are the left and right side of the tube, which grow on their own to the point they cover the remaining parts (in birds and mammals pretty much tho). But lateralization IS the ancestral condition. The longitudinal fissure wasn't selected for, it was a remainder of when worms had left and right ganglia. The thing that was selected for was the Corpum Callossum.","human_ref_B":"It appears that \"lateralization\" is studied at both the neurological level, and population level, which is rather interesting:  > Theoretical models on the evolution of lateralization suggest that the alignment of lateralization at the population level may have evolved as an evolutionary stable strategy in which individually asymmetrical organisms must coordinate their behavior with that of other asymmetrical organisms.\u00a0  To answer \"why\", we'd have to identify either that it's an inevitable or emergent consequence of fundamental EVODEVO structures, or that it's selected for due to individual or population level advantages.  https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2013.00939\/full","labels":1,"seconds_difference":733.0,"score_ratio":46.9387755102}
{"post_id":"8nqm8y","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Why is the brain divided? * A search doesn't reveal anything that answers this question specifically.  * Yes, I know that many of the left brain\/right brain claims are false.  * Essentially I'm asking about the cerebrum's longitudinal fissure--why would such a feature be selected for? Doesn't it waste space that could be used for more brain? Is there a benefit from inhibited interhemispheric communication?  * And what about non-human animals--are their brains divided too? How long ago did this feature arise?","c_root_id_A":"dzxoz8h","c_root_id_B":"dzxot1h","created_at_utc_A":1527854944,"created_at_utc_B":1527854702,"score_A":2300,"score_B":27,"human_ref_A":"Trying to explain this from a human-centered perspective won't work, as paired ganglia forming a cord is a common feature of bilateria. And no, it isn't just your brain, your ENTIRE nervous system has a left and right side that are mirror images.   And don't believe the forebrain was a single mass that was selected to split. Remember, the chordate nervous system originates as a hollow tube which closes at the tips (if it doesn't close, you get Spina Bifida or anacephaly), then the walls keep growing in thickness. And this is the embryonic brain  However, remember, the tip of the neural tube is not the frontal lobe of the brain, but the lamina terminalis, which is pretty much in the center of the head, just above the optic chiasm. The hemispheres are LATERAL outgrowths, they are the left and right side of the tube, which grow on their own to the point they cover the remaining parts (in birds and mammals pretty much tho). But lateralization IS the ancestral condition. The longitudinal fissure wasn't selected for, it was a remainder of when worms had left and right ganglia. The thing that was selected for was the Corpum Callossum.","human_ref_B":"Well, the brain does have different tasks segregated to different sides of the brain. Broca's and Wernicke's Areas on the left side are between 10-20 times larger than the homologous areas on the right side. That is NOT to say that language is EXCLUSIVELY a left brain phenomena; the processing of speech done on the right side of the brain is still remarkably important but is concerned with things such as timbre and intonation as opposed to vocabulary and word meaning.   The reason for this type of lateralization of function is theorized to actually be quite simple: you can cram more functions into a smaller area if you have the two adjacent hemispheres do related but non-identical types of processing.   Breaking bi-symmetry in this way is a beautiful evolutionary mechanism and is extraordinarily complex in terms of the genetic mechanisms that result in asymmetry. Look up homeobox genes to get an idea of how this all plays out during embryological development. Its simply miraculous that this happens every time a human being is born.  If you look up pictures of a mouse or rat brain you'll see that there is some 'dividedness' but it is not nearly as prevalent as in primates.  Norman Geschwind did some amazing studies on patients with their corpus callosum severed (the bundle of fiber tracts connecting both hemispheres) and it really gives one an idea of how competent both hemispheres are individually. Octopuses actually have a set up similar to this; each of their 8 arms contains a ganglion that is essentially a mini-brain that is part independent and part controlled by the central 'big brain'. Its fascinating that this segregation of neural processing took such an extreme evolutionary route in these creatures but considering the extreme intelligence that they are said to possess it is not surprising that having distinct neural processing nodes is more advantageous that one large amorphous blob of gray matter.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":242.0,"score_ratio":85.1851851852}
{"post_id":"8nqm8y","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Why is the brain divided? * A search doesn't reveal anything that answers this question specifically.  * Yes, I know that many of the left brain\/right brain claims are false.  * Essentially I'm asking about the cerebrum's longitudinal fissure--why would such a feature be selected for? Doesn't it waste space that could be used for more brain? Is there a benefit from inhibited interhemispheric communication?  * And what about non-human animals--are their brains divided too? How long ago did this feature arise?","c_root_id_A":"dzxom0d","c_root_id_B":"dzxogq0","created_at_utc_A":1527854421,"created_at_utc_B":1527854211,"score_A":389,"score_B":49,"human_ref_A":"A lot of people have answered the bilateral aspect of body development, so I'll answer the last question. Yes, all animals with brains have bilateral structures. Even animals like worms and insects that we don't necessarily refer to as having \"brains\" but rather collections of neurons known as ganglia have bilaterality of their neurons.   Look up images of comparisons of brains across the different animal groups. There are clear differences, but overall a lot of similarities in the overall structures present.","human_ref_B":"It appears that \"lateralization\" is studied at both the neurological level, and population level, which is rather interesting:  > Theoretical models on the evolution of lateralization suggest that the alignment of lateralization at the population level may have evolved as an evolutionary stable strategy in which individually asymmetrical organisms must coordinate their behavior with that of other asymmetrical organisms.\u00a0  To answer \"why\", we'd have to identify either that it's an inevitable or emergent consequence of fundamental EVODEVO structures, or that it's selected for due to individual or population level advantages.  https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2013.00939\/full","labels":1,"seconds_difference":210.0,"score_ratio":7.9387755102}
{"post_id":"2bu8po","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"What do physicists mean when they say that gravity is the weakest of the four forces?","c_root_id_A":"cj92521","c_root_id_B":"cj93ty5","created_at_utc_A":1406459104,"created_at_utc_B":1406467541,"score_A":4,"score_B":25,"human_ref_A":"They mean when compairing it to the other three. It appears to be much weaker.   For example. Elecro-magnatism easily over powers gravity all the time. For example. The reason gravity doesn't pull you to the center of the earth is because the elctro-magnatism of your atoms and the earth are strong enough to resist it.","human_ref_B":"Per particle, gravity produces a much lesser force and is overpowered in all local contexts.  The entire gravity of earth isn't enough to overpower a common magnet holding an object up, it's not enough to overpower the strong nuclear forces of the nucleus. However, the strong force is short ranged, the electromagnetic force cancels out on net (every proton tends to have an electron nearby) so over longer distances and with extremely large amounts of mass gravity is dominant.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8437.0,"score_ratio":6.25}
{"post_id":"2bu8po","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"What do physicists mean when they say that gravity is the weakest of the four forces?","c_root_id_A":"cj999zk","c_root_id_B":"cj96l4u","created_at_utc_A":1406482464,"created_at_utc_B":1406476147,"score_A":4,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"The relative strength of different forces can be quantified by comparing their 'coupling constants', which describe how strongly a force couples to matter.  Here are the coupling constants for the four fundamental forces:  * Strong nuclear force, \\alpha-s ~ 1 * Weak nuclear force, \\alpha-w ~ 10^-6 * Electromagnetic force, \\alpha-EM = 1\/137 * Gravitational force, \\alpha-g ~ 10^-39  Obtaining numbers for these constants is a little trickier for the weak and strong nuclear forces than for the electromagnetic and gravitational, so here's a nice intuitive example for EM vs gravity.    Consider two protons (mass, mp = 1.67x10^-27 kg and electric charge, qp = 1.6x10^-19 C), and compare the EM and gravitational forces between the two.  The gravitational force, F-g , and EM force, F-EM, between two (quasi-)stationary protons in free space, separated by distance r, are given by  F-g = G * mp * mp\/r^2  F-EM = qp * qp \/ (4 * \\pi * \\epsilon0 *r^2)  Here, G = 6.67x10^-11 m^3 kg^-1 s^-2 is the gravitational constant and \\epsilon0 = 8.85x10^{-12} F m^-1 is the permittivity of free space.  As both these forces are inversely proportional to the distance between the protons, let's take the ratio of the forces at any distance:  F-g\/F-EM = G*mp^2 \/ (qp^2 \/ 4 * \\pi * \\epsilon0)                   ~ 10^-37  So between any two (quasi-stationary) protons, the EM force is 10^37 times stronger than the gravitational force!!!!!  Now you may wonder, well if gravity is so weak, why does it appear to dominate in real life?  Well, with regards to the EM force, most matter is electrically neutral, and so the EM force does not act.  For the weak and strong nuclear forces, the range of interaction is incredibly small, and so we do not generally see its effects on macroscopic (real world) scales - for example, the range of interaction for the strong nuclear force is ~10^-15 m, roughly the size of an atomic nucleus.","human_ref_B":"Leonard Susskind has this little analogy (?) in his book The Black Hole War where he says that if you swapped the electromagnetic force holding electrons to the nucleus of an atom with gravity, one single atom would expand to a size larger than the observable universe. That's what they mean when they say gravity is the weakest force.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6317.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"1jho3k","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If an obese person and a thin person were stranded on a barren island with plenty of water, but no food, would the obese person live longer due to stored up body fat? What other factors would need to be considered?","c_root_id_A":"cbeshrv","c_root_id_B":"cbeth7w","created_at_utc_A":1375367754,"created_at_utc_B":1375370469,"score_A":30,"score_B":41,"human_ref_A":"Would the relative strain on the body of an obese person's circulatory system come into play here--problems with the heart, etc. in relation to a thinner person's?","human_ref_B":"I wrote an answer to that question some time ago:  http:\/\/www.reddit.com\/r\/askscience\/comments\/1a88ij\/when_a_person_dies_of_starvation_is_there_a_point\/c8vcku3  Basically: If it's potable water, they will both die more or less at the same time due to Thiamine deficiency. Unless the thin person has so little energy reserves (Back of the envelope calculation: 7kg of body fat) that they die earlier.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2715.0,"score_ratio":1.3666666667}
{"post_id":"1jho3k","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If an obese person and a thin person were stranded on a barren island with plenty of water, but no food, would the obese person live longer due to stored up body fat? What other factors would need to be considered?","c_root_id_A":"cbexrq0","c_root_id_B":"cbeu62a","created_at_utc_A":1375380988,"created_at_utc_B":1375372251,"score_A":25,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"Scotsman weighing 207 kilograms (456 pounds), fasted for ONE YEAR and 17 days. He ate no food at all for over a year. He lived entirely off his copious body fat, in the end losing about 125 kilograms (275 pounds) of weight.  http:\/\/www.abc.net.au\/science\/articles\/2012\/07\/24\/3549931.htm","human_ref_B":"Didn't Richard Hatch in Survivor 1 use this technique? He was huge when he started but average size by the end. Could that have been considered an advantage? Maybe not in the beginning but more likely as weeks passed.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8737.0,"score_ratio":2.2727272727}
{"post_id":"w51qrv","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"Do primate communication contain grammar like human languages?","c_root_id_A":"ih6ls4u","c_root_id_B":"ih7gs2k","created_at_utc_A":1658494408,"created_at_utc_B":1658507096,"score_A":8,"score_B":25,"human_ref_A":"It varies within the primate designation and humans are primates.  So yes, primates absolutely do and can use grammar as we are using it right now.  Whether or not one of the other 200+ species of primates use grammar depends on the species.  Some have been found to nonsensically use it while others can learn and use common human grammar, although grammar style changes between cultures.   So it\u2019s a spectrum of grammar out there.   https:\/\/www.sciencenews.org\/article\/monkeys-may-share-key-grammar-related-skill-with-humans  https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.772291\/full  https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/29435770\/","human_ref_B":"No they do not. Non human primates (NHP) communication does not contain grammar. There is a lot of context too their communication, like when they respond or around which NHPs or in relation to some thing, but absolutely no grammar.  Can you train them to listen to human speech and respond in some way? Yes, but that's not your question.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12688.0,"score_ratio":3.125}
{"post_id":"1ph0df","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Will breathing in pure oxygen allow you to hold your breath longer? Since air in the atmosphere is composed of ~20% oxygen, if you breathe in 100% pure oxygen would you be able to hold your breath for longer?","c_root_id_A":"cd28hpm","c_root_id_B":"cd28ek2","created_at_utc_A":1383067434,"created_at_utc_B":1383067244,"score_A":879,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"The short answer is: yes, absolutely.  Some lung and respiratory mechanics are needed to understand the long answer.  First point: Your lungs don't fully empty when you exhale.  In fact, during normal breathing you only move maybe 1\/5 to 1\/4 of the volume you can breath: this is your \"tidal volume\".  Example: exhale to whatever \"comfortable\" point you feel like marks the end of a normal breath for you.  Now force out as much more air as you can on top of that.  Most people with healthy lungs can force a lot more air out - this is the \"expiratory reserve\" and serves as a backup for when you're running or exerting yourself.  Same with the inhalation side - you can inhale a lot more than you do during normal breathing, and this is called (surprise) the inspiratory reserve volume. No matter how much you exhale, however, there is always some portion of air left in your lungs that you can't force out because you can't squish your ribcage completely flat.  This is called the \"reserve volume\".  The reserve volume + the expiratory reserve volume is called the Functional Residual Capacity and is where gas exchange with the lungs actually takes place.  Second point: Our brains are not driven by oxygen to breath.  They're driven by carbon dioxide (actually hydrogen ion concentration but that's a long story).  The higher your carbon dioxide level goes the more intensely you feel the need to breath.  You'll feel burning in your limbs and your brain, thanks to millions of years of evolution, will be screaming at you to do something as it thinks it's suffocating.  Oxygen drive exists, but usually only becomes active in people who have smoked for 30-40 years (and pretty much killed their CO2 drive).  Okay, so now the more detailed answer: The air we breath is 21% oxygen.  By inhaling 100% oxygen for a couple of minutes (enough to washout the nitrogen from the functional residual capacity in your lungs), you can pretty much hold your breath about 4-5 times longer than normal.  Anesthesiologists routinely do this before putting patients out as a safety thing (hence the mask when you \"go off to sleep\") because in an emergency the patient can usually \"hold\" his or her breath for 5-10 minutes after breathing 100% oxygen.  And this works because the patient is already unconscious and can't feel his\/her CO2 level rising.    Doing this awake, however, is very difficult as you can feel that CO2 rise and even though your lungs are still full of oxygen your brain will be freaking out and demanding that you take a breath.  It is possible to overcome that breath instinct, however, with some training or serious dedication.  This is part of the reason that hyperventilation (really rapid deep breathing) before breath holding helps you hold your breath - you drive your CO2 level way down and it takes longer for your brain to reach the freakout point while you're breath-holding.  This is also why it's dangerous to do so: while that CO2 level is rising again you may well burn through your oxygen reserve (and since your brain still feels fine with regards to CO2) you can lose consciousness from hypoxia.  Fun, right?  Source: IAMA Anesthesiologist  Edit: Groshe pointed out I mis-defined FRC.  Corrected it.","human_ref_B":"A lot of this can be explained with a number called the fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2). Natural of air as you said is about 20% oxygen and has an FiO2 of 0.21. The highest FiO2 number is 1 which would be pure oxygen and anything in between is oxygen saturated compared to air.   Often before an anesthetic procedure a patient will be \"preoxygenated\" with oxygen approaching an FiO2 of 1 to increase their functional residual capacity (FRC) of oxygen. That is to say at room air your hemoglobin (which carry oxygen) are not fully saturated. The oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve is an S shaped curve and at oxygen pressures in the blood above 60 mmHg little changes are seen with increased oxygen. As the number decreases though profound changes are seen. By giving a patient ~3-5 minutes of high FiO2 gas it will take longer for them to become hypoxic (lack oxygen) while you intubate. You do have to worry about oxygen toxicity overall but for short periods of time it is beneficial.  This is also true of breath holding underwater. There are two records for breath holding. One done naturally and one done with preoxygenation. You will notice the record without oxygen is over 11 minutes while the record with 30 minutes of preoxygenation with 100% oxygen is double that time.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":190.0,"score_ratio":146.5}
{"post_id":"1ph0df","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Will breathing in pure oxygen allow you to hold your breath longer? Since air in the atmosphere is composed of ~20% oxygen, if you breathe in 100% pure oxygen would you be able to hold your breath for longer?","c_root_id_A":"cd28f5u","c_root_id_B":"cd28hpm","created_at_utc_A":1383067281,"created_at_utc_B":1383067434,"score_A":6,"score_B":879,"human_ref_A":"This short article looks at the role of high concentration oxygen prior to administration of anaesthetic.  Essentially, breathing high concentration oxygen (there is debate regarding whether it is better to use 80% or 100%) permits a longer time where the patient is without some kind of air movement in and out of their lungs (aka safe apnoea time).  As noted below this wouldn't mean a normal person would be able to hold their breath longer as it is the build up of CO2 which, in most people, triggers the drive to breath.  TLDR: high concentration oxygen makes not breathing safer for longer, but would be unlikely to help a conscious person hold their breath.","human_ref_B":"The short answer is: yes, absolutely.  Some lung and respiratory mechanics are needed to understand the long answer.  First point: Your lungs don't fully empty when you exhale.  In fact, during normal breathing you only move maybe 1\/5 to 1\/4 of the volume you can breath: this is your \"tidal volume\".  Example: exhale to whatever \"comfortable\" point you feel like marks the end of a normal breath for you.  Now force out as much more air as you can on top of that.  Most people with healthy lungs can force a lot more air out - this is the \"expiratory reserve\" and serves as a backup for when you're running or exerting yourself.  Same with the inhalation side - you can inhale a lot more than you do during normal breathing, and this is called (surprise) the inspiratory reserve volume. No matter how much you exhale, however, there is always some portion of air left in your lungs that you can't force out because you can't squish your ribcage completely flat.  This is called the \"reserve volume\".  The reserve volume + the expiratory reserve volume is called the Functional Residual Capacity and is where gas exchange with the lungs actually takes place.  Second point: Our brains are not driven by oxygen to breath.  They're driven by carbon dioxide (actually hydrogen ion concentration but that's a long story).  The higher your carbon dioxide level goes the more intensely you feel the need to breath.  You'll feel burning in your limbs and your brain, thanks to millions of years of evolution, will be screaming at you to do something as it thinks it's suffocating.  Oxygen drive exists, but usually only becomes active in people who have smoked for 30-40 years (and pretty much killed their CO2 drive).  Okay, so now the more detailed answer: The air we breath is 21% oxygen.  By inhaling 100% oxygen for a couple of minutes (enough to washout the nitrogen from the functional residual capacity in your lungs), you can pretty much hold your breath about 4-5 times longer than normal.  Anesthesiologists routinely do this before putting patients out as a safety thing (hence the mask when you \"go off to sleep\") because in an emergency the patient can usually \"hold\" his or her breath for 5-10 minutes after breathing 100% oxygen.  And this works because the patient is already unconscious and can't feel his\/her CO2 level rising.    Doing this awake, however, is very difficult as you can feel that CO2 rise and even though your lungs are still full of oxygen your brain will be freaking out and demanding that you take a breath.  It is possible to overcome that breath instinct, however, with some training or serious dedication.  This is part of the reason that hyperventilation (really rapid deep breathing) before breath holding helps you hold your breath - you drive your CO2 level way down and it takes longer for your brain to reach the freakout point while you're breath-holding.  This is also why it's dangerous to do so: while that CO2 level is rising again you may well burn through your oxygen reserve (and since your brain still feels fine with regards to CO2) you can lose consciousness from hypoxia.  Fun, right?  Source: IAMA Anesthesiologist  Edit: Groshe pointed out I mis-defined FRC.  Corrected it.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":153.0,"score_ratio":146.5}
{"post_id":"41e5in","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"If it only takes the Earth 23 hours and 56 minutes to rotate on its axis, why doesn't the sun eventually set \"in the middle of the day\"?","c_root_id_A":"cz1ps9i","c_root_id_B":"cz1m54h","created_at_utc_A":1453054986,"created_at_utc_B":1453048867,"score_A":1193,"score_B":264,"human_ref_A":"You're thinking of the sidereal day. That's how long it takes the earth to rotate 360 degrees with respect to the stars. A solar day is a 360 degree rotation with respect to the sun, or the amount of time between two successive \"noons.\"   Because we made a little progress in our orbit today, the earth needs to spin a little extra to get to noon in order to account for the fact that the sun has moved relative to the earth while we were going about our day.   This little extra spin is about four minutes, making the solar day right on to 24 hours. Sometimes we add leap seconds to keep everything working smoothly.","human_ref_B":"The earth is also moving with respect to the sun in its orbit. The combined effect of a 365 day year, and a 23 hour 56 minute rotation is a 24 hour day with respect to the sun.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6119.0,"score_ratio":4.5189393939}
{"post_id":"41e5in","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"If it only takes the Earth 23 hours and 56 minutes to rotate on its axis, why doesn't the sun eventually set \"in the middle of the day\"?","c_root_id_A":"cz1zehy","c_root_id_B":"cz2a1dc","created_at_utc_A":1453069187,"created_at_utc_B":1453086100,"score_A":8,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Technically, it does.  Think about this a bit and you will see that when the earth is on the other side of the sun, the sun rises and sets 12 hours opposite what it did 6 months before.  More seriously, find out the difference between a sidereal day and a solar day.","human_ref_B":"The four minute difference between a sidereal and solar day is what makes the stars change with the seasons.  A given star will rise about four minutes earlier each day, or about a half hour a week, or about two hours a month.  Hence the stars pinwheel around us once a year.  In other words, that's our point of view of the sky changing as we slowly circle the sun once a year.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":16913.0,"score_ratio":1.875}
{"post_id":"41e5in","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"If it only takes the Earth 23 hours and 56 minutes to rotate on its axis, why doesn't the sun eventually set \"in the middle of the day\"?","c_root_id_A":"cz2a1dc","c_root_id_B":"cz20twt","created_at_utc_A":1453086100,"created_at_utc_B":1453071418,"score_A":15,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"The four minute difference between a sidereal and solar day is what makes the stars change with the seasons.  A given star will rise about four minutes earlier each day, or about a half hour a week, or about two hours a month.  Hence the stars pinwheel around us once a year.  In other words, that's our point of view of the sky changing as we slowly circle the sun once a year.","human_ref_B":"Another way to look at this is that in a 24 hour day, the earth actually rotates approximately 361 degrees to line up with sun directly above at solar noon, the extra 1 degree is because the earth has also move 1\/365th along its yearly orbit around the sun.   It's 6 of one half a dozen of the other.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":14682.0,"score_ratio":3.75}
{"post_id":"1jtbjs","domain":"askscience_test","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Assuming the Oceans were drained, what would the air pressure be like at the Challenger Deep? Would there be a noticeable difference?","c_root_id_A":"cbig8zg","c_root_id_B":"cbi8f84","created_at_utc_A":1375837052,"created_at_utc_B":1375816130,"score_A":5,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"If you were to remove the thin coating of water on the surface of the earth, you would expose roughly 70%, the seafloor.  Most of the oceanic abyssal plain is fairly flat, with the exception of the mid-ocean ridges (spreading centers) and the trenches (subduction zones).  The new \"normal\" surface would be the present ocean floor, which would therefore have roughly the same atmospheric pressure we currently experience (it would be a little greater given the existence of continents, which would seem like vast mountains).  The trenches, of which the Mariana Trench is the deepest with the Challenger Deep being approximately 11,000m below sea level, would seem to be immensely deep valleys.  They would extend down to 6000m below the average height of the surface.  In the current situation, the pressure at the bottom of the Mariana Trench is about double that of the pressure at the bottom of the abyssal ocean (11,000m of water vs. 5000m).  If the *fluid* were air instead of water, the pressure difference would still be about double at the bottom of the trench.  A rigorous analysis comparing the volume of atmosphere relative to its current basin (with water filling the troughs) relative to the hypothetical basin (without water) would be an excellent student exercise in combining bathymetry with topography.  The back of the envelope calculation will still be roughly double, since the fluid density of water overwhelms the atmospheric contribution to the current solution, but I am curious how many significant figures could be derived from our available topo\/bathy information.","human_ref_B":"As a side question, does the speed of sound change for a large pressure change like this?  If I double or triple the pressure of the air, the speed of sound should double or triple, right?  Assuming temperature is constant....","labels":1,"seconds_difference":20922.0,"score_ratio":2.5}