diff --git "a/.ragatouille/colbert/indexes/cbseclass10index/collection.json" "b/.ragatouille/colbert/indexes/cbseclass10index/collection.json" new file mode 100644--- /dev/null +++ "b/.ragatouille/colbert/indexes/cbseclass10index/collection.json" @@ -0,0 +1,328 @@ +[ + "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nChemical Reactions and Equations\nIntroduction to Chemical Reactions and Equations\nPhysical and chemical changes\nChemical change - one or more new substances with new physical and chemical properties\nare formed.\nExample: Fe(s)\u00a0 + \u00a0CuSO 4(aq) \u2192FeSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\u00a0\n \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 (Blue)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 (Green)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\nHere, when copper sulphate reacts with iron, two new substances, i.e., ferrous sulphate and\ncopper are formed.\nPhysical change - change in colour or state occurs but no new substance is formed.\nExample: Water changes to steam on boiling but no new substance is formed(Even though\nsteam and water look different when they are made to react with a piece of Na, they react\nthe same way and give the exact same products). This involves only change in state (liquid\nto vapour).", + "Example: Water changes to steam on boiling but no new substance is formed(Even though\nsteam and water look different when they are made to react with a piece of Na, they react\nthe same way and give the exact same products). This involves only change in state (liquid\nto vapour).\u00a0\nObservations that help determine a chemical reaction\nA chemical reaction can be determined with the help of any of the following observations:\na) Evolution of a gas\nb) Change in temperature\nc) Formation of a precipitate\nd) Change in colour\ne) Change of state\nChemical reaction\nChemical reactions are chemical changes in which reactants transform into products by\nmaking or breaking of bonds(or both) between different atoms.\nTypes of chemical reactionsTaking into consideration different factors, chemical reactions are grouped into multiple\ncategories.\nFew examples are:\n\u25cfCombination\n\u25cfDecomposition\n\u25cfSingle Displacement\n\u25cfDouble displacement\n\u25cfRedox\n\u25cfEndothermic\n\u25cfExothermic\n\u25cfPrecipitation\n\u25cfNeutralisation\nChemical Reactions and Equations I\nWord equation\nA\u00a0 word equation is a\u00a0chemical reaction\u00a0expressed in words rather than\u00a0chemical\nformulas.", + "It helps identify the reactants and products in a chemical reaction.\nFor example,\u00a0\nSodium + Chlorine \u2192 Sodium chloride\nThe above equation means: \"Sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride.\"\u00a0\nSymbols of elements and their valencies\nA symbol is the chemical code for an element. Each element has one or two letter atomic", + "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nformulas.\u00a0It helps identify the reactants and products in a chemical reaction.\nFor example,\u00a0\nSodium + Chlorine \u2192 Sodium chloride\nThe above equation means: \"Sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride.\"\u00a0\nSymbols of elements and their valencies\nA symbol is the chemical code for an element. Each element has one or two letter atomic\nsymbol, which is the abbreviated form of its name.\nValency is the combining capacity of an\u00a0element. It can be considered as the number of\nelectrons lost, gain or shared by an atom when it combines with another atom to form a\nmolecule.\nWriting chemical equations\nRepresentation of a chemical reaction in terms of symbols and chemical formulae of the\nreactants and products is known as a chemical equation.\nZn(s) +dil.H2SO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +H2(\u2191)\n\u00a0(Reactants)\u00a0 \u00a0(Products)\n\u2022 For solids, the symbol is \"(s)\".\n\u2022 For liquids, it is \"(l)\".", + "Zn(s) +dil.H2SO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +H2(\u2191)\n\u00a0(Reactants)\u00a0 \u00a0(Products)\n\u2022 For solids, the symbol is \"(s)\".\n\u2022 For liquids, it is \"(l)\".\n\u2022 For gases, it is \"(g)\".\u2022 For aqueous solutions, it is \"(aq)\".\n\u2022 For gas produced in the reaction, it is represented by \"(\u2191)\".\n\u2022 For precipitate formed in the reaction, it is represented by \"(\u2193)\".\nBalancing of a Chemical Reaction\nConservation of mass\nAccording to the law of conservation of mass, no atoms can be created or destroyed in a\nchemical reaction, so the number of atoms for each element in the reactants side has to\nbalance the number of atoms that are present in the products side.\nIn other words, the total mass of the products formed in a chemical reaction is equal to the\ntotal mass of the reactants participated in a chemical reaction.\nBalanced chemical equation\nThe chemical equation in which the number of atoms of each element\u00a0in the reactants side\nis equal to that of the products side is called a balanced chemical equation.", + "Balanced chemical equation\nThe chemical equation in which the number of atoms of each element\u00a0in the reactants side\nis equal to that of the products side is called a balanced chemical equation.\nSteps for balancing chemical equations\nHit and trial method: While balancing the equation, change the coef\ufb01cients (the numbers in\nfront of the compound or molecule) so that the number of atoms of each element is same\non each side of the chemical equation.", + "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nis equal to that of the products side is called a balanced chemical equation.\nSteps for balancing chemical equations\nHit and trial method: While balancing the equation, change the coef\ufb01cients (the numbers in\nfront of the compound or molecule) so that the number of atoms of each element is same\non each side of the chemical equation.\u00a0\nShort-cut technique for balancing a chemical equation\nExample:\naCaCO 3+bH3PO 4\u2192cCa 3(PO 4)2+dH2CO 3\nSet up a series of simultaneous equations, one for each element.", + "Short-cut technique for balancing a chemical equation\nExample:\naCaCO 3+bH3PO 4\u2192cCa 3(PO 4)2+dH2CO 3\nSet up a series of simultaneous equations, one for each element.\nCa: a=3c\nC:\u00a0 \u00a0a=d\nO:\u00a0 \u00a03a+4b=8c+3d\nH:\u00a0 \u00a03b=2d\nP:\u00a0 \u00a0 b=2c\nLet's set c=1\nThen a=3 and\nd=a=3\nb=2c=2So a=3; b=2; c=1; d=3\nThe balanced equation is\n3CaCO 3+ 2H 3PO 4\u2192Ca3(PO 4)2+ 3H 2CO 3\nChemical Reactions and Equations II\nTypes of chemical reactions\nTaking into consideration different factors, chemical reactions are grouped into multiple\ncategories.", + "Few examples are:\n\u25cfCombination\n\u25cfDecomposition\n\u25cfSingle Displacement\n\u25cfDouble displacement\n\u25cfRedox\n\u25cfEndothermic\n\u25cfExothermic\n\u25cfPrecipitation\n\u25cfNeutralisation\nCombination reaction\nIn a combination reaction, two elements or one element and one compound or two\ncompounds combine\u00a0to give one single product.\nH2+Cl2\u2192 2HCl\nelement + element \u2192 compound\n2CO +O2\u2192 2CO 2\ncompound + element \u2192 compound\nNH 3+HCl \u2192NH 4Cl\ncompound + compound \u2192 compound\nDecomposition reaction\nA single reactant decomposes on the application of heat or light or electricity to give two or\nmore products.\nTypes of decomposition reactions:\na. Decomposition reactions which require heat - thermolytic decomposition or thermolysis.\nThermal decomposition of HgO\nb. Decomposition reactions which require light - photolytic decomposition\u00a0or\u00a0photolysis.\nPhotolytic decomposition of H2O2\nc. Decomposition reactions which require electricity - electrolytic decomposition or\nelectrolysis.", + "Thermal decomposition of HgO\nb. Decomposition reactions which require light - photolytic decomposition\u00a0or\u00a0photolysis.\nPhotolytic decomposition of H2O2\nc. Decomposition reactions which require electricity - electrolytic decomposition or\nelectrolysis.\nElectrolytic decomposition of H 2O\nDisplacement reaction\nMore reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.i)Zn(s) +CuSO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)", + "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nPhotolytic decomposition of H2O2\nc. Decomposition reactions which require electricity - electrolytic decomposition or\nelectrolysis.\nElectrolytic decomposition of H 2O\nDisplacement reaction\nMore reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.i)Zn(s) +CuSO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\nii)Cu(s) + 2AgNO 3(aq) \u2192Cu(NO 3)2(aq) + 2Ag (s)\nDouble displacement reaction\nAn exchange of ions between the reactants takes place to give new products.\nFor example,\u00a0Al 2(SO4)3(aq) + 3Ca( OH)2(aq) \u2192 2Al (OH)3(aq) + 3CaSO 4(s)\nPrecipitation reaction\nAn insoluble compound called precipitate forms when two solutions containing soluble salts\nare combined.", + "For example, Pb( NO 3)2(aq) + 2KI (aq) \u2192 2KNO 3(aq) +PbI 2(\u2193)(s)(yellow )\nRedox reaction\nOxidation and reduction take place simultaneously.\nOxidation: Substance loses electrons or gains oxygen or loses hydrogen.\nReduction: Substance gains electrons or loses oxygen or gains hydrogen.\nOxidising agent - a substance that oxidises another substance and self-gets reduced.\nReducing agent - a substance that reduces another substance and self-gets oxidised.\nExamples:\n1.Fe(s) +CuSO 4(aq) \u2192FeSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0(Blue)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 (Green)\nFe\u2192Fe+2+ 2e \u2212 \u00a0(oxidation ) ; Fe - reducing agent.\nCu+2+ 2e \u2212 \u2192Cu(s)\u00a0(reduction ) ; Cu - oxidising agent.", + "Cu+2+ 2e \u2212 \u2192Cu(s)\u00a0(reduction ) ; Cu - oxidising agent.\n2.ZnO +C\u2192Zn+CO\nZnO reduces to Zn\u00a0\u2192 reduction\nC oxidises to CO \u2192 oxidation\nZnO - Oxidising agent\nC - Reducing agent\nEndothermic and exothermic reaction\nExothermic reaction - heat is evolved during a reaction. Most of the combination reactions\nare exothermic.\nAl+Fe2O3\u2192Al2O3+Fe+heat\nCH 4+ 2O 2\u2192CO 2+ 2H 2O+heat\nEndothermic - Heat is required to carry out the reaction.\n6CO 2+ 6H 2O+Sunlight \u2192C6H12O6+ 6O 2\n\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0Glucose\nMost of the\u00a0decomposition reactions are endothermic.\nCorrosion\nGradual deterioration of a material, usually a metal, by the action of moisture, air or\nchemicals in the surrounding environment.\nRusting:", + "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nare exothermic.\nAl+Fe2O3\u2192Al2O3+Fe+heat\nCH 4+ 2O 2\u2192CO 2+ 2H 2O+heat\nEndothermic - Heat is required to carry out the reaction.\n6CO 2+ 6H 2O+Sunlight \u2192C6H12O6+ 6O 2\n\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0Glucose\nMost of the\u00a0decomposition reactions are endothermic.\nCorrosion\nGradual deterioration of a material, usually a metal, by the action of moisture, air or\nchemicals in the surrounding environment.", + "Corrosion\nGradual deterioration of a material, usually a metal, by the action of moisture, air or\nchemicals in the surrounding environment.\nRusting:\n4Fe(s) + 3O 2(from \u00a0air) +xH 2O(moisture ) \u2192 2Fe 2O3.xH 2O(rust)\nCorrosion of copper:\nCu(s) +H2O(moisture ) +CO 2(from \u00a0air) \u2192CuCO 3.Cu(OH)2(green )\nCorrosion of silver:\nAg(s) +H2S(from \u00a0air) \u2192Ag2S(black) +H2(g)\nRancidity\nIt refers to oxidation of fats and oils in food that is kept for a long time. It gives foul smell\nand bad taste to food. Rancid food causes stomach infection on consumption.\nPrevention:\n(i) Use of air-tight containers(ii) Packaging with nitrogen\n(iii) Refrigeration\n(iv) Addition of antioxidants or preservatives", + "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nAcids, Bases and Salts\nIntroduction to Acids, Bases and Salts\nClassi\ufb01cation of matter\nOn the basis of\na) composition -\u00a0 elements, compounds and mixtures\nb) state - solids, liquids and gases\nc) solubility - suspensions, colloids and solutions\nTypes of mixtures - homogeneous and heterogeneous\nTypes of compounds -\u00a0covalent and ionic\nWhat Is an Acid and a Base?\nIonisable and non-ionisable compounds\nAn ionisable compound when dissolved in water or in its molten state, dissociates into ions\nalmost entirely. Example: NaCl, HCl, KOH, etc.\nA non-ionisable compound does not dissociate into ions\u00a0when dissolved in water or in its\nmolten state.\u00a0Example: glucose, acetone, etc.\nArrhenius theory of acids and bases\nArrhenius acid - when dissolved in water, dissociates to give H+(aq) or H 3O+ ion.\nArrhenius base - when dissolved in water, dissociates to give OH\u2212 ion.", + "Example: glucose, acetone, etc.\nArrhenius theory of acids and bases\nArrhenius acid - when dissolved in water, dissociates to give H+(aq) or H 3O+ ion.\nArrhenius base - when dissolved in water, dissociates to give OH\u2212 ion.\nExamples\u00a0Acids\u00a0\nHydrochloric acid (HCl )\nSulphuric acid\u00a0\u00a0(H 2SO 4)\nNitric acid\u00a0(HNO 3)\nBases\u00a0\nSodium hydroxide (NaOH)\nPotassium hydroxide (KOH)\nCalcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)\nBronsted Lowry theoryA Bronsted acid is a H+(aq) ion\u00a0donor. \nA Bronsted base is a H+(aq) ion\u00a0acceptor.\nExample \nIn the reaction:\u00a0 HCl(aq) +NH 3(aq) \u2192NH+\n4(aq) +Cl\u2212(aq)\nHCl - Bronsted acid and Cl\u2212 - its conjugate acid\nNH 3\u00a0 - Bronsted base and NH+\n4 - its conjugate acid\nPhysical test\nGiven\u00a0are two possible physical tests to identify an acid or a base.", + "a. Taste\nAn acid tastes sour whereas a base tastes bitter.\nThe method of taste is not advised as an acid or a base could be contaminated or corrosive.\nb. Effect on indicators by acids and bases\nAn indicator is a chemical substance which shows a change in its physical properties,\nmainly colour or odour when brought in contact with an acid or a base.\nBelow mentioned are commonly used indicators and the different colours they exhibit:\u00a0\na) Litmus\nIn neutral solution - purple\nIn acidic solution - red\nIn basic solution - blue", + "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nb. Effect on indicators by acids and bases\nAn indicator is a chemical substance which shows a change in its physical properties,\nmainly colour or odour when brought in contact with an acid or a base.\nBelow mentioned are commonly used indicators and the different colours they exhibit:\u00a0\na) Litmus\nIn neutral solution - purple\nIn acidic solution - red\nIn basic solution - blue\nLitmus is also available as strips of paper in two variants - red litmus and blue litmus.\nAn acid turns a moist blue litmus paper to red.\nA base turns a moist red litmus paper to blue.", + "An acid turns a moist blue litmus paper to red.\nA base turns a moist red litmus paper to blue.\nb) Methyl orange\nIn neutral solution - orange\nIn acidic solution - red\nIn basic solution - yellow\nc) Phenolphthalein\nIn neutral solution - colourless\nIn acidic solution - remains colourless\nIn basic solution - pink\nAcid Base ReactionsReactions of acids and bases\na) Reaction of acids and bases with metals\nAcid\u00a0+ active metal\u00a0\u2192\u00a0 salt + hydrogen + heat\n2HCl \u00a0 +Mg\u2192MgCl 2+H2(\u2191)\nBase\u00a0+ metal \u2192 salt + hydrogen + heat\n2NaOH \u00a0 +Zn\u2192Na 2ZnO 2+H2(\u2191)\nA more reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its base.\n2Na +Mg(OH)2\u2192 2NaOH +Mg\nb) Reaction of acids with metal carbonates and bicarbonates\nAcid\u00a0+ metal carbonate\u00a0or bicarbonate\u00a0 \u2192\u00a0 salt + water + carbon dioxide.", + "2Na +Mg(OH)2\u2192 2NaOH +Mg\nb) Reaction of acids with metal carbonates and bicarbonates\nAcid\u00a0+ metal carbonate\u00a0or bicarbonate\u00a0 \u2192\u00a0 salt + water + carbon dioxide.\n2HCl \u00a0 + \u00a0CaCO 3\u2192CaCl 2\u00a0 + \u00a0H 2O\u00a0 + \u00a0CO 2\nH2SO 4\u00a0 + \u00a0Mg (HCO 3)2\u2192MgSO 4\u00a0 + \u00a02H 2O\u00a0 + \u00a02CO 2\nEffervescence indicates liberation of\u00a0 CO 2\u00a0gas.\nc) Neutralisation reaction\n1. Reaction of metal\u00a0oxides and hydroxides with acids\nMetal\u00a0oxides or metal hydroxides are basic in nature.\nAcid + base \u2192 salt + water + heat\nH2SO 4\u00a0 + \u00a0MgO \u2192MgSO 4\u00a0 + \u00a0H 2O\n2HCl +Mg(OH)2\u2192MgCl 2+ 2H 2O\n2.", + "Reaction of non-metal\u00a0oxides with bases\nNon-metal\u00a0oxides are acidic in nature\nBase\u00a0+ Non-metal\u00a0oxide\u00a0 \u2192\u00a0 salt + water + heat\n2NaOH +CO 2\u2192Na 2CO 3+H2O\nWater\nAcids and bases in water\nWhen added to water, acids and bases dissociate into their respective ions and help in\nconducting electricity.\nDifference between a base and an alkali\nBase-Bases undergo neutralisation reaction with acids.", + "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\n2. Reaction of non-metal\u00a0oxides with bases\nNon-metal\u00a0oxides are acidic in nature\nBase\u00a0+ Non-metal\u00a0oxide\u00a0 \u2192\u00a0 salt + water + heat\n2NaOH +CO 2\u2192Na 2CO 3+H2O\nWater\nAcids and bases in water\nWhen added to water, acids and bases dissociate into their respective ions and help in\nconducting electricity.\nDifference between a base and an alkali\nBase-Bases undergo neutralisation reaction with acids.\nThey are comprised of metal oxides, metal hydroxides, metal carbonates and metal\nbicarbonates.\nMost of them are insoluble in water.\u00a0\nAlkali -\u00a0\nAn alkali is an aqueous solution of a base, (mainly metallic hydroxides).\nIt dissolves in water and dissociates to give \u00a0 OH\u2212 ion.\nAll alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis.", + "Most of them are insoluble in water.\u00a0\nAlkali -\u00a0\nAn alkali is an aqueous solution of a base, (mainly metallic hydroxides).\nIt dissolves in water and dissociates to give \u00a0 OH\u2212 ion.\nAll alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis.\nHydronium ion\nHydronium ion is formed when a hydrogen ion accepts a lone pair of electrons from the\noxygen atom of a water molecule, forming a coordinate covalent bond.\nFormation of a hydronium ion\nDilution\nDilution is the process of reducing the concentration of a solution by adding more solvent\n(usually water) to it.\nIt is a highly exothermic process.\nTo dilute an acid, the acid must be added to water and not the other way round.\nStrength of acids and basesStrong acid or base : When all molecules of given amount of an acid or a base dissociate\ncompletely in water to furnish their respective ions, H+(aq)\u00a0 for acid and OH\u2212(aq) for base).", + "Strength of acids and basesStrong acid or base : When all molecules of given amount of an acid or a base dissociate\ncompletely in water to furnish their respective ions, H+(aq)\u00a0 for acid and OH\u2212(aq) for base).\nWeak acid or base: When only a few\u00a0of the molecules of given amount of an acid or a base\ndissociate in water to furnish their respective ions, H+(aq) for acid and OH\u2212(aq) for base).\u00a0\nDilute acid: contains less number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.\nConcentrated acid: contains more number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.Universal indicator\nA\u00a0universal indicator has pH range from\u00a00 to 14 that indicates the acidity or alkalinity of a\nsolution.\nA neutral solution has pH=7\npH\n \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 pH= \u2212log 10[H+]\nIn pure water,\u00a0 [H+] = [OH\u2212] = 10\u22127 mol/L. Hence, the pH of pure water is 7.\nThe pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.", + "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nConcentrated acid: contains more number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.Universal indicator\nA\u00a0universal indicator has pH range from\u00a00 to 14 that indicates the acidity or alkalinity of a\nsolution.\nA neutral solution has pH=7\npH\n \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 pH= \u2212log 10[H+]\nIn pure water,\u00a0 [H+] = [OH\u2212] = 10\u22127 mol/L. Hence, the pH of pure water is 7.\nThe pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.\nIf pH < 7 - acidic solution\nIf pH > 7-\u00a0 basic solution\npH scale\nImportance of pH in everyday life1. pH sensitivity of plants and animals\nPlants and animals are sensitive to pH. Crucial life processes such as digestion of food,\nfunctions of enzymes and hormones happen at a certain pH value.\n2. pH of a soil\nThe pH of a soil optimal for the growth of plants or crops is 6.5 to 7.0.", + "Crucial life processes such as digestion of food,\nfunctions of enzymes and hormones happen at a certain pH value.\n2. pH of a soil\nThe pH of a soil optimal for the growth of plants or crops is 6.5 to 7.0.\n3. pH in the digestive system\nThe process of digestion happens at a speci\ufb01c pH in our stomach which is 1.5 - 4.\nThe pH of the interaction of enzymes, while food is being digested, is in\ufb02uenced by HCl in\nour stomach.\u00a0\n4. pH in tooth\u00a0decay\nTooth decay happens when the teeth are\u00a0exposed to an acidic environment of\u00a0pH\n5.5\u00a0and\u00a0below.\u00a0\u00a0\n5. pH of self-defense by animals and plants\nAcidic substances are used by animals and plants as a self-defense mechanism. For example,\nbee and plants like nettle secrete a highly acidic substance for self-defense. These secreted\nacidic substances have a speci\ufb01c pH.", + "5. pH of self-defense by animals and plants\nAcidic substances are used by animals and plants as a self-defense mechanism. For example,\nbee and plants like nettle secrete a highly acidic substance for self-defense. These secreted\nacidic substances have a speci\ufb01c pH.\nManufacture of Acids and Bases\nManufacture of acids and bases\na) Non-metal\u00a0oxide\u00a0+ water \u2192 acid\nSO2(g) +H2O(l) \u2192H2SO3(aq)\nSO3(g) +H2O(l) \u2192H2SO4(aq)\n4NO 2(g) + 2H 2O(l) +O2(g) \u2192 4HNO 3(aq)\nNon-metal\u00a0oxides are thus referred to as acid anhydrides.\nb) Hydrogen + halogen \u2192 acid\nH2(g) +Cl2(g) \u2192 2HCl (g)\nHCl(g) +H2O(l) \u2192HCl(aq)\nc) Metallic salt + conc.", + "b) Hydrogen + halogen \u2192 acid\nH2(g) +Cl2(g) \u2192 2HCl (g)\nHCl(g) +H2O(l) \u2192HCl(aq)\nc) Metallic salt + conc. sulphuric acid \u2192 salt + more volatile acid\n2NaCl (aq) +H2SO4(aq) \u2192Na2SO4(aq) + 2HCl (aq)\n2KNO 3(aq) +H2SO4(aq) \u2192K2SO4(aq) + 2HNO 3(aq)d) Metal + oxygen \u2192 metallic oxide (base)\n4Na( s) +O2(g) \u2192 2Na 2O(s)\n2Mg (s) +O2(g) \u2192 2MgO (s)\ne) Metal + water \u2192 base or alkali + hydrogen\nZn(s) + H2O(steam ) \u2192 ZnO(s)+ H 2(g)", + "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nH2(g) +Cl2(g) \u2192 2HCl (g)\nHCl(g) +H2O(l) \u2192HCl(aq)\nc) Metallic salt + conc.", + "sulphuric acid \u2192 salt + more volatile acid\n2NaCl (aq) +H2SO4(aq) \u2192Na2SO4(aq) + 2HCl (aq)\n2KNO 3(aq) +H2SO4(aq) \u2192K2SO4(aq) + 2HNO 3(aq)d) Metal + oxygen \u2192 metallic oxide (base)\n4Na( s) +O2(g) \u2192 2Na 2O(s)\n2Mg (s) +O2(g) \u2192 2MgO (s)\ne) Metal + water \u2192 base or alkali + hydrogen\nZn(s) + H2O(steam ) \u2192 ZnO(s)+ H 2(g)\nf) Few metallic oxides + water \u2192 alkali\nNa 2O(s) +H2O(l) \u2192 2NaOH (aq)\ng) Ammonia + water \u2192 ammonium hydroxide\nNH 3(g) +H2O(l) \u2192NH 4OH(aq)\nSalts\nSalts\nA salt is a combination of an anion of an acid and a cation of a base.", + "Examples - KCl ,NaNO 3,CaSO 4,etc.\nSalts are usually prepared by neutralisation\u00a0reaction of an acid and a base.\nCommon salt\nSodium Chloride (NaCl) is referred to as common salt because it\u2019s used all over the world for\ncooking.\nFamily of salts\nSalts having the same cation or anion belong to the same family. For example, NaCl, KCl,\nLiCl.\npH of salts\nA salt of a strong acid and a strong base will be neutral in nature. pH = 7 (approx.).\nA salt of a weak acid and a strong base will be basic in nature.\u00a0pH > 7.\nA salt of a strong acid and a weak base will be acidic in nature. pH < 7.\nThe pH of a salt of a weak acid and a weak base is determined by conducting a pH test.", + "pH > 7.\nA salt of a strong acid and a weak base will be acidic in nature. pH < 7.\nThe pH of a salt of a weak acid and a weak base is determined by conducting a pH test.\nPreparation of Sodium hydroxide\u00a0\nChemical formula - NaOH\nAlso known as - caustic sodaPreparation (Chlor-alkali process):\nElectrolysis of brine (solution of common salt, NaCl) is carried out.At anode: Cl 2\u00a0is released \nAt cathode: H2\u00a0is released\nSodium hydroxide remains in the solution.\nBleaching powder\nChemical formula - Ca(OCl)Cl or CaOCl 2\nPreparation -\u00a0Ca( OH)2(aq) +Cl2(g) \u2192CaOCl 2(aq) +H2O(l)\nOn interaction with water - bleaching powder releases chlorine which is responsible for\nbleaching action.\nBaking soda\nChemical name - Sodium hydrogen carbonate\nChemical formula - NaHCO 3\nPreparation (Solvay process) -\u00a0\na. Limestone is heated:\u00a0 CaCO 3\u2192CaO +CO 2", + "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nBleaching powder\nChemical formula - Ca(OCl)Cl or CaOCl 2\nPreparation -\u00a0Ca( OH)2(aq) +Cl2(g) \u2192CaOCl 2(aq) +H2O(l)\nOn interaction with water - bleaching powder releases chlorine which is responsible for\nbleaching action.\nBaking soda\nChemical name - Sodium hydrogen carbonate\nChemical formula - NaHCO 3\nPreparation (Solvay process) -\u00a0\na. Limestone is heated:\u00a0 CaCO 3\u2192CaO +CO 2\nb. CO_2 is passed through a concentrated solution of sodium chloride and ammonia :\nNaCl (aq) +NH 3(g) +CO 2(g) +H2O(l) \u2192NaHCO 3(aq) +NH 4Cl(aq)\nUses:\n1. Textile industry\n2. Paper industry\n3. Disinfectant\nWashing soda\nChemical name\u00a0 - Sodium carbonate decahydrate.", + "Textile industry\n2. Paper industry\n3. Disinfectant\nWashing soda\nChemical name\u00a0 - Sodium carbonate decahydrate.\nChemical formuala - \\(Na_2CO_3 \\)\nPreparation: By heating\u00a0NaHCO 3\n2NaHCO 3(s) \u2192Na 2CO 3(s) +CO 2(g) +H2O(g)\nNa 2CO 3(s)\u00a0 + \u00a010H 2O(l)\u00a0 \u2192 \u00a0Na 2CO 3.10H 2O(s)Uses\n1. In glass, soap and paper industries\n2. Softening of water\n3. Domestic cleaner\nCrystals of salts\nCertain salts form crystals by combining with a de\ufb01nite proportion of water. The water that\ncombines with the salt is called water of crystallisation.", + "In glass, soap and paper industries\n2. Softening of water\n3. Domestic cleaner\nCrystals of salts\nCertain salts form crystals by combining with a de\ufb01nite proportion of water. The water that\ncombines with the salt is called water of crystallisation.\nPlaster of parisGypsum , \u00a0CaSO 4.2H 2O\u00a0(s)\u00a0on \u00a0heating \u00a0at\u00a0100\u00b0C \u00a0(373K )\u00a0gives \u00a0CaSO 4.H2O\u00a0and \u00a0H2O\nCaSO 4.H2O\u00a0is plaster of paris.\nCaSO 4.H2O means\u00a0two formula units of CaSO 4 share\u00a0one molecule of water.\nUses - cast for healing fractures.1\n23\n2\n1\n21\n2", + "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nCorrosion\nAlloys\nAlloys are homogeneous mixtures of\u00a0metal\u00a0with other metals or nonmetals.\u00a0Alloy formation\nenhances the desirable properties of the\u00a0material, such as hardness, tensile strength and\nresistance to corrosion.\nExamples of few alloys - \nBrass: copper and zinc\nBronze: copper and tin\nSolder: lead and tin\nAmalgam: mercury and other metal\nCorrosion\nGradual deterioration of a material usually a metal by the action of moisture, air or\nchemicals in the surrounding environment.", + "Rusting:\n4Fe(s) + 3O 2(from \u00a0air) + xH 2O(moisture ) \u2192 2Fe 2O3.xH 2O(rust)\nCorrosion of copper:\nCu(s) +H2O(moisture ) +CO 2(from \u00a0air) \u2192 CuCO 3.Cu(OH)2(green )\nCorrosion of silver:\nAg(s) +H2S(from \u00a0air) \u2192 Ag2S(black) + H2(g)\nPrevention of CorrosionPrevention :\u00a0\n1. Coating with paints or oil or grease: Application of paint or\u00a0oil or grease on\u00a0metal surfaces\nkeep out air and moisture.\n2. Alloying: Alloyed metal is more resistant to corrosion. Example: stainless steel.\n3. Galvanization: This is a process of coating molten zinc on iron articles. Zinc forms a\nprotective layer and prevents corrosion.\n4. Electroplating: It is a method of coating one metal with another by use of electric current.\nThis method not only lends protection but also enhances the metallic appearance.", + "Zinc forms a\nprotective layer and prevents corrosion.\n4. Electroplating: It is a method of coating one metal with another by use of electric current.\nThis method not only lends protection but also enhances the metallic appearance.\nExample: silver plating, nickel plating.\n5. Sacri\ufb01cial protection:\u00a0Magnesium is more reactive than iron. When it is coated on the\narticles made of iron or steel, it acts as the cathode, undergoes reaction (sacri\ufb01ce) instead\nof iron and protects the articles.Metals and Non-metalsPhysical Properties\nPhysical Properties of Metals\n\u25cfHard and have a high tensile strength\n\u25cfSolids at room temperature\n\u25cfSonorous\n\u25cfGood conductors of heat and electricity\n\u25cfMalleable, i.e., can be beaten into thin sheets\n\u25cfDuctile, i.e., can be drawn into thin wires\n\u25cfHigh melting and boiling points (except Caesium (Cs) and Gallium (Ga))\n\u25cfDense, (except alkali metals). Osmium - highest density and lithium - least density\n\u25cfLustrous", + "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\n\u25cfHard and have a high tensile strength\n\u25cfSolids at room temperature\n\u25cfSonorous\n\u25cfGood conductors of heat and electricity\n\u25cfMalleable, i.e., can be beaten into thin sheets\n\u25cfDuctile, i.e., can be drawn into thin wires\n\u25cfHigh melting and boiling points (except Caesium (Cs) and Gallium (Ga))\n\u25cfDense, (except alkali metals). Osmium - highest density and lithium - least density\n\u25cfLustrous\n\u25cfSilver-grey in colour, (except gold and copper)\nNon-Metals\nNonmetals are those elements which do not exhibit the properties of metals.\nPhysical Properties of Nonmetals\nOccur as solids, liquids and gases at room temperature\nBrittle\nNon-malleable\nNon-ductile\nNon-sonorous\nBad conductors of heat and electricity\nExceptions in Physical Properties\nAlkali metals (Na, K, Li) can be cut using a knife.\nMercury is a liquid metal.\nLead and mercury are poor conductors of heat.", + "Mercury is a liquid metal.\nLead and mercury are poor conductors of heat.\nMercury expands signi\ufb01cantly for the slightest change in temperature.\nGallium and caesium have a very low melting point\nIodine is non-metal but it has lustre.\nGraphite conducts electricity.\nDiamond\u00a0conducts heat and has a very high melting point.\nChemical Properties\nChemical Properties of Metals\u25cfAlkali metals (Li, Na, K, etc) react vigorously with water and oxygen or air.\n\u25cfMg reacts with hot water.\n\u25cfAl, Fe and Zn react with steam.\n\u25cfCu, Ag, Pt, Au do not react with water or dilute acids.\nReaction of Metals with Oxygen (Burnt in Air)\nMetal + Oxygen\u00a0 \u2192 \u00a0Metal oxide (basic)\n\u25cfNa and K are kept immersed in kerosene oil as they react vigorously with air and catch\n\ufb01re.\n 4K(s) +O2(g) \u2192 2K 2O(s) (vigorous reaction)\n\u25cfMg, Al, Zn, Pb react slowly with air and form a protective layer that prevents corrosion.", + "4K(s) +O2(g) \u2192 2K 2O(s) (vigorous reaction)\n\u25cfMg, Al, Zn, Pb react slowly with air and form a protective layer that prevents corrosion.\n2Mg (s) +O2(g) \u2192 2MgO (s) (Mg burns with a white dazzling light)\n4Al(s) + 3O 2(g) \u2192 2Al 2O3(s)\n\u25cfSilver, platinum and gold don't burn or react with air.\nBasic Oxides of Metals\nSome metallic oxides get dissolved in water\u00a0and form alkalis.\u00a0Their aqueous solution turns\nred litmus blue.\nNa 2O(s) +H2O(l) \u2192 2NaOH (aq)\nK2O(s) +H2O(l) \u2192 2KOH (aq)", + "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\n2Mg (s) +O2(g) \u2192 2MgO (s) (Mg burns with a white dazzling light)\n4Al(s) + 3O 2(g) \u2192 2Al 2O3(s)\n\u25cfSilver, platinum and gold don't burn or react with air.\nBasic Oxides of Metals\nSome metallic oxides get dissolved in water\u00a0and form alkalis.\u00a0Their aqueous solution turns\nred litmus blue.\nNa 2O(s) +H2O(l) \u2192 2NaOH (aq)\nK2O(s) +H2O(l) \u2192 2KOH (aq)\nAmphoteric Oxides of Metals\nAmphoteric oxides are metal oxides which react with both acids as well as bases to form\nsalt and water.", + "For example - Al 2O3,ZnO ,PbO ,SnO\nAl2O3(s) + 6HCl (aq) \u2192 2AlCl 3(aq) + 3H 2O(l)\nAl2O3(s) + 2NaOH (aq) \u2192 2NaAlO 2(aq) +H2O(l)\nZnO (s) + 2HCl (aq) \u2192ZnCl 2(aq) +H2O(l)\nZnO (s) + 2NaOH (aq) \u2192Na 2ZnO 2(aq) +H2O(l)\nReactivity Series\nThe below table illustrates the reactivity of metals from high order to low order. \nSymbol \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 ElementK Potassium ( Highly Active Metal)\nBa Barium\nCa Calcium\nNa Sodium\nMg Magnesium\nAl Aluminium\nZn Zinc\nFe Iron\nNi Nickel\nSn Tin\nPb Lead\nH Hydrogen\nCu Copper\nHg Mercury\nAg Silver\nAu Gold\nPt Platinum\nReaction of Metals with Water or Steam\nMetal +Water \u2192Metal \u00a0hydroxide", + "Magnesium\nAl Aluminium\nZn Zinc\nFe Iron\nNi Nickel\nSn Tin\nPb Lead\nH Hydrogen\nCu Copper\nHg Mercury\nAg Silver\nAu Gold\nPt Platinum\nReaction of Metals with Water or Steam\nMetal +Water \u2192Metal \u00a0hydroxide \u00a0or\u00a0Metal \u00a0oxide +Hydrogen\n2Na + 2H 2O(cold) \u2192 2NaOH +H2+heat\nCa+ 2H 2O(cold) \u2192Ca(OH)2+H2\nMg+ 2H 2O(hot) \u2192Mg(OH)2+H2\n2Al+ 3H 2O(steam ) \u2192Al2O3+ 3H 2\nZn+H2O(steam ) \u2192ZnO +H2\n3Fe + 4H 2O(steam ) \u2192Fe3O4+ 4H 2\nReaction of Metals with Acid\nMetal +dilute \u00a0acid \u2192Salt +Hydrogen \u00a0gas\n2Na(s) + 2HCl (dilute ) \u2192 2NaCl (aq)", + "2O(steam ) \u2192Fe3O4+ 4H 2\nReaction of Metals with Acid\nMetal +dilute \u00a0acid \u2192Salt +Hydrogen \u00a0gas\n2Na(s) + 2HCl (dilute ) \u2192 2NaCl (aq) +H2(g)\n2K(s) +H2SO 4(dilute ) \u2192K2SO 4(aq) +H2(g)\nOnly Mg and Mn, react with very dilute nitric acid to liberate hydrogen gas.\u00a0\nMg(s) + 2HNO 3(dilute ) \u2192Mg(NO 3)2(aq) +H2(g)\nMn(s) + 2HNO 3(dilute ) \u2192Mn(NO 3)2(aq) +H2(g)\nDisplacement ReactionA more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.", + "How Do Metal React with Solution of Other Metal Salts\nMetal \u00a0A+Salt\u00a0of \u00a0metal \u00a0B\u2192Salt\u00a0of \u00a0metal \u00a0A+Metal \u00a0B\nFe(s) +CuSO 4(aq) \u2192FeSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\nCu(s) + 2AgNO 3(aq) \u2192Cu(NO 3)(aq) + 2Ag (s)\nReaction of Metals with Bases\nBase +metal \u2192salt+hydrogen", + "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nDisplacement ReactionA more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.\nHow Do Metal React with Solution of Other Metal Salts\nMetal \u00a0A+Salt\u00a0of \u00a0metal \u00a0B\u2192Salt\u00a0of \u00a0metal \u00a0A+Metal \u00a0B\nFe(s) +CuSO 4(aq) \u2192FeSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\nCu(s) + 2AgNO 3(aq) \u2192Cu(NO 3)(aq) + 2Ag (s)\nReaction of Metals with Bases\nBase +metal \u2192salt+hydrogen\n2NaOH (aq) +Zn(s) \u2192Na 2ZnO 2(aq) +H2(g)\n2NaOH (aq) + 2Al (s) + 2H 2O(l) \u2192 2NaAlO 2(aq) + 2H 2(g)\nExtraction of Metals and Non-Metals\nApplications of Displacement Reaction\nUses of displacement reaction\n1. Extraction of metals\n2.", + "Extraction of metals\n2. Manufacturing of steel\n3. Thermite reaction:\u00a0Al( s) +Fe2O3(s) \u2192Al2O3+Fe(molten )\nThe thermite reaction is used in welding of railway tracks, cracked machine\u00a0parts, etc.\nOccurrence of Metals\nMost of the\u00a0elements\u00a0especially metals occur in nature in the combined state with other\nelements. All these compounds of metals are known as\u00a0 minerals. But out of them, only a few\nare viable sources of that metal. Such sources are called ores.\nAu, Pt - exist in the native or free state.\nExtraction of MetalsMetals of high reactivity - Na, K, Mg, Al.\nMetals of medium reactivity - Fe, Zn, Pb, Sn.\nMetals of low reactivity - Cu, Ag, Hg\nRoasting\nConverts sulphide ores into oxides on heating strongly in the presence of excess air.\nIt also removes volatile impurities.", + "Metals of medium reactivity - Fe, Zn, Pb, Sn.\nMetals of low reactivity - Cu, Ag, Hg\nRoasting\nConverts sulphide ores into oxides on heating strongly in the presence of excess air.\nIt also removes volatile impurities.\n2ZnS (s) + 3O 2(g) +Heat \u2192 2ZnO (s) + 2SO 2(g)\nCalcination\nConverts carbonate and hydrated ores into oxides on heating strongly in the presence of\nlimited air. It also removes\u00a0volatile impurities.", + "It also removes\u00a0volatile impurities.\nZnCO 3(s) +heat \u2192ZnO (s) +CO 2(g)\nCaCO 3(s) +heat \u2192CaO (s) +CO 2(g)\nAl2O3.2H 2O(s) +heat \u2192 2Al 2O3(s) + 2H 2O(l)\n2Fe 2O3.3H 2O(s) +heat \u2192 2Fe 2O3(s) + 3H 2O(l)\nExtracting Metals Low in Reactivity SeriesBy self-reduction- when the sulphide ores of less electropositive\u00a0metals\u00a0like Hg, Pb, Cu etc.,\nare heated in air, a part of the ore gets converted to oxide which then reacts with the", + "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nZnCO 3(s) +heat \u2192ZnO (s) +CO 2(g)\nCaCO 3(s) +heat \u2192CaO (s) +CO 2(g)\nAl2O3.2H 2O(s) +heat \u2192 2Al 2O3(s) + 2H 2O(l)\n2Fe 2O3.3H 2O(s) +heat \u2192 2Fe 2O3(s) + 3H 2O(l)\nExtracting Metals Low in Reactivity SeriesBy self-reduction- when the sulphide ores of less electropositive\u00a0metals\u00a0like Hg, Pb, Cu etc.,\nare heated in air, a part of the ore gets converted to oxide which then reacts with the\nremaining sulphide ore to give the crude metal\u00a0and sulphur dioxide. In this process, no\nexternal\u00a0reducing agent is used.", + "In this process, no\nexternal\u00a0reducing agent is used.\n1.2HgS (Cinnabar) + 3O 2(g) +heat \u2192 2HgO (crude \u00a0metal ) + 2SO 2(g)\n2HgO (s) +heat \u2192 2Hg (l) +O2(g)\n2.Cu2S(Copper\u00a0pyrite ) + 3O 2(g) +heat \u2192 2Cu 2O(s) + 2SO 2(g)\n2Cu 2O(s) +Cu2S(s) +heat \u2192 6Cu(crude \u00a0metal ) +SO 2(g)\n3.2PbS (Galena) + 3O 2(g) +heat \u2192 2PbO (s) + 2SO 2(g)\nPbS(s) + 2PbO (s) \u2192 2Pb (crude \u00a0metal ) +SO 2(g)\nExtracting Metals in the Middle of Reactivity Series\nSmelting -\u00a0it involves heating the roasted or calcined ore(metal oxide) to a high temperature\nwith a suitable reducing agent.", + "The crude metal is obtained in its molten\u00a0state.\nFe2O3+ 3C (coke) \u2192 2Fe + 3CO 2\nAluminothermic reaction -\u00a0also known as the\u00a0Goldschmidt\u00a0reaction is a highly exothermic\nreaction in which metal oxides usually of Fe and Cr are heated to a high temperature with \naluminium.\nFe2O3+ 2Al \u2192Al2O3+ 2Fe +heat\nCr2O3+ 2Al \u2192Al2O3+ 2Cr +heat\nExtraction of Metals Towards the Top of the Reactivity Series\nElectrolytic reduction:\n1. Down\u2019s process:\u00a0 Molten NaCl is electrolysed in a special apparatus.\nAt the cathode (reduction) -\u00a0\nNa+(molten ) +e\u2212\u2192Na(s)\nMetal is deposited.\nAt the anode (oxidation) -\n2Cl\u2212(molten ) \u2192Cl2(g) + 2e\u2013\nChlorine gas is liberated.\n2.", + "At the cathode (reduction) -\u00a0\nNa+(molten ) +e\u2212\u2192Na(s)\nMetal is deposited.\nAt the anode (oxidation) -\n2Cl\u2212(molten ) \u2192Cl2(g) + 2e\u2013\nChlorine gas is liberated.\n2. Hall\u2019s process: Mixture of molten alumina and a \ufb02uoride solvent usually cryolite,\n(Na 3AlF 6) is electrolysed.\nAt the cathode (reduction) -\n2Al3++ 6e\u2013\u2192 2Al (s)Metal is deposited.\nAt the anode (oxidation) -\n6O2\u2013\u2192 3O 2(g) + 12e\u2013\u00a0\nOxygen\u00a0gas is liberated.\nEnrichment of Ores", + "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nNa+(molten ) +e\u2212\u2192Na(s)\nMetal is deposited.\nAt the anode (oxidation) -\n2Cl\u2212(molten ) \u2192Cl2(g) + 2e\u2013\nChlorine gas is liberated.\n2. Hall\u2019s process: Mixture of molten alumina and a \ufb02uoride solvent usually cryolite,\n(Na 3AlF 6) is electrolysed.\nAt the cathode (reduction) -\n2Al3++ 6e\u2013\u2192 2Al (s)Metal is deposited.\nAt the anode (oxidation) -\n6O2\u2013\u2192 3O 2(g) + 12e\u2013\u00a0\nOxygen\u00a0gas is liberated.\nEnrichment of Ores\nIt means removal of impurities or gangue from ore, through various physical and chemical\nprocesses. The technique used for a particular ore depends on the difference in the\nproperties of the ore and the gangue.\nRe\ufb01ning of Metals\nRe\ufb01ning of metals - removing impurities or gangue from crude metal.", + "The technique used for a particular ore depends on the difference in the\nproperties of the ore and the gangue.\nRe\ufb01ning of Metals\nRe\ufb01ning of metals - removing impurities or gangue from crude metal. It is the last step in\nmetallurgy and is based on the difference between the properties of metal\u00a0and the gangue.\nElectrolytic Re\ufb01ning\nMetals like copper, zinc, nickel, silver, tin, gold etc., are re\ufb01ned electrolytically.\nAnode \u2013 impure or crude\u00a0metal\nCathode \u2013 thin strip of pure metal\nElectrolyte \u2013 aqueous solution of metal salt\nFrom anode\u00a0 (oxidation) - metal ions are released into the solution \nAt cathode (reduction) - equivalent amount of metal from solution is deposited\nImpurities deposit at the bottom of the anode.", + "The Why Questions\nElectronic con\ufb01guration\n\u00a0Group 1 elements - Alkali metals\nElement Electronic \u00a0configuration\nLithium (Li) 2, 1\nSodium (Na) 2, 8, 1\nPotassium (K) 2, 8, 8, 1\nRubidium (Rb) 2, 8, 18, 8, 1\u00a0Group 2 elements - Alkaline earth metals\nElement Electronic \u00a0configuration\nBeryllium (Be) 2, 2\nMagnesium (Mg ) 2, 8, 2\nCalcium (Ca) 2, 8, 8, 2\nStronium (Sr) 2, 8, 18, 8, 2\nHow Do Metals and Nonmetals React\nMetals lose valence electron(s) and form cations. \nNon-metals gain those electrons in their valence shell and form anions.\nThe cation and the anion are attracted to each other by strong electrostatic force, thus\nforming an ionic bond.", + "Non-metals gain those electrons in their valence shell and form anions.\nThe cation and the anion are attracted to each other by strong electrostatic force, thus\nforming an ionic bond.\u00a0\nFor example: In Calcium chloride, the ionic bond is formed by oppositely charged\ncalcium\u00a0and chloride ions.", + "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nHow Do Metals and Nonmetals React\nMetals lose valence electron(s) and form cations. \nNon-metals gain those electrons in their valence shell and form anions.\nThe cation and the anion are attracted to each other by strong electrostatic force, thus\nforming an ionic bond.\u00a0\nFor example: In Calcium chloride, the ionic bond is formed by oppositely charged\ncalcium\u00a0and chloride ions.\nCalcium atom loses 2 electrons and\u00a0attains the electronic con\ufb01guration of the\u00a0nearest noble\ngas (Ar). By doing so, it gains a\u00a0net charge of +2.\nThe two Chlorine atoms take one electron each, thus gaining a charge of -1 (each) and attain\nthe electronic con\ufb01guration of the nearest noble gas (Ar).\nIonic CompoundsThe electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the compound\ntogether.\nExample: MgCl 2,CaO ,MgO ,NaCl ,etc .\nProperties of Ionic Compound\nIonic compounds\n1.", + "Ionic CompoundsThe electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the compound\ntogether.\nExample: MgCl 2,CaO ,MgO ,NaCl ,etc .\nProperties of Ionic Compound\nIonic compounds\n1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions).\n2. Have high melting and boiling points.\n3. Conduct electricity when in aqueous solution\u00a0and when melted.\n4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents.\nPhysical Nature\nIonic solids usually exist in a regular, well-de\ufb01ned crystal structures.\nElectric Conduction of Ionic Compounds\nIonic compounds conduct electricity in the molten or aqueous state when ions become free\nand act as charge carriers.\nIn solid form, ions are strongly held by electrostatic forces of attractions and not free to\nmove; hence do not conduct electricity.\nFor example, ionic compounds such as NaCl does not conduct electricity\u00a0when\u00a0solidconduct electricity but when dissolved in water or in molten state, it\u00a0will\nconduct \u00a0electricity.", + "For example, ionic compounds such as NaCl does not conduct electricity\u00a0when\u00a0solidconduct electricity but when dissolved in water or in molten state, it\u00a0will\nconduct \u00a0electricity.\nSalt solution conducts electricity\nMelting and Boiling Points of Ionic Compounds\nIn ionic compounds, the strong electrostatic forces between ions require a high amount of\nenergy to break. Thus, the melting point and boiling point of an ionic compound are usually\nvery high.\nSolubility of Ionic Compounds", + "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nconduct \u00a0electricity.\nSalt solution conducts electricity\nMelting and Boiling Points of Ionic Compounds\nIn ionic compounds, the strong electrostatic forces between ions require a high amount of\nenergy to break. Thus, the melting point and boiling point of an ionic compound are usually\nvery high.\nSolubility of Ionic Compounds\nMost ionic compounds are soluble in water due to the separation of ions by water. This\noccurs due to the polar nature of water.\u00a0For example, NaCl is a 3-D salt crystal composed of Na+ and Cl\u2212 ions bound together\nthrough electrostatic forces of attractions.\u00a0When a crystal of NaCl comes into contact with\nwater, the partial positively charged ends of water\u00a0molecules interact with the Cl\u2212 ions,\nwhile\u00a0the negatively\u00a0charged end of the water molecules interacts\u00a0with the Na+ ions.\nThis\u00a0ion-dipole interaction between ions and water molecules assist in the breaking of the\nstrong\u00a0electrostatic forces of attractions within the crystal and ultimately in the solubility of\nthe crystal.", + "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\nCarbon and Its Compounds\nSoaps and Detergents:- \nCleansing Action of Soap\nWhen soap is added to water, the soap molecules uniquely orient themselves to form\nspherical shape micelles.\nThe non-polar hydrophobic part or tail\u00a0of the soap molecules attracts the dirt or oil part of\nthe fabric, while the polar hydrophilic part or head, (\u2212COO\u2212Na+, remains attracted to water\nmolecules.\nThe agitation or scrubbing of the fabric helps the micelles to carry the oil or dirt particles\nand detach them from the \ufb01bres of the fabric.Hard Water\nHard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium, principally as bicarbonates, chlorides,\nand sulphates. When soap is added to hard water, calcium and magnesium ions of hard\nwater react with soap forming insoluble curdy white precipitates of calcium and magnesium\nsalts of fatty acids.", + "When soap is added to hard water, calcium and magnesium ions of hard\nwater react with soap forming insoluble curdy white precipitates of calcium and magnesium\nsalts of fatty acids.\n2C17H35COONa +MgCl 2\u2192 (C17H35COO )2Mg+ 2NaCl\n2C17H35COONa +CaCl 2\u2192 (C17H35COO )2Ca+ 2NaCl\nThese precipitates stick to the fabric being washed and hence, interfere\u00a0with the cleaning\nability of the soap. Therefore, a lot of soap is wasted if water is hard.\nCovalent Bonds\nDif\ufb01culty of Carbon to Form a Stable Ion\nTo achieve the electronic con\ufb01guration of nearest noble gas, He, if the carbon atom loses\nfour of its valence electrons, a huge amount of energy is involved. C4+\u00a0ion hence formed will\nbe highly unstable due to the presence of six protons and two electrons.\nIf the carbon atom gains four electrons to achieve the nearest electronic con\ufb01guration of\nthe noble gas, Ne, C4\u2212 ion will be formed.", + "C4+\u00a0ion hence formed will\nbe highly unstable due to the presence of six protons and two electrons.\nIf the carbon atom gains four electrons to achieve the nearest electronic con\ufb01guration of\nthe noble gas, Ne, C4\u2212 ion will be formed. But again, a huge amount of energy is required.\nMoreover, in C4+\u00a0ion it is dif\ufb01cult for 6 protons to hold 10 electrons. Hence, to satisfy its\ntetravalency, carbon shares all four of its valence electrons and forms covalent bonds.\nIonic BondIonic bonding involves the transfer of valence electron/s, primarily between a metal and a\nnonmetal.\u00a0The electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the\ncompound together.\nIonic compounds:", + "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\ntetravalency, carbon shares all four of its valence electrons and forms covalent bonds.\nIonic BondIonic bonding involves the transfer of valence electron/s, primarily between a metal and a\nnonmetal.\u00a0The electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the\ncompound together.\nIonic compounds:\n1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions)\n2. Have high melting and boiling points\n3. Conduct electricity when melted\n4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents\nCovalent Bond\nA covalent bond is formed when pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms.\u00a0It is\nprimarily formed between two same nonmetallic atoms or between nonmetallic atoms with\nsimilar electronegativity.\nLewis Dot Structure\nLewis structures are also known as Lewis dot structures or electron dot structures.\nThese are basically diagrams with the element's symbol in the centre. The dots around it\nrepresent the valence electrons of the element.", + "Lewis Dot Structure\nLewis structures are also known as Lewis dot structures or electron dot structures.\nThese are basically diagrams with the element's symbol in the centre. The dots around it\nrepresent the valence electrons of the element.\u00a0\nLewis structures of elements with atomic number 5-8\nCovalent Bonding in H2, N2 and O2\nFormation of a single bond in a hydrogen molecule:\nEach hydrogen atom has a single electron in the valence shell. It requires one more to\nacquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (He). \nTherefore, both the atoms share one electron each and form a single bond.Formation of a\u00a0double bond in an oxygen molecule:\nEach oxygen atom has six electrons in the valence shell (2, 6). It requires two electrons to\nacquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (Ne).\nTherefore, both the atoms share two electrons each and form a double bond.\nFormation of a triple bond in a nitrogen molecule:\nEach nitrogen atom has \ufb01ve electrons in the valence shell (2, 5). It requires three electrons\nto acquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (Ne).", + "Therefore, both the atoms share two electrons each and form a double bond.\nFormation of a triple bond in a nitrogen molecule:\nEach nitrogen atom has \ufb01ve electrons in the valence shell (2, 5). It requires three electrons\nto acquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (Ne).\nTherefore, both atoms share three electrons each and form a triple bond.\nSingle, Double and Triple Bonds and Their Strengths\nA single bond is formed between two atoms when two electrons are shared between them,\ni.e., one electron from each participating atom.", + "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\nto acquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (Ne).\nTherefore, both atoms share three electrons each and form a triple bond.\nSingle, Double and Triple Bonds and Their Strengths\nA single bond is formed between two atoms when two electrons are shared between them,\ni.e., one electron from each participating atom.\nIt is depicted by a single line between the two atoms.\nA double bond is formed between two atoms when four electrons are shared between them,\ni.e., one pair of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by double lines\nbetween the two atoms.\nA triple bond is formed between two atoms when six electrons are shared between them,\ni.e., two\u00a0pairs of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by triple lines\nbetween the two atoms.Bond strength:\n- The bond strength of a bond is determined by the amount of energy required to break a\nbond.", + "It is depicted by triple lines\nbetween the two atoms.Bond strength:\n- The bond strength of a bond is determined by the amount of energy required to break a\nbond.\n- The order of bond strengths when it comes to multiple bonds is:\u00a0Triple bond>double\nbond>single bond\n- This is to signify that the energy required to break three bonds is higher than that for two\nbonds or a single bond.Bond length:\n- Bond length is determined by the distance between nuclei of the two atoms in a bond.\n- The order of bond length for multiple bonds is:\u00a0Triple bond